BIOLOGY 

UB8ARY 

G 


GUIDE 


TO 


,THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS,, 


AND  A  TREATISE  ON  THOSE 


ItfJUEIOUS  AND  BENEHCIAL  TO  CKOPS : 


FOR  THE  USE  OF 


COLLEGES,  FARM-SCHOOLS,  AND  AGRICULTURISTS, 


BY 

A.    S.    PACKARD,   JK.,   M.D. 
\\ 

WITH  FIFTEEN  PLATES  AND  SIX  HUNDRED  AND  SEVENTY  WOOD-CUTS. 


FOURTH    EDITION. 

SALEM : 
NATURALISTS'      AGENCY 

BOSTON:   ESTES  &  LAURIAT. 

NEW  YORK:  DODD  &  MEAD. 

LONDON:  TRUBNER  &  co. 

1874. 


ft. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1869  by 

A.  S.  PACKARD,  JR., 
in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


Printed  at  the  SALEM  PRESS. 
F.  W.  Putnam  &  Co.,  Salem,  Mass. 


Plate  # 


TRANSFORMATIONS  OF  MOTH 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FOURTH  EDITION. 


SEVERAL  corrections  of  some  importance  have  been  made 
in  this  edition,  mostly,  however,  verbal,  due  in  part  to  changes 
in  synonymy.  On  p.  78,  fig.  68  of  the  third  edition  has  been 
replaced  by  a  figure  of  Arthrolycosa  antiqua  Harger.  On  p. 
258  correct  figures  of  the  larva  and  pupa  of  Melitcea  Harrisii 
are  given.  The  most  important  addition,  however,  is  on  p. 
438,  where  a  brief  account  of  LeConte's  new  family  Platypsyl- 
lidce  is  given,  and  his  figure  of  Platypsylla  castoris  Ritsema 
reproduced.  On  p.  597,  line  20,  it  is  stated  that  the  mouth  of 
the  Libellulidse  "  is  not  furnished  with  palpi."  This  is  morpho- 
logically inexact,  as  Gerstaecker  has  recently  stated  that  the 
dragon-flies  possess  a  one-jointed  maxillary  palpus,  and  two- 
jointed  labial  palpi.  These  are  not  of  the  usual  palpus  shape, 
but  more  or  less  rudimentary  and  modified  in  accordance  with 
the  peculiar  mouth  parts  of  these  and  allied  insects.  On  p. 
669,  for  lines  22,  23,  read  Macrobiotus  Americanus  JPack.  has 
been  discovered  by  Rev.  W.  R.  Cross  in  Maine. 

Some  important  changes  have  been  made  in  the  classifica- 
tion of  the  Coleoptera.  The  weevils,  Curculionidce,  should  in 
accordance  with  the  views  expressed  by  Dr.  LeConte  be  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  group.  The  Coccinellidce  and  Erotylidce 
should  also  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  Mr.  G.  R.  Crotch 
(Check  List  of  the  Coleoptera  of  America  north  of  Mexico, 
1874),  be  placed  in  the  Clavicorn  series,  those  and  allied 
families  being  placed  in  the  following  succession :  —  Der- 
mestidce,  JEndomychidce,  Cioidce,  Erotylidce,  Atomariidce,  Cu- 
cujidce,  Colydiidce,  Rhizophagidce,  Trogositidce,  Nitidulidce, 
Coccinellidce,  Cistelidce,  etc.  At  the  end  of  the  series  the 
succession  of  families  is  as  follows  :  —  Cerambycidce,  Bruchidce, 
Chrysomelidce,  Tenebrionidce,  ^Eyialitidce,  Alleculidce, 


IV  PREFACE. 

Pyrochroidce,  Anthicidce,  Melandryidce,  Mordellidce,  Stylopidce, 
Meloidce,  Cephaloidce,  (Edemeridce,  Mycteridce,  Pythidce,  Cur- 
culionidce,  Scolytidce,  and  Anthribidce,  Brenthidce  being  the 
last. 

The  author  should  here  state,  in  justice  to  himself,  that  the 
primary  object  in  preparing  the  systematic  portion  of  the 
work  was  to  give  as  clear  a  view  as  possible  of  the  larger 
groups  of  insects  ;  so  that  the  groupings  of  the  families  into 
subdivisions  of  suborders  have  been  omitted  for  the  sake  of 
perspicuity.  Thus,  the  difference  between  the  Heteropterous 
and  Hemipterous  divisions  of  the  Hemiptera  is  not  perhaps  so 
clearly  indicated  as  may  seem  desirable  ;  so  also,  the  difference 
of  the  Tenthredinidae  and  Uroceridae  from  the  rest  of  the 
Efymenoptera,  of  the  Lice  from  the  rest  of  the  Hemiptera,  or 
the  Lepismatidae,  Campodese  and  Poduridse,  from  the  remainder 
of  the  Neuroptera.  Perhaps  in  endeavoring  to  bring  out 
clearly  the  essential  unity  of  organization  in  the  members  of 
the  larger  groups,  sufficient  justice  has  not  been  paid  to  the 
frequent  diversity  observable.  Certain  small  and  unimportant 
families  have  also  been  omitted ;  it  is  believed,  without  detri- 
ment to  a  work  of  this  scope. 

Most  authors  regard  the  Hymenoptera  and  equivalent 
groups  as  "orders"  rather  than  "suborders."  When  the 
reader  prefers,  he  might  alter  to  suit  his  views.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  the  Hexapoda,  Arachnida  and  Myriopoda  are 
subclasses  ;  hence,  the  Hymenoptera,  etc.,  may  be  considered 
as  orders,  and  then,  for  example,  the  Hemiptera,  Heteroptera 
and  Lice  (Pediculina  and  Mallophaga)  might  be  regarded  as 
suborders  of  the  grand  group  Hemiptera.  It  matters  little  to 
the  author,  so  long  as  the  fact  (or  what  he  believes  to  be  the 
fact)  be  recognized,  that  the  Hexapods,  Arachnids  and  Myrio- 
pods  are  subdivisions  of  a  class,  and  not  separate  classes 
equivalent  each  to  the  Crustacea,  for  example. 

Salem,  April,  1874. 


PREFACE . 


THIS  introduction  to  the  study  of  insects  is  designed  to 
teach  the  beginner  the  elements  of  entomology,  and  to  serve 
as  a  guide  to  the  more  elaborate  treatises  and  memoirs  which 
the  advanced  student  may  wish  to  consult.  Should  the 
book,  imperfect  as  the  author  feels  it  to  be,  prove  of  some 
service  in  inducing  others  to  study  this  most  interesting  and 
useful  branch  of  natural  history,  the  object  of  the  writer  will 
have  been  fully  attained. 

In  order  to  make  it  of  value  to  farmers  and  gardeners, 
whose  needs  the  writer  has  kept  in  view,  and  that  it  may  be 
used  as  a  text  book  in  our  agricultural  colleges,  concise  ac- 
counts have  been  given  of  insects  injurious  or  beneficial  to 
vegetation,  or  those  in  any  way  affecting  human  interests. 

When  the  localities  of  the  insects  are  not  precisely  given, 
it  is  to  be  understood  that  they  occur  in  the  Eastern  Atlantic 
States  from  Maine  to  Pennsylvania,  and  the  more  northern  of 
the  Western  States.  When  the  family  names  occur  in  the 
text  they  are  put  in  spaced  Italics,  to  distinguish  them  from 
the  generic  and  specific  names  which  are  Italicized  in  the  usual 
way. 

The  succession  of  the  suborders  of  the  hexapodous  insects 
is  that  proposed  by  the  author  in  1863,  and  the  attention  of 
zoologists  is  called  to  their  division  into  two  series  of  sub- 
orders, which  are  characterized  on  page  104.  To  the  first 
and  highest  may  be  applied  Leach's  term  METABOLIA,  as 
they  all  agree  in  having  a  perfect  metamorphosis  ;  for  the 
second  and  lower  series  the  term  HETEROMETABOLIA  is  pro- 


v  PREFACE. 

posed,  as  the  four  suborders  comprised  in  it  differ  in  the 
degrees  of  completeness  of  their  metamorphoses,  and  are 
all  linked  together  by  the  structural  features  enumerated 
on  page  104.  ^ 

The  classification  of  the  Hymenoptera  is  original  with  the 
author,  the  bees  (Apidse)  being  placed  highest,  and  the  saw- 
flies  and  Uroceridse  lowest.  The  succession  of  the  families 
of  the  Lepidoptera  is  that  now  generally  agreed  upon  by  en- 
tomologists. Loew's  classification  of  the  Diptera,  published 
in  the  "Miscellaneous  Collections"  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  has  been  followed,  with  some  modifications. 
Haliday's  suggestion  that  the  Pulicidae  are  allied  to  the 
Mycetophilidae  gives  a  clue  to  their  position  in  nature 
among  the  higher  Diptera.  Leconte's  classification,  of  the 
Coleoptera  is  adopted  as  far  as  published  by  him,  i.e.,  to 
the  Bruchidae.  For  the  succeeding  families  the  arrangement 
of  Gerstaecker  in  Peters  and  Cams'  "Handbuch  der  Zoo- 
logie"  has  been  followed,  both  being  based  on  that  of  Lacor- 
daire.  The  Hemiptera  are  arranged  according  to  the  author's 
views  of  the  succession  of  the  families.  The  classification  of 
the  Orthoptera  is  that  proposed  by  Mr.  S.  H.  Scudder.  This 
succession  of  families  is  the  reverse  of  what  has  been  given 
by  recent  authors,  and  is  by  far  the  most  satisfactory  yet 
presented.  The  arrangement  of  the  Neuroptera  (in  the  Lin- 
mean  sense)  is  that  of  Dr.  Hagen,  published  in  his  "Synop- 
sis," with  the  addition,  however,  of  the  Lepisrnatidse,  Cam- 
podeae  and  Poduridae. 

The  usual  classification  of  the  Arachnida  is  modified  by 
placing  the  Phalangidse  as  a  family  among  the  Pedipalpi,  and 
the  succession  of  families  of  this  suborder  is  suggested  as  be- 
ing a  more  natural  one  than  has  been  previously  given. 

The  arrangement  of  the  Araneina,  imperfect  as  authors 
have  left  it,  is  that  adopted  by  Gerstaecker  in  Peters  and 


PREFACE.  V 

Carus'  "Handbuch  der  Zoologie."  In  the  succession  of  the 
families  of  the  Acarina,  the  suggestions  of  Claparede,  in  his 
"Studien  der  Acariden,"  have  been  followed,  and  in  the 
preparation  of  the  general  account  of  the  Arachnids  the 
writer  is  greatly  indebted  to  Claparede's  elaborate  work  on 
the  "  Evolution  of  Spiders." 

In  the  preparation  of  this  "Guide"  the  author  has  con- 
suited  and  freely  used  West  wood's  invaluable  "Introduction 
to  the  Modern  Classification  of  Insects;"  Gerstaecker's 
"  Arthropoden"  in  Peters  and  Carus'  "Handbuch  der  Zoo- 
logie;" Siebold's  "  Anatomy  of  the  Invertebrates"  (Burnett's 
translation,  1854)  ;  Newport's  Article  "Insecta"  in  Todd's 
Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology;  and  Dr.  T.  W. 
Harris'  "Treatise  on  Insects  injurious  to  Vegetation."  He 
would  also  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to  Professor  L. 
Agassiz  for  many  of  the  general  ideas,  acquired  while  the 
author  was  a  student  in  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoo- 
logy at  Cambridge,  regarding  the  arrangement  of  the  orders 
and  classes,  and  the  morphology  of  the  Articulates. 

For  kind  assistance  rendered  in  preparing  this  book,  the 
author  is  specially  indebted  to  Baron  R.  von  Osten  Sacken, 
who  kindly  read  the  proof  sheets  of  the  chapter  on  Diptera ; 
to  Mr.  F.  G.  Sanborn  for  the  communication  of  many  speci- 
mens and  facts ;  and  also  to  Messrs.  Edward  Norton,  S.  H. 
Scudder,  J.  H.  Emerton,  C.  T.  Robinson,  A.  R.  Grote,  G.  D. 
Smith,  E.  T.  Cresson,  P.  R.  Uhler,  C.  V.  Riley,  Dr.  J.  L.  Le- 
conte,  Dr.  Hagen,  W.  C.  Fish,  and  E.  S.  Morse.  For  much 
kind  assistance  and  very  many  favors  and  suggestions,  and 
constant  sympathy  and  encouragement  during  the  printing 
of  the  work,  he  is  under  special  obligation  to  his  valued 
friend,  Mr.  F.  W.  Putnam.  The  types  of  the  new  species 
noticed  here  are  deposited  in  the  Museum  of  the  Peabody 
Academy  of  Science.  He  would  also  express  his  thanks  to 


VI  PKEFACE. 

the  American  Entomological  Society,  the  Society  of  Natural 
History  at  Boston,  the  Secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  Board 
of  Agriculture,  the  Essex  Institute,  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, the  Secretary  of  the  Maine  Board  of  Agriculture,  and 
to  Mr.  R.  Hardwicke,  the  publisher  of  "Science-Gossip," 
Prof.  Sanborn  Tenney,  the  author  of  "A  Manual  of  Zo- 
ology," and  to  his  coeditors  of  the  "American  Naturalist," 
for  the  use  of  many  of  the  cuts,  a  list  of  which  may  be 
found  on  the  succeeding  pages. 

PEABODY  ACADEMY  OP  SCIENCE, 

SALEM,  Nov.  10, 1869. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 


FiGS.  3,  4,  6,  7,  8,  33,  34,  35,  38,  39,  40,  84,  86,  87,  91,  93-106,  124, 
126,  130,  131,  132,  142,  144,  146,  151,  180,  191-196,  201,  202,  204,  205, 
206,  207,  2086,  209,  212,  213,  215,  219,  220,  221,  224,  225,  226,  246,  256 
-260,  267,  320,  321,  332,  333,  379,  404,  408,  409,  421,  422,  442,  455,  480, 
481,  484,  485,  487,  493,  500,  501,  502,  509,  513,  518,  519,  521,  531,  534, 
535,  552,  561,  562,  576,  579,  593,  601  and  651,  were  borrowed  from  the 
American  Entomological  Society,  at  Philadelphia. 

FIGS.  2,  14,  15-24,  27,  48,  63-67,  69,  181,  216,  217,  222,  230,  231,  233 
-235,  247,  369,  389,  420,  424,  427,  435,  436,  438,  497,  508,  578,  630  and 
631  were  loaned  by  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History. 

FIGS.  25,  36,  37,  55,  83,  128,  136,  237,  242,  269,  350,  352-357,  362,  368, 
372,  373,  380,  511,  512,  514,  542,  543,  544,  545,  546,  556,  585-587,  589, 
590,  591,  594,  602,  603,  604  and  605,  were  borrowed  from  the  report  of 
the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Agriculture  for  1862. 

FIGS.  155-165,  169-179,  270,  271,  285-296,  300,  303-306,  345-348,  358, 
359,  632,  633  and  634,  were  loaned  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

FIGS.  1,  5,  8,  10,  30,  31,  32,  51,  52,  57,  58,  62,  64,  68,  72,  79,  80,  81,  82, 
85,  89,  92,  110-121,  127,  185,  186,  227,  228,  239,  248,  250,  252,  262,  263, 
273,  278,  298,  307-314,  317-319,  322,  324-327,  329-331,  334-343,  361, 
363a,  375,  387,  412,  413,  425,  426,  428,  430,  432,  433,  437,  439,  447-451, 
456-458,  463,  464,  474,  475,  504,  516,  576,  577,  580-584,  588,  592,  608, 
613,  615,  627,  636,  637,  638,  639,  641,  642,  646-649,  were  taken  from  the 
"  American  Naturalist." 

FIGS.  41,  70,  71,  88,  129,  138,  143,  152,  200,  232,  249,  253,  255,  349, 
492,  554,  618,  and  645  were  borrowed  from  the  "Report  of  the  Maine 
Board  of  Agriculture  for  1862." 

FIGS.  73-78,  were  kindly  loaned  by  Prof,  Jeffries  Wyman. 

FIGS.  570,  571,  574,  575,  617  and  635,  were  loaned  by  the  Illinois 
Geological  Survey. 

I  am  also  indebted  to  Prof.  Sanborn  Tenney  for  the  use  of  Figs. 
189,  190,  198,  315,  323,  563-567,  from  his  "Manual  of  Zoology." 

The  publishers  of  Hardwick's  "  Science-Gossip,"  London,  afforded 
me  stereotypes  of  Figs,  517,  557,  569,  573,  606,  607,  609-611,  616,  620 
-622,  628,  629  and  640. 

Electrotypes  of  Figs.  119,  261,  281,  281c-284,  328,  344,  351,  360,  363, 
367,  374,  376,  414,  429,  434,  452-454,  466,  468-471,  477,  479,  494,  5061, 
5062,  510?  522-526,  530,  532,  533,  536-541,  547-551,  564,  568,  595-598, 
were  purchased  of  the  publishers  of  the  "  American  Entomologist." 

The  following  figures  were  engraved  expressly  for  the  work,  viz : 
Figs.  11,  12,  13,  26,  28,  29,  42,  43-47,  49,  50,  53,  54,  56,  59-61,  80,  107- 

(Vii) 


2 


THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 


Articulated  animals  are  also  very  distinctly  bilateral,  i.  e.  the 
body  is  symmetrically  divided  into  two  lateral  halves,  and 
not  only  the  trunk  but  the  limbs  also 
show  this  bilateral  symmetry.  In  a  less 
marked  degree  there  is  also  an  antero- 
posterior  symmetry,  i.e.  each  end  of 
the  body  is  opposed,  just  as  each 
side  of  the  body  is,  to  the  other.* 
The  line  separating  the  two  ends  is, 
however,  imaginary  and  vague.  The 
antenna,  on  the  anterior  pole,  or  head, 
are  represented  by  the  caudal,  or  anal, 
stylets  (Fig.  2),  and  the  single  parts 
on  the  median  line  of  the  body  corre- 
spond. Thus  the  labrum  and  clypeus 
are  represented  by  the  tergite  of  the 
eleventh  segment  of  the  abdomen. 
Fig  2 »  In  all  Articulates  (Fig.  3)  the  long, 

tubular,  alimentary  canal  occupies  the  centre  of  the  body  ;  above 
it  lies  the  "heart,"  or  dorsal  vessel,  and  below,  upon  the  under 
side,  rests  the  nervous  system.  be  a 

The  breathing  apparatus,  or 
u  lungs,"  in  Worms  consists  of 
simple  filaments,  placed  on  the 
front  of  the  head  ;  or  of  gill-like 
processes,  as  in  the  Crustaceans, 
which  are  formed  by  membran- 
ous expansions'  of  the  legs  ;  or,  a  Fig.  3. 
as  in  the  Insects  (Fig.  4),  of  delicate  tubes  (tracheae),  which 

*  Professor  Wyman  (On  Symmetry  and  Homology  in  Limbs,  Proceedings  of  the 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  1867)  has  shown  that  antero-posterior  symmetry 
is  very  marked  in  Articulates.  In  the  adjoining  figure  of  Jcera  (Fig.  2)  the  longi- 
tudinal lines  illustrate  what  is  meant  by  bilateral  symmetry,  and  the  transverse 
lines  "fore  and  aft"  symmetry.  The  two  antero-posterior  halves  of  the  body  are 
very  symmetrical  in  the  Crustacean  genera  Jcera.  Oniscus,  Porcellio,  and  other 
Crustacea,  and  also  among  the  Myriopods,  Scutigera,  Polydesmus,  "  in  which  the 
limbs  are  repeated  oppositely,  though  with  different  degrees  of  inequality,  from  the 
centre  of  the  body  backwards  and  forwards."  "Leuckart  and  Van  Beneden  have 
shown  that  Mysis  has  an  ear  in  the  last  segment,  and  Schmidt  has  described  an  eye 
in  the  same  part  in  a  worm,  Amphicora."—  From  Wyman. 

FIG.  3  represents  an  ideal  section  of  a  Worm.  /  indicates  the  skin,  or  mus- 
cular body-wall,  which  on  each  side  is  produced  into  one  or  more  fleshy  tubercles, 
usually  tipped  with  bristles  or  hairs,  which  serve  as  organs  of  locomotion,  and 


THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS.  3 

ramify  throughout  the  whole  interior  of  the  animal,  and  con- 
nect with  breathing  pores  (stigmata)  in  the  sides  of  the  body. 
They  do  not  breathe  through  the  mouth  as  do  the  higher  ani- 
mals. The  tracheae  and  blood-vessels  follow  closely  the  same 


Fig.  4. 

course,  so  that  the  aeration  of  the  blood  goes  on,  apparently, 
over  the  whole  interior  of  the  body,  not  being  confined  to  a 
single  region,  as  in  the  lungs  of  the  vertebrate  animals. 

Thus  it  is  by  observing  the  general  form  of  the  body-walls, 
and  the  situation  of  the  different  anatomical  systems,  both  in 
relation  to  themselves  and  the  walls  of  the  body,  or  crust, 
which  surrounds  and  protects  the  more  delicate  organs  within, 
that  we  are  able  to  find  satisfactory  characters  for  isolating,  in 
our  definitions,  the  articulates  from  all  other  animals. 

We  shall  perceive  more  clearly  the  differences  between  the 
three  classes  of  Articulates,  or  jointed  animals,  namely, 
the  WORMS,  CRUSTACEANS,  and  INSECTS,  by  examining 

often  as  lungs.  The  nervous  cord  (a)  rests  on  the  floor  of  the  cylinder,  sending  a 
filament  into  the  oar-like  feet  (/),  and  also  around  the  intestine  or  stomach  (6),  to  a 
supplementary  cord  (d),  which  is  situated  just  over  the  intestine,  and  under  the 
heart  or  dorsal  vessel  (c).  The  circle  c  and  e  is  a  diagram  of  the  circulatory  sys- 
tem ;  c  is  the  dorsal  vessel,  or  heart,  from  the  side  of  which,  in  each  ring,  a  small 
vessel  is  sent  downwards  and  around  to  e,  the  ventral  vessel.—  Original. 

FIG.  4.  An  ideal  section  of  a  Bee.  Here  the  crust  is  dense  and  thick,  to  which 
strong  muscles  are  attached.  On  the  upper  side  of  the  ring  the  wings  grow  out, 
while  the  legs  are  inserted  near  the  under  side.  The  tracheae  (d)  enter  through  the 
stif/ma,  or  breathing  pore,  situated  just  under  the  wing,  and  their  branches  sub- 
divide and  are  distributed  to  the  wings,  with  their  five  principal  veins  as  indicated 


THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 


their  young  stages,  from  the  time  of  their  exclusion  from  the  egg, 
until  they  pass  into  mature  life.  A  more  careful  study  of  this 
period  than  we  are  now  able  to  enter  upon  would  show  us  how 
much  alike  the  young  of  all  articulates  are  at  first,  and  how 
soon  they  begin  to  differ,  and  assume  the  shape  characteristic 
of  their  class. 

Most  Worms,  after  leaving  the  egg,  are  at  first  like  some 
infusoria,  being  little  sac-like  animalcules,  often  ciliated  over 
nearly  the  entire  surface  of  the  infinitesimal  body. 
Soon  this  sac-like  body  grows  longer,  and  con- 
tracts at  intervals ;  the  intervening  parts  become 
unequally  enlarged,  some  segments,  or  rings, 
Fig.  5.  formed  by  the  contraction  of  the  body-walls, 
greatly  exceeding  in  size  those  next  to  them;  and  it  thus 
assumes  the  appearance  of  being  more  or  less  equally  ringed, 
as  in  the  young  Terebella  (Fig.  5),  where  the 
ciliae  are  restricted  to  a  single  circle  surrounding 
the  body.  Gradually  (Fig.  6)  the  cilise  disap- 
\e  pear  and  regular  locomotive  organs,  consisting 
of  minute  paddles,  grow  out  from  each  side ; 
feelers  (antennae),  jaws,  and  eyes  (simple  rudi- 
mentary eyes)  appear  on  the  few  front  rings 
of  the  body,  which  are  grouped  by  themselves 
into  a  sort  of  head,  though  it  is  difficult,  in  a 
large  proportion  of  the  lower  worms,  for  un- 
skilled observers  to  distinguish  the  head  from 
the  tail. 

Thus  we  see  throughout  the  growth  of  the 
worm,  no  attempt   at   subdividing  the   bod}r 
into  regions,  each  endowed  with  its  peculiar 
L  functions  ;  but  only  a  more  perfect  system  of 
,  ,     Fi    6          '   rings,  each  relatively  very  equally  developed, 

in  the  figure,  also  to  the  dorsal  vessel  (c),  the  intestine  (6),  and  the  nervous  cord  (a). 
The  tracheas  and  a  nervous  filament  are  also  sent  into  the  legs  and  to  the  wings. 
The  tracheae  are  also  distributed  to  the  dorsal  vessel  and  intestine  by  numerous 
branches  which  serve  to  hold  them  in  place.  —  Original. 

FIG.  5.    Young  Terebella,  soon  after  leaving  the  egg.  — From  A.  Agassiz. 

FIG.  6  represents  the  embryo  of  a  worm  (Autolytus  cornutus)  at  a  later  stage 
of  growth,  a  is  the  middle  tentacle  of  the  head ;  e,  one  of  the  posterior  tentacles; 
b,  the  two  eye-spots  at  the  base  of  the  hinder  pair  of  feelers ;  c  is  one  of  a  row  of 
oar-like  organs  (cirri)  at  the  base  of  which  are  inserted  the  locomotive  bristles, 


THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS.  5 

but  all  becoming  respectively  more  complicated.  For  example, 
in  the  Earth-worm  (Lumbricus) ,  each  ring  is  distinguishable  into 
an  upper  and  under  side,  and  in  addition  to  these  a  well- 
marked  side-area,  to  which,  as  for  example  in  marine  worms  (e.  g. 
Nereis) ,  oar-like  organs  are  attached.  In  most  worms  eye-spots 
appear  on  the  front  rings,  and  slender  tentacles  grow  out,  and 
a  pair  of  nerve-knots  (ganglia)  are  apportioned  to  each  ring. 

In  the  Crustaceans,  such  as  the  fresh-water  Crawfish  (Astdr 
CMS),  as  shown  by  the  German  naturalist  Rathke ;  and  also  in 
the  earliest  stages  of  the  Insect,  the  body  at  once  assumes  a 
worm-like  form,  thus  beginning  its  embryonic  life  from  the  goal 
reached  by  the  adult  worm. 

The  young  of  all  Crustaceans  (Fig.  7)  first  begin  life  in  the 
egg  as  oblong  flattened  worm-like  bodies,  each  end  of  the  body 
being  alike.  The  young  of  the  lower  Crustaceans,  such  as  the 
Barnacles,  and  some  marine  forms  (Copepoda),  and  some 
lowly  organized  parasitic  species  inhabiting  the  gills  of 
fishes,  are  hatched  as  microscopic  embryos  which  would  readily 
be  mistaken  for  young  mites  (Acarina).  In  the  higher  Crus- 
taceans, such  as  the  fresh-water  Crawfish,  the 
young,  when  hatched,  does  not  greatly  differ 
from  the  parent,  as  it  has  passed  through  the 
worm-like  stage  within  the  egg. 

Fig.  7  represents  the  young  of  the  fresh- 
water Lobster  (Crawfish)  before  leaving  the 
egg.  The  body  is  divided  into  rings,  ending 
in  lobes  on  the  sides,  which  are  the  rudiments 
of  the  limbs,  b  is  the  rudiment  of  the  eye-  Fig.  7. 
stalk,  at  the  end  of  which  is  the  eye ;  a  is  the  fore  antennae ; 
c  is  the  hind  antennae ;  d  is  one  of  the  maxilla-feet ;  e  is  the 
first  pair  of  true  feet  destined  in  the  adult  to  form  the  large 
"claw."  Thus  the  eye-stalks,  antennae,  claws,  and  legs  are 
moulded  upon  a  common  form,  and  at  first  are  scarcely  distin- 

with  the  cirri  serving  as  swimming  and  locomotive  organs ;  d,  the  caudal  styles,  or 
tail-feelers.  In  this  figure  we  see  how  slight  are  the  differences  between  the 
feelers  of  the  head,  the  oar-like  swimming  organs,  and  the  caudal  filaments;  we 
can  easily  see  that  they  are  but  modifications  of  a  common  form,  and  all  arise 
from  the  common  limb-bearing  region  of  the  body.  The  alimentary  canal,  with 
the  proventriculus,  or  anterior  division  of  the  stomach,  occupies  the  middle  of  the 
body;  while  the  mouth  opens  on  the  under  side  of  the  head.— From  A.  Agassiz. 
FIG.  7.  Embryo  of  the  Crawfish.— -From  Rathke. 

1* 


6  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

guishable  from  each  other.     Here  we  see  the  embryo  divided 
into  a  head-thorax  and  a  tail. 

It  is  the  same  with  Insects.  Within  the  egg  at  the  dawn  of 
life  they  are  flattened  oblong  bodies  curved  upon  the  yelk- 
mass.  Before  hatching  they  become  more  cylindrical,  the 
limbs  bud  out  on  the  sides  of  the  rings,  the  head  is  clearly 
demarked,  and  the  young  caterpillar  soon  steps  forth  from  the 
egg-shell  ready  armed  and  equipped  for  its  riotous  life. 

As  will  be  seen  in  Fig.  8,  the  legs,  jaws,  and  antennae  are 
first  started  as  buds  from  the  side  of  the  rings,  being  simply 

elongations  of  the  body-wall, 
which  bud  out,  become  larger, 
and  finally  jointed,  until  the 
\x  buds  arising  from  the  thorax  or 
abdomen  become  legs,  % those 
from  the  base  of  the  head  be- 
come jaws,  while  the  antennae 
and  palpi  sprout  out  from  the 
front  rings  of  the  head.  Thus 
while  the  bodies  of  all  articulates 
are  built  up  from  a  common  em- 
bryonic form,  their,  appendages,  which  are  so  diverse,  when  we 
compare  a  Lobster's  claw  with  an  Insect's  antenna,  or  a  Spider's 
spinneret  with  the  hinder  limbs  of  a  Centipede,  "are  yet  but 
modifications  of  a  common  form,  adapted  for  the  different  uses 
to  which  they  are  put  by  these  animals. 

FIG.  8.  A  Caddis,  or  Case-fly  (Mystacides)  in  the  egg,  with  part  of  the  yolk 
(#)  not  yet  inclosed  within  the  body- walls,  a,  antennae;  between  a  and  b  the  mandi- 
bles; 6,  maxilla;  c,  labium;  rf,  the  separate  eye-spots  (ocelli),  which  afterwards  in- 
crease greatly  in  number  and  unite  to  form  the  compound  eye.  The  "neck"  or 
junction  of  the  head  with  the  thorax  is  seen  at  the  front  part  of  the  yolk-mass ;  e, 
the  three  pairs  of  legs,  which  are  folded  once  on  them  selves;/,  the  pair  of  anal  legs 
attached  to  the  tenth  ring  of  the  abdomen,  as  seen  in  caterpillars,  which  form  long 
antenna-like  filaments  in  the  Cockroach  and  May-fly,  etc.  The  rings  of  the  body  are 
but  partially  formed;  they  are  cylindrical,  giving  the  body  a  worm-like  form. 
Here,  as  in  the  other  two  figures,  though  not  so  distinctly  seen,  the  antennae,  jaws, 
and  last  pair  of  abdominal  legs  are  modifications  of  but  a  single  form,  and  grow 
out  from  the  side  of  the  body.  The  head-appendages  are  directed  forwards,  as 
they  are  to  be  adapted  for  sensory  and  feeding  purposes ;  the  legs  are  directed 
downwards,  since  they  are  to  support  the  insect  while  walking.  It  appears  that  the 
two  ends  of  the  body  are  perfected  before  the  middle,  and  the  under  side  before  the 
upper,  as  we  see  the  yolk-mass  is  not  yet  inclosed  and  the  rings  not  yet  formed 
above.  Thus  all  articulates  differ  from  all  vertebrates  in  having  the  yolk-mass 
situated  on  the  back,  instead  of  on  the  belly,  as  in  the  chick,  dog,  or  human  em- 
bryo. —  From  Zaddach. 


THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS.  7 

The  Worm  is  long  and  slender,  composed  of  an  irregular 
number  of  rings,  all  of  very  even  size.  Thus,  while  the  size  of 
the  rings  is  fixed,  their  number  is  indeterminate,  varying  from 
twenty  to  two  hundred  or  more.  The  outline  of  the  body  is  a 
single  cylindrical  figure.  The  organs  of  locomotion  are  fleshy 
filaments  and  hairs  (Fig.  3,/)  appended  to  the  sides. 

In  one  of  the  low  intestinal  worms,  the  Tape-worm  (Tcenia), 
each  ring,  behind  the  head  and  "neck,"  is  provided  with  organs 
of  reproduction,  so  that  when  the  body  becomes  broken  up 
into  its  constituent  elements,  or  rings  (as  often  occurs  naturally 
in  these  low  forms  for  the  more  ready  propagation  of  the 
species,  since  the  young  are  exposed  to  many  dangers  while 
living  in  the  intestines  of  animals) ,  they  become  living  inde- 
pendent beings  which  "move  freely  and  somewhat  quickly 
like  Leaches,"  and  until  their  real  nature  was  known  they 
were  thought  to  be  worms.  This  ami  other  facts  prove,  that, 
in  the  Worm,  the  vitality  of  the  animal  is  very  equally  dis- 
tributed to  each  ring.  If  we  cut  off  the  head  or  tail  of  some 
of  the  low  worms,  such  as  the  Flat  Worms  (Planaria,  etc.), 
each  piece  will  become  a  distinct  animal,  but  an  Insect  or  Crab 
sooner  or  later  dies  when  deprived  of  its  head  or  tail, (abdomen). 

Thus,  in  the  Worm  the  vital  force  is  very  equally  distributed 
to  each  zoological  element,  or  ring  of  the  body ;  no  single 
part  of  the  body  is  much  honored  above  the  rest,  so  as  to  sub- 
ordinate and  hold  the  other 
parts  in  subservience  to  its 
peculiar  and  higher  ends  in 
the  animal  economy. 

The  Crustacean,  of  which 
the  Shrimp  (Fig.  9)  is  a 
typical  example,  is  com- 
posed of  a  determinate 
number  (21)  of  rings  which  rig.  9. 

are  gathered  into  two  regions;  the  head-thorax  (cephalo- 
thorax)  and  hind -body,  or  abdomen.  In  this  class  there 
is  a  broad  distinction  between  the  anterior  and  posterior  ends 
of  the  body.  The  rings  are  now  grouped  into  two  regions, 
and  the  hinder  division  is  subordinate  in  its  structure  and 

TIG.  9.    A  Shrimp.    Pandalus  annulicornis.    a,  cephalothorax ;  6,  abdomen. 


8  THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 

uses  to  the  forward  portion  of  the  body.  Hence  the  nervous 
power  is  transferred  in  some  degree  towards  the  head;  the 
cephalothorax  containing  the  nervous  centres  from  which  nerves 
are  distributed  to  the  abdomen.  Nearly  all  the  organs  perform- 
ing the  functions  of  locomotion  and  sensation  reside  in  the  front 
region ;  while  the  vegetative  functions,  or  those  concerned 
in  the  reproduction  and  nourishment  of  the  animal,  are  mostly 
carried  on  in  the  hinder  region  of  the  body  (the  abdomen). 

The  typical  Crustacean  cannot  be  said  to  have  a  true  head, 
in  distinction  from  a  thorax  bearing  the  organs  of  locomotion, 
but  rather  a  group  of  rings,  to  which  are  appended  the  organs 
of  sensation  and  locomotion.  Hence  we  find  the  appendages 
of  this  region  gradually  changing  from  antennae  and  jaws  to 
foot-jaws,  or  limbs  capable  of  eating  and  also  of  locomotion ; 
they  shade  into  each  other  as  seen  in  Fig.  9.  Sometimes  the 
jaws  become  remarkably  like  claws  ;  or  the  legs  resemble  jaws 
at  the  base,  but  towards  their  tips  become  claw-like ;  gill-like 
bodies  are  sometimes  attached  to  the  foot-jaws,  and  thus,  as 
stated  by  Professor  J.  D.  Dana  in  the  introduction  to  his  great 
work  on  the  Crustacea  of  the  United  States  Exploring  Expedi- 
tion, the  typical  Crustaceans  do  not  have  a  distinct  head,  but 
rather  a  "head-thorax"  (cephalothorax). 

When  we  rise  a  third  and  last  step  into  the  world  of  Insects, 
we  see  a  completion  and  final  development  of  the  articu- 
late plan  which  has  been  but  obscurely  hinted  at  in  the  two 
lowest  classes,  the  Worms  and  Crustaceans.  Here  we  first  meet 
with  a  true  head,  separate  in  its  structure  and  functions  from 
the  thorax,  which,  in  its  turn,  is  clearly  distinguishable  from 
the  third  region  of  the  body,  the  abdomen,  or  hind-body. 
These  three  regions,  as  seen  in  the  Wasp  (Fig.  10),  are  each 
provided  with  three  distinct  sets  of  organs, 
each  having  distinct  functions,  though  all  are 
governed  by  and  minister  to  the  brain  force, 
now  in  a  great  measure  gathered  up  from  the 
Fig.  10.  posterior  rings  of  the  body,  and  in  a  more 

concentrated  form  (the  brain  being  larger  than  in  the  lower 
articulates)  lodged  in  the  head. 
Here,  then,  is  a  centralization  of  parts  headwards  ;  they  are 

FIG.  10.    Philanthus  ventildbris  Fabr.    A  Wood- wasp.— From  Say. 


COMPOSITION   OF   THE   INSECT-CRUST.  9 

brought  as  if  towards  a  focus,  and  that  focus  the  head,  which 
is  the  meaning  of  the  term  "  cephalization,"  proposed  by  Pro- 
fessor Dana.*  Ring  distinctions  have  given  way  to  regional 
distinctions.  The  former  characterize  the  Worm^  the  latter 
the  Insect.  In  other  words,  the  division  of  the  body  into  three 
parts,  or  regions,  is  in  the  insect,  on  the  whole,  better  marked 
than  the  division  of  any  one  of  those  parts,  except  the  abdo- 
men, into  rings. 

COMPOSITION  OP  THE  INSECT-CRUST.  Before  describing  the 
composition  of  the  body-wall,  or  crust,  of  the  Insect,  let  us 
briefly  review  the  mode  in  which  the  same  parts  are  formed  in 
the  lower  classes,  the  Worms  and  Crustaceans.  We  have  seen 
that  the  typical  ring,  or  segment  (called  by  authors  zoonule, 
zoonite,  or  somite,  meaning  parts  of  a  body,  though  we  prefer 
the  term  arthromere,  denoting  the  elemental  part  of  a  jointed 
or  articulate  animal),  consists  of  an  upper  (tergite),  a  side 
(pleurite),  and  an  under  piece  (sternite).  This  is  seen  in  its 
greatest  simplicity  in  the  Worm  (Fig.  2),  where  the  upper  and 
ventral  arcs  are  separated  by  the  pleural  region.  In  the  Crus- 
tacean the  parts,  hardened  by  the  deposition  of  chitine  and 
therefore  thick  and  unyielding,  have  to  be  farther  subdivided  to 
secure  the  necessary  amount  of  freedom  of  motion  to  the  body 
and  legs.  The  upper  arc  not  only  covers  the  back  of  the  ani- 
mal, but  extends  down  the  sides ;  the  legs  are  jointed  to  the 
epimera,  or  flanks,  on  the  lower  arc  ;  the  episternum  is  situated 
between  the  epimerum  and  sternum ;  and  the  sternum,  form- 
ing the  breast,  is  situated  between  the  legs.  In  the  adult,  there- 
fore, each  elemental  ring  is  composed  of  six  pieces.  It 
should,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  tergum  and  ster- 

*  In  two  papers  on  the  Classification  of  Animals,  published  in  the  American 
Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  Second  Series,  vol.  xxxv,  p.  65,  vol.  xxxvi,  July,  1863, 
and  also  in  his  earlier  paper  on  Crustaceans,  "  the  principle  of  cephalization  is 
shown  to  be  exhibited  among  animals  in  the  following  ways : 

1.  By  a  transfer  of  members  from  the  locomotive  to  the  cephalic  series. 

2.  By  the  anterior  of  the  locomotive  organs  participating  to  some  extent  in  ce- 
phalic functions. 

3.  .By  increased  abbreviation,  concentration,  compactness,  and  perfection  of 
structure,  in  the  parts  and  organs  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  body. 

4.  By  increased  abbreviation,  condensation,  and  perfection  of  structure  in  the 
posterior,  or  gastric  and  caudal  portion  of  the  body. 

5.  By  an  upward  rise  in  the  cephalic  end  of  the  nervous  system.    This  rise 
reaches  its  extreme  limit  in  Man." 


10  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

num  each  consist,  in  the  embryo,  of  two  lateral  parts,  or  halves, 
which,  during  development,  unite  on  the  median  line  of  the 
body.  Typically,  therefore,  the  crustacean  ring  consists  pri- 
marily of  eight  pieces.  The  same  number  is  found  in  all  insects 
which  are  wingless,  or  in  the  larva  and  pupa  state  ;  this  applies 
also  to  the  Myriupods  and  Spiders. 

In  the  Myriopoda,  or  Centipedes,  the  broad  tergum  overlaps 
the  small  epimera,  while  the  sternum  is  much  larger  than  in 
the  Spiders  and  Insects.  In  this  respect  it  is  like  the  broad 
flat  under-surface  of  most  worms.  Hence  the  legs  of  the 
Centipede  are  inserted  very  far  apart,  and  the  "breast,"  or 
sternum,  is  not  much  smaller  than  the  dorsal  part  of  the  crust. 
In  the  Julus  the  dorsal  piece  (tergum)  is  greatly  developed 
over  the  sternum,  but  this  is  a  departure  from  what  is  ap- 
parently the  more  typical  form  of  the  order,  i.  e.  the  Centipede. 
In  the  Spiders  there  is  a  still  greater  disproportion  in  size 
between  the  tergum  and  the  sternum,  though  the  latter  is  very 
large  compared  with  that  of  Insects.  The  epimera  and  episterna, 
or  side-pieces  of  the  Spiders,  are  partially  concealed  by  tne 
over-arching  tergum,  and  they  are  small,  since  the  joints  of  the 
legs  are  very  large,  Audouin's  law  of  development  in  Articu- 
lates showing  that  one  part  of  the  insect  crust  is  always 
developed  at  the  expense  of  the  adjoining  part.  In  the  Spider 
we  notice  that  the  back  of  the  thorax  is  a  single  solid  plate 
consisting  originally  of  four  rings  consolidated  into  a  single 
hard  piece.  In  like  manner  the  broad  solid  sternal  plate 
results  from  the  reunion  of  the  same  number  of  sternites  cor- 
responding, originally,  to  the  number  of  thoracic  legs.  Thus 
the  whole  upper  side  of  the  head  and  thorax  of  the  Spider  is 
consolidated  into  a  single  hard  horny  immovable  plate,  like 
the  upper  solid  part  of  the  cephalothorax  of  the  Crab  or 
Shrimp.  Hence  the  motions  of  the  Spiders  are  very  stiff  com- 
pared with  those  of  many  Insects,  and  correspond  to  those  of 
the  Crab. 

The  crust  of  the  winged  insect  is  modified  for  the  per- 
formance of  more  complex  motions.  It  is  subdivided  in  so 
different  a  manner  from  the  two  lower  orders  of  the  class,  that 
it  would  almost  seem  to  have  nothing  in  common,  structurally 
speaking,  with  the  groups  below  them.  It  is  only  by  examin- 


COMPOSITION   OF   THE    INSECT-CRUST.  11 

ing  the  lowest  wingless  forms  such  as  the  Louse,  Flea, 
Podura,  and  Bark-lice,  where  we  see  a  transition  to  the  Or- 
ders of  Spiders  and  Myriopods,  that  we  can  perceive  the  plan 
pervading  all  these  forms,  uniting  them  into  a  common 
class. 

A  segment  of  a  winged  six-footed  insect  (Hexapod)  consists 
typically  of  eight  pieces  which  we  will  now  examine  more 
leisurely.  Figure  12  represents  a  side-view  of 
the  thorax  of  the  Telea  Polyphemus,  or  Silk-  pt- 
worm  moth,  with  the  legs  and  wings  «4*emoved. 
Each  ring  consists  primarily  of  the  tergum,  the 
two  side-pieces  (epimerum  and  episternum)  and 
the  sternum,  or  breast-plate.  But  one  of  these  Fig.  11. 
pieces  (sternum)  remains  simple,  as  in  the  lower  orders.  The 
tergum  is  divided  into  four  pieces.  They  were  named  by  Au- 
douin  going  from  before  backwards,  Fig.  12. 

the  prcescutum,    scutum,    scutellum,  scm  ms" 

and  postscutellum. 

The  scutum  is  invariably  present  pt 
and  forms  the  larger  part  of  the 
upper  portion  (tergum)  of  the  tho- 
rax ;  the  scutellum  is,  as  its  name 
indicates,  the  little  shield  so  promi- 
nent in  the  beetle,  which  is  also 
uniformly  present.  The  other  two  tr  te  c"  tr  c'"  tr 

pieces    are    usually    minute    and 

crowded  down  out  of  sight,  and  placed  between  the  two  oppos- 
ing rings.  As  seen  in  Fig.  11,  the  praescutum  of  the  moth  is 
a  small  rounded  piece,  bent  vertically  down,  so  as  not  to  be 
seen  from  above.  In  the  lowly  organized  Hepialus,  and  some 

FIG.  11.  Tergal  view  of  the  middle  segment  of  the  thorax  of  Telea  Polyphemus, 
prm,  praescutum;  ms,  scutum;  scm,  scutellum;  ptm,  postscutellum;  pt,  patagium, 
or  shoulder  tippet,  covering  the  insertion  of  the  wings.  —  Original. 

FIG.  12.  Side  view  of  the  thorax  of  T.  Polyphemus,  the  hairs  removed.  1,  Pro- 
thorax  ;  2,  Mesothorax;  3,  Metathorax,  separated  by  the  wider  black  lines.  Tergum 
of  the  prothorax  not  represented,  ms,  mesoscutum ;  scm,  mesoscutellum;  ms" , 
metascutum;  scm",  metascutellum ;  pt,  a  supplementary  piece  near  the  inser- 
tion of  patagia;  w,  pieces  situated  at  the  insertion  of  the  wings  and  surrounded  by 
membrane ;  em,  epimerum  of  prothorax,  the  long  upright  piece  above  being  the 
episternum;  epm",  episternum  of  the  mesothorax;  em",  epimerum  of  the  same; 
epm",  episternum  of  the  metathorax;  em",  epimerum  of  the  same,  divided  into  two 
pieces;  c,  c",  c",  coxae;  te',  le",  le",  trochantines ;  tr,  tr,  tr,  trochanters. 
—  Original. 


14  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

insects.  In  the  higher  series  of  suborders,  comprising  the  Dip- 
tera,  Lepidoptera  and  Hymenoptera,  placing  the  highest  last, 
the  thorax  shows  a  tendency  to  assume  a  globular  shape  ;  the 
upper  side,  or  tergum,  is  much  arched,  the  pleural  region  bulges 
out  full  and  round,  while  the  legs  conceal  at  their  insertion 
the  sternum  which  is  minute  in  size. 

In  the  lower  series,  embracing  the  Coleoptera,  Hemiptera, 
Orthoptera,  and  Neuroptera,  the  entire  body  tends  to  be  more 
flattened ;  in  the  thorax  the  terguin  is  broad,  especially  that  of 
the  prothorax,  while  the  pleurites  (episterna  and  epimera)  are 
short  and  bulge  out  less  than  in  the  higher  series,  and  the  ster- 
num is  almost  invariably  well  developed,  often  presenting  a 
large  thick  breast-plate  bearing  a  stout  spine  or  thick  tubercle, 
as  in  (Edipoda.  We  can  use  these  characters,  in  classifying 
insects  into  suborders,  as  they  are  common  to  the  whole  order. 
Hence  the  use  of  characters  drawn  from  the  wings  and  mouth- 
parts  (which  are  sometimes  wanting),  leads  to  artificial  dis- 
tinctions, as  they  are  2)eripheral  organs,  though  often  convenient 
in  our  first  attempts  at  classifying  and  limiting  natural  groups. 
^  The  abdomen.  In  the  hind  body,  or  third  region  of  the 
trunk,  the  three  divisions  of  the  typical  ring  (arthromere),  are 
entire,  the  tergum  is  broad  and  often  not  much  greater  in  ex- 
tent than  the  sternum ;  and  the  pleurites  also  form  either  a 
single  piece,  or,  divided  into  an  epimerum  and  episternum, 
form  a  distinct  lateral  region,  on  which  the  stigmata  are  sit- 
uated. The  segments  of  the  abdomen  have  received  from 
Lacaze-Duthiers  a  still  more  special  name,  that  of  urite,  and 
the  different  tergal  pieces  belonging  to  the  several  rings, 
but  especially  those  that  have  been  modified  to  form  the  genital 
armor  have  been  designated  by  him  as  tergites.  We  have 
applied  this  last  term  to  the  tergal  pieces  generally.  The  typi- 
cal number  of  abdominal  segments  is  eleven.  In  the  lowest 
insects,  the  Neuroptera,  there  are  usually  eleven ;  as  we  have 
counted  them  in  the  abdomen  of  the  embryo  of  Diplax.  In 
others,  such  as  the  Hymenoptera  and  Lepidoptera,  there  may 
never  be  more  than  ten,  so  far  as  present  observation  teaches 
us. 

The  formation  of  the  sting,  and  of  the  male  intromittent 
organ,  may  be  observed  in  the  full-grown  larva  and  in  the  in- 


COMPOSITION   OF   THE    OVIPOSITOR. 


15 


complete   pupa    of  the    Humble-bee,    and  other   thin-skinned 

Hymenopterous  larvae,  and  in  a  less  satisfactory  way  in  the 

young  Dragon-flies. 

If  the  larva  of  the  Humble-bee  be  taken  just  after  it  has 

become  full-fed,  and  as  it  is  about  to  enter  upon  the  pupa  state, 

the  elements 
(sterno  -  rhab- 
dites  Lacaze- 
Duthiers),  or 
tubercles, 
destined  to 

form  the  ovipositor,  lie  in 
separate  pairs,  in  two  groups, 
exposed  distinctly  to  view, 


Fig.  16. 


Fig.  14. 

as  in  Figures  14-18. 


Fig.  15. 

The  ovipositor  thus  consists  of  three 


pairs  of  slender  non-articulated  tubercles,  situated  in  juxta- 
position on  each  side  of  Fig.  17.  17  a. 
the  mesial  line  of  the 
body.  The  first  pair  arises 
from  the  eighth  abdominal 
ring,  and  the  second  and 
third  pair  grow  out  from 
the  ninth  ring.  The  ends 
of  the  first  pair  scarcely 
reach  beyond  the  base  of 
the  third  pair.  With  the 
growth  of  the  semi-pupa, 
the  end  of  the  abdomen 
decreases  in  size,  and  is  Fig.  is. 

FIG.  14.  Rudiments  of  the  sting,  or  ovipositor,  of  the  Humble-bee.  8,  9,  10, 
sternites  of  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  abdominal  rings  in  the  larva,  a,  first  pair,  situ- 
ated on  the  eighth  sternite ;  6,  second  and  inner  pair ;  and  c,  the  outer  pair.  The  let- 
tering is  the  same  in  figures  14-22.  The  inner  pair  (6),  forms  the  true  ovipositor, 
through  which  the  eggs  are  supposed  to  pass  when  laid  by  the  insect,  the  two 
outer  pairs,  a,  and  c,  sheathing  the  inner  pair.  Ganin  shows  that  in  the  embryo  of 
Polynema  (Fig.  655),  the  three  pairs  of  tubercles  arise  from  the  7th,  8th  and  9th  s°g- 
ments  respectively.  FIG.  15, 16.  The  same  .1  little  farther  advanced. 

FIG.  17.  The  three  pairs  now  'appear  as  if  together  growing  from  the  base  of  the 
ninth  segment;  17 a,  side  view  of  the  same,  showing  the  end  of  the  abdomen  grow- 
ing smaller  thi-ough  the  diminution  in  size  of  the  under  side  of  the  body. 

FIG.  18.  The  three  pairs  of  rhabdites  now  nearly  equal  in  size,  and  nearly 
ready  to  unite  and  form  a  tube;  18«,  side  view  of  the  same;  the  end  of  the  abdo- 
men still  more  pointed ;  the  ovipositor  is  situated  between  the  seventh  and  tenth 
rings,  and  ib  partially  retracted  within  the  body. 


18  a. 


12  THE   CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 

Neuroptera,  such  as  the  Polystcechotes  (Fig.  13  a),  the  prse- 
scutum  is  large,  well  developed,  triangular,  and  wedged  in 
between  the  two  halves  of  the  scutum.  The  little 
piece  succeeding  the  scutellum,  i.  e.  the  postscu- 
tellum,  is  still  smaller,  and  rarely  used  in  descrip- 
tive entomology.  Thus  far  we  have  spoken  of  the 
middle,  or  mesothoracic,  ring,  where  these  four 
pieces  are  most  equally  developed.  In  the  first,  al| 
or  prothoracic,  ring,  one  part,  most  probably  the 
scutum,  is  well  developed,  while  the  others  are 
aborted,  and  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  trace  them 
in  most  insects.  The  prothorax  in  the  higher  in- 
sects, such  as  the  Hymenoptera,  Lepidoptera,  and  Diptera  is 
very  small,  and  often  intimately  soldered  to  the  succeeding  or 
mesothoracic  ring.  In  the  lower  insects,  however,  such  as  the 
Coleoptera,  the  bugs  (Hemiptera),  grasshoppers  and  their 
allies  (Orthoptera),  and  the  Neuroptera,  the  large  broad  pro- 
thorax  consists  almost  entirely  of  this  single  piece,  and  most 
writers  speak  of  this  part  under  the  name  of  "thorax,"  since 
the  two  posterior  segments  are  concealed  by  the  wings  when 
the  animal  is  at  rest.  The  metathorax  is  usually  very  broad 
and  short.  Here  we  see  the  scutum  split  asunder,  with  the 
praescutum  and  scutellum  wedged  in  between,  while  the  post- 
scutellum  is  aborted. 

On  the  side  are  two  pieces,  the  upper  (epimerum)  placed 
just  beneath  the  tergum,  which  is  the  collective  name  for  the 
four  tergal,  or  dorsal,  pieces  enumerated  above.  In  front  of 
the  epimerum  and  resting  upon  the  sternum,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, is  the  episternum.  These  two  parts  (pleurites)  compose 
the  flanks  of  the  elemental  ring.  To  them  the  legs  are  articu- 
lated. Betweetf  the  two  episterna  is  situated  the  breast-piece 
(sternum),  which  shows  a  tendency  to  grow  smaller  as  we 
ascend  from  the  Neuroptera  to  the  Bees. 

In  those  insects  provided  with  wings,  the  epimera  are  also 
subdivided.  The  smaller  pieces,  hinging  upon  each  other,  as 
it  were,  give  play  to  the  very  numerous  muscles  of  flight 

FIG.  13.  A  tergal  view  of  thorax  of  Hepialus  (Sthenopis} ;  1,  prothorax ;  2,  meso- 
thorax ;  3,  metathorax.  The  prothorax  is  very  small  compared  with  that  of  Poly- 
stcechotes (13  a,  1),  where  it  is  nearly  as  long  as  broad.—  Original. 


COMPOSITION   OF   THE   INSECT-CRUST.  13 

needed  by  the  insect  to  perform  its  complicated  motions 
while  on  the  wing. 

The  insertion  of  the  fore  wing  is  concealed  by  the  "  shoulder 
tippets,"  or  patagia  (Fig.  11),  which  are  only  present  in  the 
mesothorax.  The  external  opening  of  the  spiracles  just  under 
the  wing  perforates  a  little  piece  called  by  Audouin  the  peri- 
treme. 

A  glance  at  Figures  11  and  12  shows  how  compactly  the 
various  parts  of  the  thorax  are  agglutinated  into  a  globular 
mass,  and  that  this  is  due  to  the  diminished  size  of  the  first 
and  third  rings,  while  the  middle  ring  is  greatly  enlarged  to 
support  the  muscles  of  flight.  There  are  four  tergal,  four 
pleural,  two  on  each  side  (and  these  in  the  Hymenoptera,  Lepi- 
doptera,  and  Diptera  subdivide  into  several  pieces),  and  a 
single  sternal  piece,  making  nine  for  each  ring  and  twenty- 
seven  for  the  whole  thorax,  with  eight  accessory  pieces  (the 
three  pairs  of  peritremes  and  the  two  patagia) ,  making  a  total 
of  thirty-five  for  the  entire  thorax ;  or,  multiplying  the  four 
tergal  pieces  by  two,  since  they  are  formed  by  the  union  of  two 
primitive  pieces  on  the  median  line  of  the  body,  we  have 
thirty-nine  pieces  composing  the  thorax. 

TABLE  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  THE  THORAX  APPLIED  TO  THE  PRO-, 
MESO-,  AND  METATHORAX,  RESPECTIVELY. 

*  Praescutum, 
Dorsal     S  Scutum, 
Surface   i  Scutellum, 

*•  Postscutellum. 
,    C  Epimerum, 
Thorax     Pleural    >  Episternum, 

Surface  ^  Episternal  apophysis,  Stigma,  Peritreme. 


We  must  remember  that  these  pieces  are  rarely  of  precisely 
the  .same  form  in  any  two  species,  and  that  they  differ,  often  in 
a  very  marked  way,  in  different  genera  of  insects.  How  sim- 
ple, then,  is  the  typical  ring,  and  how  complex  are  the  va- 
rious subdivisions  of  that  ring  as  seen  in  the  actual,  living 
insect,  where  each  part  has  its  appropriate  muscles,  nerves,  and 
tracheae ! 

We  have  seen  how  the  thorax  is  formed  in  Insects  generally, 
let  us  now  advert  to  the  two  types  of  thorax  in  the  six-footed 


16 


THE   CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 


Fig.  19. 


gradually  incurved  toward  the  base  (Fig.  18),  and  the  three 
pairs  of  rhabdites  approach  each  other  so  closely  that  the  two 
outer  ones  completely  ensheath  the  inner,  until  a  complete 
extensible  tube  is  formed,  which  is  gradually  withdrawn  entirely 
within  the  body. 

The  male  genital  organ  is  originally  composed  of  three  pairs 
(two  pairs,  apparently,  in  ^32s- 
chna,  Fig.  19)  of  tubercles    all 
arising  from  the  ninth  abdominal 
ring,   being   sternal   outgrowths 
and  placed  on  each  side  of  the 
mesial  line  of  the  body,  two  be-         Fis-  20. 
ing  anterior,  and  very  unequal  in  size,  and  the 
third  pair  nearer  the  base  of  the  abdomen.  The  ex- 
ternal genital  organs  are  to  be  considered 
as  probably  homologous  with  the  limbs,  as 
Ganin  has  shown  that  they  bud  out  in  the 
same  manner  from  (see  p.  704 
fig.  655)  the  arthromere.* 
~b      This  view  will  apply  to  the 
genital  armor  of  all  Insects,  so 
far  as  we  have  been  able  to  observe.     It  is 
so  in  the  pupa  of  jiEschna  (Fig.  21),  and 
the  pupa  of  Agrion  (Fig.  22),  which  com- 
pletely repeats,  in  its  essential  features,  the 
structure  of  the  ovipositor  of  Bombus.     Thus 
Agrion  the  ovipositor  consists  of  a  pair  of  closely  appressed  ensi- 
form  processes  which  grow  out  from  under  the  posterior  edge  of 
the  eighth  abdominal  ring,  and  are  embraced  between  two  pairs 

*  This  term  is  proposed  as  better  defining  the  ideal  ring,  or  primary  zoological 
element  of  an  articulated  animal  than  the  terms  somite  or  zoonite,  which  seem  too 
vague ;  we  also  propose  the  term  arthroderm  for  the  outer  crust,  or  body  Avails,  of 
Articulates,  and  arthropleura  for  the  pleural,  or  limb-bearing  region,  of  the  body, 
being  that  portion  of  the  arthromere  situated  between  the  tergite  and  sternite. 

FIG.  19.  The  rudiments  of  the  male  intromittent  organ  of  the  pupa  of  ^schna, 
consisting  of  two  flattened  tubercles  situated  on  the  ninth  ring;  the  outer  pair 
large  and  rounded  inclosing  the  smaller  linear  oval  pair. 

FIG.  20.  The  same  in  the  Humble-bee,  but  consisting  of  three  pairs  of  tubercles, 
x,  y,  z;  8,9, 10,  the  last  three  segments  of  the  abdomen. 

FIG.  21.    The  rudimentary  ovipositor  of  the  pupa  of  JEschna,  a  Dragon-fly. 

FIG.  22.  The  same  in  pupa  of  Agrion,  a  small  Dragon-fly.  Here  the  rudiments 
of  the  eleventh  abdominal  ring  are  seen,  d,  the  base  of  one  of  the  abdominal  false 
gills.  The  ovipositor  of  Cicada  is  formed  in  the  same  way.— Figs.  14-22  original. 


Fig.  21. 


in 


and 


COMPOSITION   OF   THE   OVIPOSITOK. 


17 


L 


of  thin  lamelliform  pieces  of  similar  form  and  structure,  arising 
from  the  sternite  of  the  ninth  ring.  These  outgrowths  appar- 
ently also  homologize  with  the  filiform,  antennae-like,  jointed 
appendages  of  the  eleventh  ring,  as  seen  in  the  Perlidae  and 
most  Neuroptera  and  Orthoptera  (especially  in  Mantis  tes- 
sellata  where  they  (Fig.  23)  closely 
resemble  antennae),  which,  arising  as 
they  do  from  the  arthropleural,  or  limb- 
bearing  region  of  the  body,  i.  e.  between  Fig.  23. 

the  sternum  and  episternum,  are  strictly  homologous  with  the 
abdominal  legs  of  the  Myriapoda,  the  " false  legs"  of  cater- 
pillars, and  the  abdominal  legs  of  some  Neuropterous  larvae 
(Corydalis,  Phryganeidce,  etc.). 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  attenuated  form  of  the  tip  is 
produced  by  the  decrease  in  size  of  certain  parts,  the  actual 
disappearance  of  others,  and  the  perfection  of  those  parts  to 
be  of  future  use.  Thus  towards  the  extremity  of  the  body 
the  pleurites  are  absorbed  and  disappear,  the  tergites  overlap 
on  the  sternites,  and  the  latter  diminish  in  size  and  are 
withdrawn  within  the  body,  while  the  last,  or  eleventh  sternite, 
entirely  disappears.*  Meanwhile  the  sting  grows  larger  and 

larger,  until  finally  we 
have  the  neatly  fashioned 
abdominal  tip  of  the  bee 
concealing  the  complex 
sting  with  its  intricate 
system  of  visceral  ves- 
Fig.  24.  sels  and  glands. 

The  ovipositor,  or  sting,  of  all  insects,  therefore,  is  formed 
on  a  common  plan  (Fig.  24).  The  solid  elements  of  the  arthro- 

*In  Ranatra,  however,  Lacaze-Duthiers  has  noticed  the  curious  fact  that  in 
order  to  form  the  long  respiratory  tube  of  this  insect,  the  tergite  and  sternite  of  the 
pregenital  (eighth)  segment  are  aborted,  while  the  pleurites  are  enormously  en- 
larged and  elongated,  so  as  to  carry  the  stigmata  far  out  to  the  end  of  the  long  tube 
thus  formed. 

FIG.  23.  End  of  the  abdomen  of  Mantis  tessellata ;  p,  many-jointed  anal  style 
resembling  an  antenna.  5-11,  the  last  seven  abdominal  segments;  the  8-llth  ster- 
nites being  obsolete.  —  From  Lacaze-Duthiers. 

FIG.  24.  Ideal  plan  of  the  structure  of  the  ovipositor  in  the  adult  insect.  l-7t, 
the  tergites,  connected  by  clotted  lines  with  their  corresponding  sternites.  b,  the 
eighth  tergite,  or  anal  scale;  c,  epimerum;  a,  a,  two  pieces  forming  the  outer  pair 
of  rhabdites;  i,  the  second  pair,  or  stylets;  and  /,  the  inner  pair,  or  sting;  d,  the 


18  THE   CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 

mere  are  modified  to  form  the  parts  supporting  the  sting  alone. 
The  external  opening  of  the  oviduct  is  always  situated  between 
the  eighth  and  ninth  segments,  while  the  anal  opening  lies  at 
the  end  of  the  eleventh  ring.  So  that  there  are  really,  as 
Lacaze-Duthiers  observes,  three  segments  interposed  between 
the  genital  and  anal  openings. 

The  various  modifications  of  the  ovipositor  and  male  organ 
will  be  noticed  under  the  different  suborders. 

THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HEAD.  After  studying  the  com- 
position of  the  thorax  and  abdomen,  where  the  constituent 
parts  of  the  elemental  ring  occur  in  their  greatest  simplicity, 
we  may  attempt  to  unravel  the  intricate  structure  of  the  head. 
We  are  to  determine  whether  it  is  composed  of  one,  or  more, 
segments,  and  if  several,  to  ascertain  how  many,  and  then  to 
learn  what  parts  of  the  typical  arthromere  are  most  largely 
developed  as  compared  with  the  development  of  similar  parts 
in  the  thorax  or  abdomen.  In  this,  perhaps  the  most  difficult 
problem  the  entomologist  has  to  deal  with,  the  study  of  the 
head  of  the  adult  insect  alone  is  only  guesswork.  We  must 
trace  its  growth  in  the  embryo.  Though  many  writers  consider 
the  head  as  consisting  of  but  a  single  segment,  the  most  emi- 
nent entomologists  have  agreed  that  the  head  of  insects  is  com- 
posed of  two  or  more  segments.  Savigny  led  the  way  to  these 
discoveries  in  transcendental  entomology  by  stating  that  the 
appendages  of  the  head  are  but  modified  limbs,  and  homol- 
ogous with  the  legs.  This  view  at  once  gave  a  clue  to  the 
complicated  structure  of  the  head.  If  the  antennae  and  biting 
organs  are  modified  limbs,  then  there  must  be  an  elemental 
segment  present  in  some  form,  however  slightly  developed  in 
the  mature  insect,  to  which  such  limbs  are  attached.  But  the 
best  observers  have  differed  as  to  the  supposed  number  of  such 
theoretical  segments.  Burmeister  believed  that  there  were  two 
only ;  Carus  and  Audouin  thought  there  were  three ;  McLeay 
and  Newman  four,  and  Straus-Durckheim  recognized  seven. 
From  the  study  of  the  semipupa  of  the  Humble-bee  (Bombus) 

support  of  the  sting;  £,  the  support  of  the  stylet  (i).  R,  the  anus ;  0,  the  outlet  of 
the  oviduct.  The  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  sternites  are  aborted.— From  Lacaze- 
Duthiers. 


THE    STRUCTURE    OF    THE    HEAD.  19 

and  several  low  Neuropterous  forms,  as  the  larva  of  Ephemera, 
but  chiefly  the  embryos  of  Diplax,  Chrysopa,  Attelabus,  Nema- 
tu&,  and  Pulex,  we  have  concluded  that  there  are  four  such  ele- 
mental segments  in  the  head  of  hexapodous  insects. 

On  reference  to  fig.  57  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  sternal 
portion  on  the  under  side  of  the  two  posterior  segments  of  the 
head,  and  in  the  embryo  of  Attelabus  we  have  seen  sterna  also 
developed  in  the  antennal  and  mandibular  segments,  so  that  we 
may  conclude  that  there  are  four  segments  in  the  head  of  all 
six  footed  insects,  corresponding  to  the  jointed  appendages, 
i.  e.  the  labium,  or  second  maxillae,  the  first  maxillae,  the  man 
dibles,  and  the  antennae.  Though  having,  in  accordance  with 
the  generally  received  opinions  of  Milne-Edwards,  Dana,  and 
others,  believed  that  the  eyes  of  Crustacea,  and  therefore  of 
Insects,  were  the  homologues  of  the  limbs,  and  developed  on 
separate  segments  placed  in  front  of  the  antennal  segment,  as 
stated  in  the  previous  editions  of  this  work  ;  I  have,  however, 
on  farther  study  of  the  subject,  been  led  to  reconsider  the  mat- 
tir,  and  decide  that  the  eyes  are  but  modified  dermal  sense 
cells,  and  in  certain  articulates  developed  on  limb-bearing  seg- 
ments. Thus  in  the  King  Crab  (Limulus)  a  pair  of  ocelli  are 
situated  on  the  first  segment  of  the  body,  and  the  large  com- 
pound eyes  grow  out  on  the  back  of  the  third  segment,  both 
bearing  limbs.  In  the  embryos  of  all  the  insects  yet  exam- 
ined, the  eyes  are  groups  of  specialized  cells  of  the  skin  which 
grow  out  on  the  upper,  or  tergal,  side  of  the  same  segment 
which  bears  the  antennae.  In  certain  mites,  as  Hydrachna,  and 
its  allies,  the  simple  eyes  are  situated  over  the  second  pair  of 
legs,  and  at  a  considerable  distance  behind  the  head.  Among 
the  worms,  also,  organs  of  sight,  as  in  Polyoplithalmus,  are 
developed  on  each  segment  of  the  body  ;  or,  as  in  certain  Pla- 
narians,  scattered  irregularly  over  the  body. 

The  three  ocelli,  when  present,  are  developed  after  the  eyes 
appear.  Each  of  these  three  ocelli  is  situated  upon  a  distinct 
piece ;  but  we  must  consider  the  anterior  single  ocellus  as  in 
reality  formed  of  two,  since  in  the  immature  pupa  of  Bombus 
the  anterior  ocellus  is  transversely  ovate,  resulting  from  the 
fusion  of  two  originally  distinct  ocelli.  There  are,  therefore, 
apparently  two  pairs  of  ocelli.  The  clypeus  and  labrum  are 


20 


THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 


simply  a  fold  of  the  skin  of  the  front  part  of  the  antennary 
segment,  and  are  not  to  be  compared  with  the  tergite  or  rudi- 
ment of  the  eleventh  segment  of  the  abdomen. 

Now,  since  the  arthropleural  is  the  limb-bearing  region  in 
the  thorax,  it  must  follow  that  this  region  is  quite  well  devel- 
oped in  the  head,  while  the  tergal  region,  bearing  the  organs  of 
sight,  sometimes  of  enormous  size,  is  perhaps  still  more  largely 
developed ;  and  as  all  the  parts  of  the  head  are  subordinated 
in  their  development  to  that  of  the  appendages  of  which  they 
form  the  support,  it  must  follow  logically  that  the  larger  por- 
tion of  the  body  of  the  head  is  pleural  and  tergal,  and  that  the 
sternal  parts  are  very  slightly  developed.  Thus  each  region  of 
the  body  is  characterized  by  the  relative  development  of  the 
three  parts  of  the  arthromere.  In  the  abdomen  the  upper 
(tergal)  and  under  (sternal)  surfaces  are  most  equally  devel- 
oped, while  the  pleural  line  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  In  the 
thorax  the  pleural  region  is  much  more  developed,  either  quite 
as  much,  or  often  more  than  the  upper,  or  tergal  portion,  while 
the  sternal  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  In  the  head  the  tergites 
form  the  main  bulk  of  the  region,  and  the  sternites  are  reduced 
to  a  minimum. 

TABLE  OF  THE  SEGMENTS  OF  THE  HEAD  AND  THEIR  APPENDAGES, 
BEGINNING  WITH  THE  MOST  ANTERIOR. 


Preoral. 


First  Segment 
( Antennary) , 


Tergal, 


Antennas,  together  with 
the  labrum,  epipharynx, 
clypeus,  eyes,  and  ocelli. 


Pastoral. 

Second  Segment 
(Mandibular), 

}  Pleural, 

Mandibles. 

Third  Segment 

(First  Maxillary'), 

|  Pleural, 

First  maxillae. 

Fourth  Segment 

(Second  Maxillary,  or) 
Labial), 

^Tergal  (occiput), 
>  Pleural  (gena), 
}  Sternal  (gula), 

Second  maxillae 
(Labium). 

The  Appendages.  We  naturally  begin  with  the  thoracic 
appendages,  or  legs,  of  which  there  is  a  pair  to  each  ring.  The 
leg  (Fig.  25)  consists  of  six  joints,  the  basal  one,  the  coxa,  in 
the  Hymenoptera,  Lepidoptera,  and  Diptera,  consisting  of  two 


THE    APPENDAGES.  21 

pieces,  i.  e.  the  coxa  and  trochantine  (see  Fig.  12)  ;  the  tro~ 
chanter;  the  femur;  the  tibia,  and,  lastly,  the  tarsus,  which  is 
subdivided  into  from  one  to  five  joints,  the  latter  being 
the  normal  number.  The  terminal  joint  ends  in  a  pair 
of  claws  between  which  is  a  cushion-like  sucker  called 
the  pulvillus.  This  sucking  disk  enables  the  Fly  to 
walk  upside  down  and  on  glass. 

In  the  larva,  the  feet  are  short  and  horny,  and  the  Fig.  25. 
joints  can  be  still  distinguished.  In  Myriopods,  each  segment 
of  the  abdomen  has  a  pair  of  feet  like  the  thoracic  ones.  We 
must  consider  the  three  pairs  of  spinnerets  of  Spiders,  which 
are  one  to  three-jointed,  as  homologous  with  the  jointed  limbs  of 
the  higher  insects.  In  the  six-footed  insects  (Hexapoda),  the 
abdominal  legs  are  deciduous,  being  present  in  the  Coleopterous 
grub,  the  Dipterous  maggot,  the  caterpillar,  and  larva  of  the 
Saw-fly,  but  disappearing  in  the  pupa  state.  They  are  often, 
as  in  most  maggots,  either  absent,  or  reduced  in  number  to  the 
two  anal,  or  terminal  pair  of  legs  ;  while  in  the  Saw-flies,  there 
are  as  many  as  eight  pairs.  These  "false"  or  "prop-legs" 
are  soft  and  fleshy,  and  without  articulations.  At  the  retrac- 
tile extremity  is  a  crown  of  hooks,  as  seen  in  caterpillars  or  the 
hind-legs  of  the  larva  of  Chironomus  (Fig.  26),  in  which  the 
prothoracic  pair  of  legs  is  reduced  to  inarticu- 
late fleshy  legs  like  the  abdominal  ones. 

The  position  of  the  different  pairs  of  legs 
deserves  notice  in  connection  with  the  principle 
of  "  antero-posterior  symmetry."  The  fore- 
legs are  directed  forwards  like  the  human  arms,  Fis- 26< 
but  the  two  hinder  pairs  are  directed  backwards.  In  the  Spiders, 
three  pairs  of  abdominal  legs  (spinnerets)  are  retained  through- 
out life;  in  the  lower  Hexapods,  a  single  pair,  which  is  ap- 
pended to  the  eleventh  segment,  is  often  retained,  but  under 
a  form  which  is  rather  like  an  antenna,  than  limb-like.  In 
some  Neuropterous  larvae  (Phryganea,  Corydalus,  etc.)  the 
anal  pair  of  limbs  are  very  well  marked ;  they  constitute  the 
"  anal  forceps "  of  the  adult  insect.  They  sometimes  become 
true,  many-jointed  appendages,  and  are  then  remarkably  like 

FIG.  25.    A,  coxa;  B,  trochanter;  C,  femur;  D, tibia;  F,  tibial  spurs;  Ex tarsus, 
divided  into  five  tarsal  joints,  the  fifth  ending  in  a  claw — From  Sanborn. 


22 


THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 


antennae,  as  in  the  instance  of  Mantis  tessettata  described  by 
Lacaze-Duthiers  (Fig.  23).  In  the  Cockroach  these  append- 
ages, sometimes  called  "anal  cerci,"  resemble  the  antenna?  of 
the  same  insect.  In  the  Lepidoptera  and  Itymenoptera  they 
do  not  appear  to  be  jointed,  and  are  greatly  aborted. 

The  Wings.  The  wings  of  insects  first  appear  as  little  soft 
vascular  sacs  permeated  by  tracheae.  They  .grow  out  in  the 
preparatory  stages  (Fig.  27)  of  the  pupa  from  the  side  of  the 
thorax  and  above  the  insertion  of  the 
legs,  i.e.  between  the  epimerum  and 
tergum.  During  the  pupa  state  they 
are  pad-like,  but  when  the  pupa  skin  is 
thrown  off  they  expand  with  air,  and 
in  a  few  minutes,  as  in  the  Butterfly, 
enlarge  to  many  times  their  original 
size.  The  wings  of  insects,  then,  are 
simple  expansions  of  the  crust,  spread 
over  a  framework  of  horny  tubes. 
These  tubes  are  really  double,  consist- 
ing of  a  central  trachea,  or  air  tube, 
inclosed  within  a  larger  tube  filled  with 
blood,  and  which  performs  the  functions  of  the  veins.  Hence 
the  aeration  of  the  blood  is  carried  on  in  the  wings,  and  thus 
they  serve  the  double  purpose  of  lungs  and  organs  of  flight. 

The  number  and  situation  of  these  veins  and  their  branches 
(veinlets)  are  of  great  use  in  separating  genera  and  species. 
The  typical  number  of  primary  veins  is  five.  They  diverge 
outward  at  a  slight  angle  from  the  insertion  of  the  wing,  and 
are  soon  divided  into  veinlets,  from  which  cross  veins  are 
thrown  out  connecting  with  others  to  form  a  net-work  of  veins 
and  veinlets,  called  the  venation  of  the  wing  (Figs.  28,  29). 
The  interspaces  between  the  veins  and  veinlets  are  called  cells. 
At  a  casual  glance  the  venation  seems  very  irregular,  but  in 
many  insects  is  simple  enough  to  enable  us  to  trace  and  name 
the  veinlets.  The  five  main  veins,  most  usually  present,  are 

FIG.  27.  The  semipupa  of  Bombus,  the  larva  skin  having  been  removed,  show- 
ing the  two  pairs  of  rudimentary  wings  growing  out  from  the  mesothorax  (£)»  and 
metathorax  (m).  n  and  the  seven  succeeding  dots  represent  the  eight  abdominal 
stigmata,  the  first  one  (n)  being  in  the  pupa  situated  on  the  thorax,  since  the  first 
ring  of  the  abdomen  is  in  this  stage  joined  to  the  thorax.  —  Original. 


Fig.  27. 


THE    WINGS. 


23 


Fig.  28. 


called,  beginning  at  the  costa,  or  front  edge,  the  costal,  subcostal, 
median,  submedian,  and  internal,  and  sometimes  the  median 
divides  into  two,  making  six 
veins.  The  costal  vein  is  un- 
divided ;  the  subcostal  and  me- 
dian are  divided  into  several 
branches,  while  the  submedian 
and  internal  are  usually  simple. 

The  venation  of  the  fore- 
wings  affords  excellent  marks 
in  separating  genera,  but  that 
of  the  hind  wings  varies  less, 
and  is  consequently  of  less  use. 

The  wings  of   many  insects 
are  divided  by  the  veins  into 
three    well-marked   areas ;    the 
costal,    median,    and    internal. 
The  costal  area  (Fig.  316)  forms 
the  front  edge  of  the  wing  and 
is  the   strongest, 
since  the  veins   are 
nearer  together  than 
elsewhere,  and  thus 
afford   the    greatest 
resistance  to  the  air  Fig.  2g. 

FIG.  28.  Fore  and  hind  wings  of  a  Butterfly,  showing  the  venation.  I.  fore  wing : 
a,  costal  vein;  b,  subcostal  vein;  61,  62,  63,  64,  65,  five  subcostal  veinlets;  c,  inde- 
pendent vein  (it  is  sometimes  a  branch  of  the  subcostal,  and  sometimes  of  the  me- 
dian vein) ;  d,  median  vein ;  di,  d2,  ds,  d4,  four  median  veinlets ;  e,  submedian  vein ; 
/,  internal  vein ;  ft,  interno-median  veinlet  (rarely  found,  according  to  Doubleday, 
except  in  Papilio  and  Morpho) ;  6  and  d  are  situated  in  the  "  discal  cell ; "  gl,g2,'g3t 
the  upper,  middle,  and  lower  discal  veinlets.  In  the  Bombycidae  and  many  other 
moths  gi  and  g%  are  thrown  off  from  the  subcostal  and  median  veins  respectively, 
meeting  in  the  middle  of  the  cell  at  g%.  They  are  sometimes  wholly  absent. 

II.  The  hind  wing;  the  lettering  and  names  of  the  veins  and  veinlets  the  same 
as  in  the  fore  wing.  —  Slightly  changed  from  Doubleday. 

FIG.  29.  Fore  wing  of  a  Hymenopterous  insect,  c,  costal  vein;  sc,  subcostal 
vein;  m,  median  vein;  sm,  submedian  vein;  i,  internal  vein;  c,  1,2,3,  the  first, 
second,  and  third  costal  cells ;  the  second  frequently  opaque  and  then  called  the 
pterostigma.  sc,  1,  2,  3,  4,  the  four  subcostal  cells;  TO,  1,  2,  3,  4,  the  median  cells; 
smr  1, 2,  3,  the  three  submedian  cells ;  il,  the  internal  cell;  this  is  sometimes  divided 
into  two  cells,  and  the  number  of  all  but  the  costal  cells  is  inconstant,  the  oute£ 
row  of  cells  (4,  4,  3)  being  the  first  to  disappear. 

The  costal  edge  extends  from  c  to  c ;  the  outer  c,  the  apex ;  the  outer  edge  extends 
from  the  apex  (c)  to  «,  and  the  inner  edge  extends  from  n,  the  inner  angle,  to  the 
insertion  of  the  wing  at  i.—  Original.  Figs.  30-32  from  Scudder. 


24 


THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS, 


during  flight.  The  median  area  (Fig.  31  a)  is  the  largest.  It  is 
in  the  grasshoppers  and  crickets  sometimes  modified  to  form  a 
musical  organ,  being 
drum-like,  as  in  the 
CEcantlius  (Fig.  30),  or 
rasp-like,  as  in  Archyp- 
tera  (Fig.  31  a).  The 
internal  area  (c)  is  the 
smallest,  and  less  dis- 
tinctly marked  than  the 
two  other  regions ;  the  musical  file-like  or- 
gan of  Phaneroptera  curvicauda,  a  grass- 
hopper (Fig.  32  d)  is  situated  on  this  area. 

The  limits  of  the  edges  of  the  wing  vary 
in  almost  every  genus,  and  their  comparative  length  affords 
excellent  generic  characters.  The  front  edge  (Fig.  29)  is  called 
the  costal,  its  termina- 
tion in  the  outer  angle 
of  the  wing  is  called 
the  apex;  the  outer  edge 
is  situated  between  the 
apex  and  the  inner  an- 
gle, between  which  and 
the  base  of  the  wing  is 
the  inner,  or  internal, 
edge.  These  distinc- 
tions are  of  most  use 
in  describing  the  butter- 
flies and  moths. 

The  Appendages  of 
Fig.  si  a.  the  Head.  These  organs 
are  divided  into  two  groups, 
the  first  of  which  comprise  the 
sensory  organs,  i.  e.  the  ocelli, 
eyes,  and  antennae,  which  are  attached  to  the  region  in  front 
of  the  mouth,  or  preoral  region  of  the  head.  The  second 
group  consists  of  the  sensorio-digestive  appendages,  combining 
the  power  of  finding  and  seizing  the  food  and  preparing  it  for 
digestion.  They  are  inserted  behind  the  mouth  and  belong 
to  the  jpostoral  region  of  the  head. 


THE    APPENDAGES    OF    THE    HEAD.  25 

We  will  first  describe  the  ocelli,  which  are  theoretically  the 
most  anterior  organs  of  the  head,  ending  with  the  basal  appen- 
dages, the  labium  (second  maxillae)  being  the  hindermost. 

The  simple  eye,  Ocellus,  or  JStemma,  is  the  simplest  form  of 
the  eye.  Its  most  elementary  form  (seen  in  the  larva  of  the 
^Bot-fly  and  the  Cecidomyian  larva  of  Miastor)  is  that  of  a  brown 
spot,  or  group  of  pigment-cells  lodged  under  the  skin  and 
against  which  a  nerve-filament  impinges.  Over  this  spot  New- 
port states  that  the  tegument  is  transparent  and  convex, 
resembling  a  true  cornea,  or  eye-lens.  A  well-developed 
ocellus  consists,  according  to  Newport,  of  a  "very  convex, 
smooth,  single  cornea,  beneath  which  is  a  spherical  crystalline 
lens,  resting  upon  the  plano-convex  surface  of  the  expanded 
vitreous  humor,  the  analogue  of  the  transparent  cones  of  the 
compound  eyes."  Muller  believes  that  the  function  of  the  ocelli 
is  the  perception  of  nearer  objects,  while  that  of  the  compound 
eyes  is  to  see  more  distant  objects.  The  ocelli  constitute  the 
only  visual  organs  in  the  Myriapods  (except  Cermatia),  the 
Arachnida,  and  the  larvae  of  many  Six-footed  Insects ;  they 
are  usually  from  one  to  six  on  a  side.  In  adult  insects 
they  are  generally  three  in  number,  and 
are  generally  present  except  in  the  large 
majority  of  Coleoptera.  Their  normal  site 
is  in  front  of  the  eyes,  but  they  are  usually  j^g.  33. 

thrown  back,  during  the  growth  of  the  insect,  behind  the  eyes, 
on  the  vertex,  or  topmost  part  of  the  head  (Fig.  33). 

The  Compound  Eyes  are  a  congeries  of  simple  eyes.     During 
the  growth  of  the  insect  the  simple  eyes  of  the  larva  increase 
in  number,  and  finally  coalesce  to  form  the  compound 
eye,   or   compound   cornea,  the   surface   of  which  is 
Fig.  34.  very  convex  and  protuberant  in  the  predaceous  insects, 
or  those  requiring  an  extended  field  of  vision. 

The  number  of  facets,  or  cornese,  vary  from  fifty  (in  the  Ant) 
to  3,650,  the  latter  number  being  counted  by  Geoffroy  in  the 
eye  of  a  Butterfly.  These  facets  are  usually  hexagonal,  as  in 
the  Dragon-fly  (Fig.  34),  or,  rarely,  quadrangular. 

FIG.  33.    Ocelli  of  three  species  of  Sand-wasps,  Pompilus.  —  From  Cresson. 
FIG.  34.    Three  hexagonal  facets  of  the  compound  eye  of  a  fossil  Dragon-fly, 
greatly  magnified.— From  Dawson. 


26  THE    CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 

The  Antennae  (Figs.  35,  36)  are  inserted  usually  in  the  adult 
insect  between,  or  in  front  of  the  eyes,  though  in  the  embryo 
they  are  inserted  below  and  in  front  of  the  eyes. 
It  is  normally  a  long,  filiform,  slender,  many- 
jointed  appendage,  undergoing  great  changes 
in  form.     When  it  is  highly  specialized,  as  in 
Coleoptera  and  Hymenoptera,  it  is   divided 
into  three  parts,  the  basal  or  scape,  the  middle 
or  pedicel,  and  the  terminal  part  or  flagellum,     Fis-  36- 
Fig.  35.  or  davola,  which  usually  comprises  the  greater  part  of 
the  antenna. 

It  is  believed  by  some  that  the  sense  of  hearing  is  lodged 
in  the  antennae,  though  Siebold  has  discovered  an  auditory 
apparatus  situated  at  the  base  of  the  abdomen  of^  some,  and 
in  the  fore-legs  of  other  species  of  Grasshoppers. 

Mr.  J.  B.  Hicks  has  made  the  latest  studies  on  the  auditory 
apparatus.  According  to  him  "it  consists  first  of  a  cell,  sac, 
or  cavity  filled  with  fluid,  closed  in  from  the  ah*  by  a  mem- 
brane analogous  to  that  which  closes  the  foramen  ovale  in  the 
higher  animals ;  second,  that  this  membrane  is,  for  the  most 
part,  thin  and  delicate,  but  often  projects  above  the  surface,  in 
either  a  hemispherical,  conical,  or  canoe-shaped,  or  even  hair- 
like  form,  or  variously  marked ;  thirdly,  that  the  antennal  nerve 
gives  off  branches  which  come  in  contact  with  the  inner  wall  of 
the  sacs  ;  but  whether  the  nerve  enters,  or,  as  is  most  probable, 
ends  in  the  small  internally  projecting  papilla  which  I  have 
shown  to  exist  in  many  of  these  sacs,  it  is  very  difficult  to  say. 
The  principal  part  of  the  nerve  proceeds  to  these  organs,  the 
remaining  portion  passing  to  the  muscles,  and  to  the  roots  of 
the  hairs,  at  least  to  those  of  the  larger  sort."  On  the  other 
hand,  Lefebvre,  Leydig,  and  Gerstaecker  regard  this  so-called 
"auditory  apparatus"  as  an  organ  of  smell. 

The  antennae  have  also  the  sense  of  touch,  as  may  readily  be 
observed  in  Ants,  Bees,  and  the  Grasshopper  and  Cockroach. 
"The  Honey-bee,  when  constructing  its  cells,  ascertains  their 
proper  direction  and  size  by  means  of  the  extremities  of  these 

FIG.  35.    Filiform  antenna  of  Amphizoa.— From  Horn. 

FIG.  36.  A,  lamellate  antenna  of  a  Lamellicorn  Beetle;  B,  antenna  of  a  Fly, 
with  the  bristle  thrown  off  from  the  terminal  joint;  C,  bristle-like  antenna  of  a 
Dragon-fly,  Libellula,  —  From  Sanborn. 


THE  APPENDAGES  OF  THE  HEAD. 


27 


organs ;  while  the  same  iirsect,  when  evidently  affected  by 
sounds,  keeps  them  motionless  in  one  direction,  as  if  in  the  act 
of  listening."  (Newport.) 

After  cutting  off  one  or  both  antennae  of  the  June  beetle, 
Lachnosterna,  the  insect  loses  its  power  of  directing  its  flight 
or  steps,  wheeling  about  in  a  senseless  manner.  Dr.  Clemens 
observed  that  the  Cecropia  moth  was  similarly  affected  after 
losing  its  antennae. 

The  Mandibles  (Fig.  37)  are  inserted  on  each  side  of  the 
mouth-opening.  They  usually  consist  of  but  a  single  joint, 


Fig.  37. 

representing  probably  the  basal  part  of  the  ideal  limb.  This 
part,  however,  is  often  subdivided  by  two  longitudinal  furrows 
into  three  parts,  each  ending  in  a  "tooth"  of  unequal  size  for 
tearing  and  cutting  the  food.  This  tripartite  form  of  the  man- 
dibles, to  which  attention  has  been  called  by  Mr.  Scudder,  is 
more  fully  carried  out  in  the  maxilla,  where  each  portion  is 
highly  specialized.  The  mandibles  vary  greatly  in  form  and 
size.  The  two  cutting  edges  are  usually  opposed  to  each  other, 
or  frequently  overlap  in  the  carnivorous  forms.  Their  base  is 
often  concealed  by  the  clypeus 
and  labrum.  Their  motion  is 
transverse,  being  the  reverse  of 
the  motion  of  the  jaws  of  Ver- 
tebrates. 

«  Fig.  38.  b  The  JfoazKce(Figs.38&,39)are     Fig.  39. 

much  more  complicated  organs  than  the  mandibles.     They  are 

FIG.  37.  Different  forms  of  mandibles.  A,  mandible  of  Cicindelapurpurea;  B, 
Phylloptera,  a  green  grasshopper;  C,  Libellula  trimaculata;  D,  Vespa  maculata,  or 
paper-making  Wasp ;  E,  "  rostrum"  or  jointed  sucker  of  the  Bed-bug,  Cimex  lectu- 
larius,  consisting  of  mandibles,  maxillae,  and  labium;  F,  proboscis,  or  sucker,  of  a 
Mosquito,  Culex,  in  which  the  mandibles  are  long  and  bristle-like.—  From  Sanborn. 
G,  mandible  of  Amphizoa ;  H,  mandible  of  Acratus,  a  genus  of  Cockchafers.  —  From 
Horn. 

FIG.  38.  a,  mentum  and  labial  palpi;  b,  one  maxilla,  with  its  palpus,  of  Acra- 
tus.  —  From  Horn. 

FIG.  39.  Maxilla  of  Amphizoa,  with  the  two  lobes  (stipes  and  lacinia),  and  the 
palpifer  bearing  the  four-jointed  palpus.— From  Horn. 


28  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

inserted  on  the  under  side  of  the  head  and  just  behind  the 
mouth.  The  maxilla  consists  of  a  basal  joint,  or  cardo, 
beyond  which  it  is  subdivided  into  three  lobes,  the  stipes,  or 
footstalk ;  the  pdlpifer,  or  palpus-bearer ;  and  the  lacinia,  or 
blade.  The  stipes  forms  the  outer  and  main  division  of  the 
organ.  The  lacinia  is  more  membranaceous  than  the  other 
parts,  and  its  upper  surface  is  covered  with  fine  hairs,  and 
forms  a  great  part  of  the  side  of  the  mouth.  It  is  divided 
into  two  lobes,  the  superior  of  which  is  called  the  galea,  or 
helmet,  which  is  often  a  thick  double-jointed  organ  edged  with 
stiff  hairs,  and  is  used  as  a  palpus  in  the  Orthoptera  and  many 
Coleoptera.  The  inferior  lobe  is  attached  to  the  internal  angle 
of  the  lacinia.  It  terminates  in  a  stiff  minute  claw,  and  is 
densely  covered  with  stout  hairs.  The  maxilla^  palpi  are 
long,  slender,  one  to  four-jointed  organs.  In  Perla  I  have  found 
that  both  pairs  of  palpi  bear  organs  probably  of  smell. 

The  maxillae  vary  greatly  in  the  different  groups.  Their  office 
is  to  seize  the  food  and  retain  it  within  the  mouth,  and  also  to 
aid  the  mandibles  in  comminuting  it  before  it  is  swallowed. 
This  function  reminds  us  of  that  of  the  tongue  of  vertebrate 
animals. 

The  labium,  or  second  maxillce  (Fig.  40),  is  placed  in  front  of 
the  gula,  which  forms  the  under  part  of  the  head,  and  is  bounded 
a  on  each  side  by  the  gence,  or  cheeks,  and 
f]T\  posteriorly  by  the  occiput.  The  genae  are 
\  J  bounded  laterally  by  the  eplcranium  and 
LJ  the  under  side  of  the  eyes.  In  front  are 
**&• 40-  situated  the  basal  parts  of  the  labium,  or 

second  maxillae,  which  embraces  the  submentum  and  mentum 
(or  labium  proper).  The  labial  palpi  are  inserted  into  the 
mentum,  but  often  the  latter  piece  is  differentiated  into  two, 
the  anterior  of  which  takes  the  name  of  palpiger,  called  by 
Dr.  Leconte  (Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections)  the  ligula, 
and  from  which  the  palpi  originate.  The  ligula  is  the  front 
edge  of  the  labium,  being  thfe  piece  forming  the  under  lip. 
It  is  often  a  fleshy  organ,  its  inner  surface  being  continuous 

FIG.  40.  Ligula  and  labial  palpi  of  AmpMzoa,  an  aquatic  beetle.  It  is  quadrate 
and  without  paraglossae;  a,  mentum  of  the  same,  being  deeply  incised,  and  with  a 
tooth  at  the  bottom  of  the  excavation.— From  Horn. 


THE  APPENDAGES  OF  THE  HEAD.  29 

with  the  soft  membrane  of  the  mouth.  In  the  Bees,  it  is  enor- 
mously developed  and  covered  with  soft  hairs.  It  is  often 
confounded  with  the  palpiger.  In  Hydrous  it  is  divided  into 
two  lobes.  In  most  of  the  Carabidce  and  Bees  it  is  divided 
into  three  lobes,  the  two  outer  ones  forming  the  paraglossce 
(Fig.  41  m),  and  acting  as  feelers,  while  the  middle,  usually 
much  longer,  forms  the  lingua,  or  tongue,  being  the  continuation 
of  the  ligula.  In  the  bees,  where 
the  ligula  is  greatly  developed, 
it  performs  the  part  of  the  tongue 
in  Vertebrates,  and  aids  the  max- 
illae in  collecting  nectar  and 
pollen. 

The  roof  of  the  mouth  is 
formed  by  the  labrum  and  the 
epipharynx  (Fig.  42  c),  a  small 
fleshy  tubercle  concealed  beneath 
the  labrum.  It  is  seen  in  the 
bees  on  turning  up  the  labrum. 
It  probably  corresponds  to  the 
"labellum"  of  Schiodte.  The 
labrum  (Fig.  41  e)  is  usually 
transverse  and  situated  in  front 
of  the  dypeus  (Fig.  416).  The 
shield-like  dypeus  is  the  broad,  Fig.  41. 

visor-like,  square  piece  forming  usually  the  front  of  the  head. 
Behind  it  is  the  dypeus  posterior,  or  supra-dypeus,  a  subdivision 
of  the  clypeus,  and  especially  observable  in  the  Hymenoptera. 
The  epicranium  forms  a  large  part  of  the  head ;  it  is  bounded 
posteriorly  by  the  occiput,  on  the  sides  by  the  eyes,  and  in 
front  by  the  clypeus,  and  though  usually  described  as  a 
single  piece,  is  really  composed  of  several.  The  ocelli  often 
appear  to  be  situated  upon  it,  though  in  reality  they  are  placed 
upon  a  distinct  piece  or  pieces.  The  "  epicranial  suture"  is  the 
line  of  junction  of  the  two  "procephalic  lobes"  (Huxley). 

FIG.  41.  Front  view  of  the  head  of  a  bee,  Anthopliora.  a,  compound  eyes;  c, 
three  simple  eyes,  situated  upon  the  epicranium;  6,  clypeus;  e,  labrum;  d,  an- 
tennae;/, mandibles;  i,  maxillae;  h,  maxillary  palpi;  I,  palpifer;  j,  labial  palpi;  m, 
paraglossae ;  k,  ligula.— From  Newport. 

3* 


30 


THE   CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 


(These  lobes  will  be  explained  farther  on  when  speaking 
of  their  development  in  the  embryo.)  Behind  the  epicra- 

nium  is  the  occiput, 
or  base  of  the  head. 
It  belongs  to  the  la- 
bial, or  second  max- 
illary segment,  and 
helps  to  form  a  com- 
plete ring,  articulat- 
ing with  the  thorax. 
It  is  perforated  by  a 
foramen  to  afford  a 
connection  between 
the  interior  of  the 
head  and  thorax.  It 
is  sometimes,  as  in 
many  Coleoptera,  Or- 
thoptera,  and  Hemip- 
tera,  elongated  be- 
Fis-  42-  hind  and  constricted, 

thus  forming  a  "neck."  It  will  be  seen  beyond,  that  the 
labrum  and  clypeus  are  in  the  embryo  developed  from  a 
4 'tongue-like  process  whose  inferior  part  eventually  becomes 
the  labrum,  while  superiorly  it  sends  a  triangular  process  (the 
rudiment  of  the  clypeus)  into  the  interval  between  the  proce- 
phalic  lobes."  *  This  part  (i.  e.  the  clypeus  and  labrum)  is  the 
most  anterior  part  of  the  head,  and  in  the  embryo,  as  in  the 
adult,  is  normally  situated  in  front  of  the  ocelli,  but  is  not  to 
be  compared  with  the  "  anal  plate,"  or  eleventh  tergite,  of  the 
larva,  or  with  the  telson  of  the  scorpion,  as  Huxley  f  supposes. 

FIG.  42.  Side  view  of  the  front  part  of  the  head,  together  with  the  mouth- 
parts  of  the  Humble-bee  (Bombus).  a,  clypeus  covered  with  hairs;  6,  labrum; 
c,  the  fleshy  epipharynx  partially  concealed  by  the  base  of  the  mandibles  (d); 
e,  lacinia,  or  blade  of  the  maxilla?,  with  their  two-jointed  palpi  (/)  at  the  base ;  j,  the 
labium  to  which  is  appended  the  ligula  (<?);  below  are  the  labial  palpi;  A,  the  two 
basal  joints,  being  greatly  enlarged;  b,  the  compound  eyes. —  Original. 

*  These  lobes  are  folded  back  upon  the  top  of  the  base  of  the  head,  and  they 
seem  to  form  the  tergal  portion  of  the  antennary  ring,  to  which  they  respectively 
belong,  and  do  not  seem  to  us  to  be  the  sternal  portion,  as  suggested  by  Huxley, 
for  they  are  apparently  developed  in  front  of  the  mouth-opening,  and  form  the  roof 
of  the  mouth. 

t "  Lastly,  there  are  certain  parts  developed  singly  in  the  median  line  in  the  Artic- 
vlata.  Of  this  nature  are  the  frontal  spines  of  Crustacea,  their  telson,  and  the  sting 


THE   MUSCULAR   SYSTEM.  31 

In  describing  Insects  the  vertex,  or  crown,  of  the  head  is  the 
highest  part ;  and  the  front  is  the  part  usually  in  front  of  the 
insertion  of  the  antennae. 

THE  MUSCULAR  SYSTEM  lies  just  beneath,  and  is  continuous 
with  the  integument.  It  consists  of  numerous  "distinct  isola- 
ted straight  fibres,  which  are  not  gathered  into  bundles  united 
by  common  tendons,  or  covered  by  aponeuroses  [or  tendinous 
sheaths]  to  form  distinct  muscles,  as  in  the  Vertebrata,  but 
remain  separate  from  each  other,  and  only  in  some  instances 
are  united  at  one  extremity  by  tendons."  (Newport.)  These 
minute  fibres  form  layers,  which  Newport  regards  as  separate 
muscles.  "Each  fibre  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of  very 
minute  fibrillae,  or  fasciculi  of  fibrillae,"  and  has  been  observed 
by  Wagner  and  Newport  to  be  often  striated  as  in  Vertebrates. 
The  muscular  system  is  simplest  in  the  lower  insects  and  the 
larvae  of  the  higher  forms,  and  is  more  complex  in  the  head 
than  elsewhere,  and  more  complex  in  the  thorax  than  in  the 
abdomen.  These  minute  muscles  are  exceedingly  numerous. 
"  Lyonnet,  in  his  immortal  work  on  the  anatomy  of  the  larva 
of  Cossus  ligniperda,  found  two  hundred  and  twenty-eight  dis- 
tinct muscles  in  the  head  alone,  and,  by  enumerating  the  fibres 
in  the  layers  of  the  different  segments,  reckoned  1,647  for  the 
body,  and  2,118  for  the  internal  organs,  thus  making  together 
3,993  muscles  in  a  single  larva.  In  the  larva  of  Sphinx  ligus- 
tri  we  have  found  the  muscles  equally  numerous  with  those 
discovered  by  Lyonnet  in  the  Cossus."  (Newport.) 

The  muscular  system  corresponds  to  the  jointed  structure  of 
insects,  as  do  the  other  internal  systems  of  organs.  Of  the 
muscles  belonging  to  a  single  ring,  some  stretch  from  the  front 
edge  of  one  segment  to  the  front  edge  of  the  next,  and  others 

of  the  Scorpion,  whose  mode  of  development  appears  to  be  precisely  similar  to 
that  of  a  telson.  In  the  same  category  we  must  rank  the  labrum  in  front  of  the 
mouth,  which  in  the  Crustacea  (at  least)  appears  to  be  developed  from  the  sternum 
of  the  antennary,  or  third  somite,  the  metastoma  (or  so  called  labium,  or  lingua) 
of  Crustacea,  and  the  lingua  of  Insecta,  behind  the  oral  aperture. 

"  However  much  these  appendages  may  occasionally  simulate,  or  play  the  part 
of  appendages,  it  is  important  to  remember,  that,  morphologically,  they  are  of  a 
very  different  nature,  and  that  the  confusing  them  with  true  appendages  must 
tend  completely  to  obscure  the  beautiful  relations  which  obtain  among  the  dif- 
ferent classes  of  the  Articulata." — Huxley,  Linnaean  Transactions,  vol.  xxii. 
London. 


32  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

• 

to  the  hinder  edge ;  there  are  also  sets  of  dorsal  and  ventral 
muscles  going  in  an  oblique  or  vertical  course.  The  muscles 
are  either  colorless  and  transparent,  or  yellowish  white  ;  and 
of  a  soft,  almost  gelatinous  consistence.  In  form  they  are 
simply  flat  and  thin,  straight,  band-like,  or  pyramidal,  barrel 
or  feather-shaped.  They  act  variously  as  rotators,  elevators, 
depressors,  retractors,  protrusors,  flexors,  and  extensors. 

The  muscular  power  of  insects  is  enormous.  The  Flea  will 
leap  two  hundred  times  its  own  height.  Certain  beetles  can 
support  enormous  weights.  Newport  cites  the  case  of  Geo- 
trupes  stercorarius  which  is  "able  to  sustain  and  escape  from 
beneath  a  pressure  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  ounces,  a  prodi- 
gious weight  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  insect  itself  does 
not  weigh  even  so  many  grains."  Some  beetles  have  been 
known  to  gnaw  through  lead-pipes,  and  the  Stag-beetle  of 
Europe,  Lucanus  cervus,  has,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Stephens, 
gnawed  "a  hole  an  inch  in  diameter  through  the  side  of  an 
iron  canister  in  which  it  was  confined." 

"The  motions  of  the  insect  in  walking  as  in  flying  are 
dependent,  in  the  perfect  individual,  entirely  upon  the  thoracic 
segments,  but  in  the  larva  chiefly  upon  the  abdominal.  Al- 
though the  number  of  legs  in  the  former  is  always  six,  and  in 
the  latter  sometimes  so  many  as  twenty-two,  progression  is 
simple  and  easy.  Miiller  states  (Elements  of  Physiology,  p. 
970,  Translation)  that  on  watching  insects  that  move  slowly 
he  has  distinctly  perceived  that  three  legs  are  always  moved  at 
one  time,  being  advanced  and  put  to  the  ground  while  the 
other  three  propel  the  body  forwards.  In  perfect  insects,  those 
moved  simultaneously  are  the  fore  and  hind  feet  on  one  side, 
and  the  intermediate  foot  on  the  opposite  ;  and  afterwards  the 
fore  and  hind  feet  on  that  side,  and  the  middle  one  on  the 
other,  so  that,  he  remarks,  in  two  steps  the  whole  of  the  legs 
are  in  motion.  A  similar  uniformity  of  motion  takes  place 
in  the  larva,  although  the  whole  anterior  part  of  the  body  is 
elevated  and  carried  forwards  at  regular  distances,  the  steps  of 
the  insect  being  almost  entirely  performed  by  the  'false/  or 
abdominal  legs." 

"  In  flight  the  motions  depend  upon  the  meso-  and  meta- 
thoracic  segments  conjointly,  or  entirely  upon  the  former.  The 


</^? 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  S3 

sternal,  episternal,  and  epimeral  pieces,  freely  articulated 
together,  correspond  in  function  with  the  sternum,  the  ribs, 
and  the  clavicles  of  birds.*  The  thorax  is  expanded  and  con- 
tracted at  each  motion  of  the 
wings,  as  in  birds  and  other  ani- 
mals, and  becomes  fixed  at  each 
increased  effort  as  a  fulcrum  or 
point  of  resistance  upon  which 
the  great  muscles  of  the  wings 
are  to  act,  thus  identifying  this 
part  of  the  body  in  function  as 
in  structure  with  that  of  other  ani- 
mals." (Newport.) 

THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  In  its 
simplest  form  the  nervous  system 
consists  of  two  longitudinal  cord&f 
each  with  a  swelling  (nerve-knot, 
or  ganglion,)  corresponding  to 
each  segment  (Fig.  43).  This 
cord  lies  on  the  ventraljdde  of  the 
body,  but  in  the  head  it  passes 
upwards,  sending  a  filament  from 
each  side  to  surround  the  cesoph- 
agus.t  As  in  the  Vertebrates, 
the  nervous  cord  of  insects  is 
composed  of  two  distinct  columns  Fis- 43- 

of  fibres  placed  one  upon  the  other.  "The  under  or  external 
column,  which  is  nearest  to  the  exterior  of  the  body,  is  that  in 
which  the  ganglia,  or  enlargements,  are  situated.  The  upper 
one,  or  that  which  is  internal  and  nearest  to  the  viscera,  is 
entirely  without  ganglia,  and  passes  directly  over  the  ganglia 
of  the  under  column  without  forming  part  of  them,  but  in  very 

*Bennetonthe  Anatomy  of  the  Thorax  in  Insects,  and  its  Function  during 
Flight.  Zoological  Journal,  vol.  i,  p.  394. 

fThe  brain  of  insects  is  formed  of  several  pairs  of  ganglia,  corresponding^ 
probably,  to  the  number  of  primitive  segments  composing  the  head.  The  nervous 
cord  is  thus,  in  the  head,  massed  together  and  compacted  to  form  a  brain. 

FIG.  43.    Nervous  System   of  Corydalus  cornutus.    «,  "cerebrum;"    6,  "cere- 
brellum;"  c,  thoracic  ganglia,  which  distribute  a  nerve  to  each  leg;  d,  eight  pairs 
of  abdominal  ganglia.    The  dotted  lines  represent  the  wings.  —  From  Leidy. 
3 


34  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

close  approximation  to  them."  Newport  also  believes  that  the 
ganglionless  upper,  or  internal,  column  of  fibres  is  analogous 
to  the  motor  column  of  Vertebrata,  while  the  external,  or  under 
one,  corresponds  to  the  sensitive  column,  thus  representing  the 
cerebro-spinal  system  of  the  Vertebrata. 

From  each  pair  of  ganglia  are  distributed  special  nerves  to 
the  various  organs.  In  the  larva  of  Sphinx  the  normal  num- 
ber of  double  ganglia  is  thirteen,  and  the  nervous  cord  of  the 
Neuroptera  and  other  lowly  organized  and  attenuated  forms  of 
insects  corresponds  in  the  main  to  this  number.  In  the  adult 
insect,  especially  in  the  Coleoptera,  Diptera,  Lepidoptera,  and 
Hymenoptera,  the  three  thoracic  ganglia  are  fused  together, 
following  the  fusion  and  general  headwise  development  of  the 
segments  of  the  tegument.  Besides  the  central  nervous  cord, 
corresponding  to  the  spinal  cord  of  the  Vertebrates,  there  is  a 
vagus,  or  visceral  nerve,  representing  the  S3'mpathetic  nerve  of 
higher  animals.  This  nerve  "arises,  in  the  larva,  from  the 
anterior  part  of  the  cerebrum,  and,  forming  a  ganglion  on  the 
upper  surface  of  the  pharynx,  always  passes  backward  beneath 
the  brain,  along  the  middle  line  of  the  oesophagus."  In  its 
microscopic  structure  the  nervous  cord,  like  that  of  Vertebrata, 
consists  of  a  central  ugray"  substance,  and  an  outer  or  periph- 
eral part,  the  u white"  substance. 

In  the  embryo  the  ganglia  are  very  large  and  close  together, 
the  commissures,  or  connecting  filaments  being  very  short,  and 
small  in  proportion. 

ORGANS  OF  NUTRITION.  These  consist  of  the  alimentary  canal 
and  its  appendages,  or  accessory  glands  (Fig.  44).  We  have 
already  treated  of  the  external  appendages  (mouth-parts) 
which  prepare  the  food  for  digestion.  The  simplest  form  of 
the  alimentary  canal  is  that  of  a  straight  tube.  In  the  larva 
of  Stylops  and  the  sedentary  young  of  Bees,  it  ends  in  a  blind 
sac,  as  they  live  on  liquid  food  and  expel  no  solid  excretions. 
When  well  developed,  as  in  the  adult  insect,  it  becomes  a  long 
convoluted  thick  muscular  tube,  subdivided  into  different  parts 
which  perform  different  functions  and  have  distinct  names, 
taken  from  analogous  organs  in  the  vertebrate  animals.  This 
digestive  tube  is  composed  of  three  coats,  the  outer,  or  peri- 


ORGANS    OF    NUTRITION. 


85 


toneal;  the  middle,  or  muscular;  and  the  inner,  or  mucous.   The 
mucous  coat  is  variously  modified,  being  plaited  or  folded  ;  or, 


c  d 


as  in  the  Orthoptera  and  carnivorous  Coleoptera,  it  is  solidified 
and  covered  with  rows  of  strong  horny  teeth,  forming  a  sort  of 
gizzard.  The  alimentary  canal  is  held  in  place  by  retractor 
muscles,  but  principally  by  exceedingly  numerous  branches  of 
the  main  tracheae. 

This  canal  (Fig.  45)  is  subdivided  into  the  mouth  and  pha- 
rynx, the  oesophagus,  supplementary  to  which  is  the  crop,  or 
"  sucking  stomach"  of  Diptera,  Lepidoptera,  arid  Hymenoptera ; 
iheproventricufus,  or  gizzard  ;  theventriculus,  or  true  stomach, 
and  the  intestine,  which  consists  of  the  ileum,  or  short  intes- 

FIG.  44.  Anatomy  of  Sphinx  ligustri.  m,  t,  g,  the  nervous  cord  resting  on 
the  floor  of  the  body ;  at  c,  the  ganglia  form  a  brain-like  organ,  much  larger  than 
the  ganglia  of  the  thorax  (m)  and  abdomen  (g).  From  the  brain  Is  sent  off  the 
suboesophageal  nerve  which  surrounds  the  gullet  into  Avhieh  the  food  is  conveyed 
by  the  maxillae,  or  spiral  tongue  (a),  which,  when  at  rest,  is  rolled  up  between  the 
labial  palpi  (6). 

From  the  nervous  cord  is  also  thrown  off  a  pair  of  nerves  to  each  pair  of  legs 
(as  at  n,  o,p)  and  a  branch,  d,  is  sent  off  from  above,  distributing  nerves  to  the 
muscles  of  flight. 

The  heart,  or  dorsal  vessel  (e,/),  lies  just  beneath  the  median  line  of  the  body, 
and  is  retained  in  place  by  muscular  bands  (as  at  /)  as  well  as  by  small  tracheal 
branches. 

The  alimentary  canal  (h,j,  g),  forms  a  straight  tube  in  the  head  and  thorax;  h, 
the  crop,  or  sucking  stomach,  which  opens  into  the  resophagus;  j,  the  true,  chyle- 
forming  stomach,  which  contracts  posteriorly,  and  then  dilates  near  its  anal  outlet 
into  a  cloaca  (indicated  at  $r,  but  not  distinctly,  as  it  is  concealed  by  the  numerous 
urinary  vessels).  The  urinary  vessels  also  indicated  at  g,  form  long  tubes  (which 
correspond  to  the  kidneys  of  Vertebrates),  opening  into  the  pyloric  end  of  the 
stomach.  The  position  of  the  testes  (fc)  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  ovary,  and  the 
dotted  line  I  shows  the  course  of  the  efferent  duct  (vas  deferens)  and  also  of  the 
oviduct  of  the  female. 

The  figure  represents  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  insect,  the  legs  and  ends  of 
the  antennae  having  been  removed.— From  Newport. 


3C  THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 

tine,  and  the  colon  and  rectum.  The  latter  part,  as  well  as  the 
crop  and  proventriculus,  are  sometimes  absent. 

Of  the  appendages  of  the  canal,  the  first 
are  the  salivary  glands,  which  are  usually 
long  simple  tubes,  which  in  the  larva,  ac- 
cording to  Newport,  form  the  silk  vessels. 
They  "empty  themselves  by  a  single  duct 
through  the  spinneret  on  the  floor  (labium) 
of  the  mouth."  In  the  Ant-lion  (Myrtneleon) 
the  silk  is  spun  from  "a  slender  telescopic- 
like  spinneret,  placed  at  the  extremity  o/ 
its  body,"  and  Westwood  also  states  that  the 
larva  of  Chrysopa  spins  a  cocoon  "from  the 
spinneret,  at  the  extremity  of  the  body." 

These  silk  glands  when  taken  out  of  the 
larva,  just  as  it  is  about  ready  to  transform, 
are  readily  prepared  as  "gut"  for  fish-lines, 
etc.,  by  drying  on  a  board. 

In  the  Bees  these  glands  are  largely  de- 
veloped to  produce  a  sufficient  amount  of 
salivary  fluid  to  moisten  the  dry  pollen  of 
rig.  45.  flowers,   before   it   enters    the   oesophagus. 

"Bee-bread"  consists  of  pollen  thus  moistened  and  kneaded 
by  the  insect.  The  Honey-bee  also  dissolves,  by  the  aid  of  the 
salivary  fluid,  the  wax  used  in  making  its  cells.  Newport 
believes  this  fluid  is  alkaline,  and  forms  a  solvent  for  the  other- 
wise brittle  wax,  as  he  has  seen  this  insect  "reduce  the  per- 
fectly transparent  thin  white  scales  of  newly  secreted  wax  to 
a  pasty  or  soapy  consistence,  by  kneading  it  between  its  man- 
dibles, and  mixing  it  with  a  fluid  from  its  mouth,  before  apply- 
ing it  to  assist  in  the  formation  of  part  of  a  new  cell." 

Insects  have  no  true  liver;  its  functions  being  performed 
"by  the  walls  of  the  stomach,  the  internal  tunic  of  which  is 
composed  of  closely-aggregated  hepatic  cells."  (Siebold.)  In 
the  Spiders  and  Scorpions,  however,  there  is  a  liver  distinct 
from  the  digestive  canal.  In  the  Spiders  it  is  very  large, 
enveloping  most  of  the  other  viscera. 

FIG.  45.  Alimentary  tube  of  Corydalus  cornutus.  a,  oesophagus;  6,  proven- 
triculus; c,  ventriculus;  d,  large  intestine;  e,  urinary  tubes;  /,  coecum ;  gr,  testis  or 
ovary.—  From  Leidy. 


THE    CIRCULATORY    SYSTEM.  37 

Siebold  states  that  in  some  insects  the  ileum  has  glandular 
appendages  whose  product  is  perhaps  analogous  to  the  pancre- 
atic fluid.  In  the  larva  of  insects  is  found  the  corpus  adiposum, 
or  fat-body,  in  the  form  of  large  lobes  of  fat-cells  which  spread 
through  the  intervals  of  the  viscera  in  the  general  cavity  of 
the  body.  It  is  interpenetrated  and  retained  in  place  by 
numerous  tracheae. 

THE  CIRCULATORY  SYSTEM.  The  vascular,  or  circulatory, 
system  is  not  a  closed  sac  as  in  the  Worms  and  Vertebrates. 
The  organs  of  circulation  consist  of  a  contractile,  articulated 
dorsal  vessel,  or  so-called  "heart,"  which  terminates  in  a 
cephalic  aorta.  The  dorsal  vessel  receives  the  venous  current 
through  the  lateral  valvular  openings  and  pumps  the  blood  into 
its  prolongation  or  cephalic  aorta,  whence  it  escapes,  traversing 
the  body  in  all  directions,  in  regular  currents,  which  do  not 
have,  however,  vascular  walls.  "In  this  way,  it  penetrates  the 
antennae,  the  extremities,  the  wings,  and  the  other  appendages 
of  the  body,  by  arterial  currents,  and  is  returned  by  those  of  a 
venous  nature.  All  the  venous  currents  empty  into  two 
lateral  ones,  running  towards  the  posterior  extremity  of  the 
body,  and  which  enter,  through  lateral  orifices,  the  dorsal 
vessel."  (Siebold.) 

"The  blood  of  the  Insecta  is  usually  a  colorless  liquid, 
though  sometimes  yellowish,  but  rarely  red.  In  this  liquid  are 
suspended  a  few  very  small,  oval,  or  spheroidal  corpuscles, 
which  are  always  colorless,-  have  a  granular  aspect,  and  are 
sometimes  nucleated. 

"The  dorsal  vessel,  which  is  constricted  at  regular  intervals, 
is  always  situated  on  the  median  line  of  the  abdomen,  being 
attached  to  the  dorsal  wall  of  its  s'egments  by  several  trian- 
gular muscles  whose  apices  point  outwards.  Its  walls  contain 
both  longitudinal  and  transverse  fibres,  and,  externally,  are 
covered  by  a  thin  peritoneal  tunic.  Internally,  it  is  lined  by 
another  very  fine  membrane,  which,  at  the  points  of  these  con- 
strictions, forms  valvular  folds,  so  that  the  organ  is  divided 
into  as  many  chambers  as  there  are  constrictions.  Each  of 
these  chambers  has,  at  the  anterior  extremity  on  each  side,  a 
valvular  orifice  which  can  be  inwardly  closed.  The  returning 


38 


THE    CLASS   OF   INSECTS, 


blood  is  accumulated  about  the  heart  and  enters  into  it  during 
the  diastole  of  each  of  its  chambers,  through  the  lateral 
orifices  (Fig.  46  i).  It  then  passes,  by  the  regularly  successive 


Fig.  47. 


Fig.  46. 


contractions  of  the  heart,  from  behind  forwards  into  the  aorta, 
which  is  only  a  prolongation  of  the  anterior  chamber.  This 
aorta  consists  of  a  simple,  small  vessel,  situated  on  the  dorsal 
surface  of  the  thorax  (Fig.  44  e) ,  and  extending  even  to  the 
cephalic  ganglion,  where  it  either  ends  in  an  open  extremity,  or 
divides  into  several  short  branches  which  terminate  in  a  like 
manner.  The  length  of  the  dorsal  vessel  depends,  in  all  the 
three  states  of  insects,  upon  that  of  the  abdomen.  The  number 
of  its  chambers  is  very  variable,  but  is,  most  usually,  eight. 

"The  blood,  after  leaving  the  aorta,  traverses  the  body  in 
currents  which  are  also  extravascular,  and  in  this  way  bathes 
all  the  organs.  The  newly-prepared  nutritive  fluid  passes 
through  the  walls  of  the  digestive  canal  in  which  it  is  found, 
into  the  visceral  cavity,  and  thence  directly  into  the  blood. 
Latterly,  this  extravascular  circulation  has  been  called  in 
question,  but  its  presence  may  be  easily  and  directly  observed 

FIG.  46.  Part  of  the  dorsal  vessel  or  heart  of  Lucanns  cervus  ;  a,  the  posterior 
chambers  (the  anterior  chambers  are  covered  by  a  part  of  the  ligaments  which  hold 
the  heart  in  place),  i,  the  auriculo- ventricular  openings ;  #,  g,  the  lateral  mus- 
cles fixed  by  the  prolongations  h,  h,  to  the  upper  side  of  the  abdomen.  —  From 
Straus  Dnrclcheim. 

FIG.  47.  Interior  of  the  dorsal  vessel;  a,  the  inner  walls  with  their  circular 
fleshy  fibres;  c,  the  auriculo-ventricular  opening;  with  its  semilunar  valve  (c),  in 
front  of  which  is  d,  the  interventricular  valvule.  —  From  Straus  Durckheim. 


THE    CIRCULATORY    SYSTEM.  39 

with  very  many  perfect  Insecta  and  their  larvae.  The  vascular 
walls,  supposed  to  have  been  seen  at  certain  points,  are,  un- 
doubtedly, the  result  of  some  error  of  observation  or  interpre- 
tation. This  is  also  true  of  the  pulsatile  organs  supposed  to 
have  been  observed  in  the  legs  of  many  water-bugs,  and  which 
were  thought  to  affect  the  circulation." 

Blanchard  and  Agassiz  believe  in  a  "peritracheal  circula- 
tion," and  other  observers  agree  that  the  course  of  the  circula- 
tion is  along  the  tracheae,  i.  e.  that  the  blood  circulates  in  the 
space  between  the  loose  peritoneal  envelope  and  the  trachea 
itself.  Professor  H.  J.  Clark  objects  to  this  view  that  the  blood 
disks  are  too  large  to  pass  through  such  an  exceedingly  minute 
space  as  the  distance  between  the  trachea  and  its  enveloping, 
or  peritoneal,  wall. 

Newport  thinks  that  there  are  actual  blood  vessels  distrib- 
uted from  the  heart  and  ''passing  transversely  across  the 
dorsal  surface  of  each  segment  in  the  pupa  of  Sphinx.  If 
they  be  not  vessels  distributed  from  the  heart,  it  is  a  some- 
what curious  circumstance  that  the  whole  of  the  blood  should 
be  first  sent  to  the  head  of  the  insect,  and  the  viscera  of  the 
abdominal  region  be  nourished  only  by  the  returning  blood, 
which  has  in  part  passed  the  round  of  the  circulation." 

Newport  also  describes  in  Sphinx  the  supra~&pinal,  or  great 
ventral  vessel  which  lies  in  the  abdomen  just  over  the  nervous 
cord,  and  which  is  also  found  in  the  Scorpion  and  Centipede. 
He  believes  "this  vessel  to  be  the  chief  means  of  returning 
the  blood  from  the  middle  and  inferior  portion  of  the  body  to 
the  posterior  extremity  of  the  dorsal  vessel  or  heart."  He 
strongly  suspects  that  anteriorly  this  great  ventral  vessel  is 
connected  with  the  aorta.  The  circulation  of  Insects,  there- 
fore, is  probably  as  much  a  closed  one  as  in  the  Myriapods,  for 
he  states  that  the  "blood  certainly  flows  in  distinct  vessels,  at 
least  in  some  parts  of  the  body  in  perfect  insects,  and  that 
vessels  exist  even  in  the  larva."  Observations  on  the  vascular 
system  are  exceedingly  difficult  from  the  delicate  structure  of 
the  vessels,  and  the  subject  needs  renewed  observations  to 
settle  these  disputed  points. 

The  blood  is  forced  through  the  vessel  into  the  body  by  regu- 
lar pulsations.  Herold  counted  thirty  to  forty  in  a  minute  in  a 


40  THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 

full-grown  caterpillar ;  we  have  counted  about  sixty  a  minute 
in  the  recently  hatched  larva  of  Dif)lax.  During  excitement, 
the  number  of  pulsations  increases  in  rapidity.  Newport  found 
the  pulsations  in  a  bee,  Antliophora,  when  quiet,  to  be  eighty  a 
minute  ;  but  when  "the  insects  were  quite  lively,  and  had  been 
exposed  to  the  sun  for  an  hour  or  two,  the  number  of  pulsa- 
tions amounted  to  one  hundred  and  forty." 

He  found  that  the  number  of  pulsations  decreased  after  each 
moult  of  the  larva  of  Sphinx  ligustri,  but  increased  in  force; 
when  it  was  full  grown  and  had  ceased  feeding  it  was  thirty. 
"After  it  had  passed  into  the  pupa  state  the  number  fell  to 
twent3'-two,  and  afterwards  to  ten  or  twelve,  and,  during  the 
period  of  hibernation,  it  almost  entirely  ceases  ;  but  in  the  per- 
fect insect  it  rose  from  forty-one  to  fift3T,  and  when  excited  by 
flight  around  the  room  it  was  from  one  hundred  and  ten  to  one 
hundred  and  thirty-nine." 

ORGANS  OF  RESPIRATION.  All  insects  breathe  air,  or,  when 
they  live  in  the  water,  respire,  by  means  of  branchiae,  the 
air  mixed  mechanically  with  water.  Respiration  is  carried  on 
by  an  intricate  system  of  tubes  (pul- 
monary tracheae)  which  open  by  pores 
(spiracles  or  stigmata)  in  the  sides  of 
the  body ;  or,  as  in  aquatic  insects,  by 
branchiae,  or  gill-like  flattened  expan- 
sions of  the  body-wall  penetrated  by 
tracheae  (branchial  tracheae). 

There  are   normally  eleven  spiracles, 
or  breathing-holes  (Fig.  48),  on  each  side 
of  the  body ;  each  consisting  of  an  oval 
horny   ring    situated    in    the   peritreme 
Fls-48-  and  closed   by   a  valve,   which  guards 

the  orifice  (Fig.  49).  Within  this  valve  is  a  chamber  closed 
within  by  another  valve  which  covers  the  entrance  into  the 
tracheae.  The  air-tube  itself  (Fig.  50)  consists  of  "an  external 

FIG.  48.  Larva  of  the  Humble-bee  just  beginning  to  change  to  a  pupa,  showing 
eleven  pairs  of  stigmata.  In  the  adult  bee,  only  the  third  pair  is  apparent,  the 
remaining  pairs  being  concealed  from  view,  or  in  part  aborted.  In  most  insects 
there  are  usually  only  nine  pairs  of  stigmata.  —  Original. 


ORGANS    OF    RESPIRATION.  41 

serous,  and  an  internal  mucous  membrane,  inclosing  between 
them  a  spirally  convoluted  fibre,  thus  giving  great  strength 
and  flexibility  to  the  tube." 

Nearly   all    the  air  enters    through   the   thoracic   and   first 
abdominal   spiracles,   so   that   on   pinching   most    insects   on 
the  thorax  they  can  be 

-  '  irfL   ^k^fl^*  easilj    deprived   of 
breath  and  killed. 

"In    some    aquatic 
larvae    such    as   those 
of  Dyticidce,   Eristalis 
Fig. 49.  (Fig>    51  ?  pupa),   and 

Epliydra,  and  also  in  some  perfect   insects, 
as    in    Nepa    and   Ranatra,  the   parts   sup- 
porting the  stigmata  are  prolonged  into  slen-          Fig.  50. 
der  tubes,  through  which  the  insect,  on  rising  to  the  surface, 
breathes  the  atmospheric  air. 

Agrion  (Fig.  52)  affords  a  good  instance  of  branchiae 
or  gill-like  expansions  of  the  crust,  or  skin.  It .  is 
supposed  that  these  false  gills,  or  branchiae,  "absorb 
the  air  from  the  water,  and  convey  it  by  the  minute 
ramifications  of  the  tracheal  ves- 
sels, with  which  they  are  abun- 
dantly supplied,  and  which  ter- 
Fig.51.  minate  in  single  trunks,  into  the 

main  tracheae,  to  be  distributed  over  the  whole  body, 
as  in  insects  which  live  in  the  open  atmosphere." 
(Newport.) 

Of  branchiae  there  are  three  kinds.     The  first,  as  in 
the  larvae  and  pupae  of  Gnats,  consist  of  slender  fila- 
ments arranged  in  tufts  arising  from  a   single   stem.   Fig.ra. 
In  the  larva  of  Gyrinus  and  the  aquatic  caterpillar  of  a  moth, 

FIG.  49.  Chamber  leading  into  the  trachea;  a,  a,  external  valve  protecting  the 
outer  opening  of  the  stigma,  or  breathing  hole;  6,  c,  c,  inner  and  more  complicated 
valve  closing  the  entrance  into  the  trachea  (Z,  &);  m,  conical  occlusor  muscle 
closing  the  inner  orifice.—  From  Straus  DurcJcheim. 

FIG.  50.  Portion  of  a  trachea  divested  of  its  peritoneal  envelope,  a,  spirally 
convoluted  fibre,  closely  wound  around  the  trachea,  as  ate;  c,  origin  of  a  secondary 
tracheal  branch. —  From  Straus  DurcJcheim. 

FIG.  52.    One  of  the  three  gill-like  appendages  to  the  abdomen  of  the  larva  and 
pupa  of  Agrion  enlarged,  consisting  of  a  broad  leaf-like  expansion,  permeated  by 
tracheae  which  take  up  by  endosmosis  the  air  contained  in  water.—  Original. 
4* 


42  THE   CLASS   OF  INSECTS. 

Hydrocampa  stratiolata,  they  form  short  stiff  bristles  placed 
along  the  side  of  the  body.  Ayr  ion  and  Ephemera,  in  their 
larval  stages,  afford  the  second  kind  of  branchiae,  and  Libellula 
the  third  kind,  or  internal  gill,  situated  in  the  colon.  The 
Mosquito  breathes  both  by  branchiae  which  form  large  club- 
shaped  organs,  and  by  lateral  filaments. 

In  those  insects  that  fly,  most  of  the  tracheoa  are  often  dilated 
into  air-vesicles,  so  that  by  filling  and  emptying  them  of  air  the 
insect  can  change  its  specific  gravity.  That  their  use  is  also 
to  lighten  the  body  is  shown  by  their  presence  in  the  heavy 
mandibles  and  head  of  the  male  of  Lucanus  cervus.  In  the 
adult  Humble-bee  there  are  two  very  large  vesicles  at  the  base 
of  the  abdomen.  These  vesicles  are  not  found  in  the  larvae, 
or  in  the  adult  forms  of  creeping  insects. 

The  act  of  respiration  consists  in  the  alternate  dilation  and 
contraction  of  the  abdominal  segments,  the  air  entering  the 
body  chiefly  at  the  thoracic  spiracles.  As  in  the  Vertebrates  the 
frequency  of  the  acts  of  breathing  increases  after  exertion. 
"  When  an  insect  is  preparing  itself  for  flight,  the  act  of  res- 
piration resembles  that  of  birds  under  similar  circumstances. 
At  the  moment  of  elevating  its  elytra  and  expanding  its  wings, 
which  are,  indeed,  acts  of  respiration,  the  anterior  pairs  of 
spiracles  are  opened,  and  the  air  rushing  into  them  is  extended 
over  the  whole  body,  which,  by  the  expansion  of  the  air-bags,  is 
enlarged  in  bulk,  and  rendered  of  less  specific  gravity  ;  so  that 
when  the  spiracles  are  closed  at  the  instant  the  insect  endeavors 
to  make  the  first  stroke  with  and  raise  itself  upon  its  wings,  it 
is  enabled  to  rise  in  the  air,  and  sustain  a  long  and  powerful 
flight  with  but  little  muscular  exertida.  In  the  pupa  and  larva 
state  respiration  is  performed  more  equally  by  all  the  spiracles, 
and  less  especially  by  the  thoracic  ones." 

During  hibernation  the  act  of  breathing,  like  the  circulation 
of  the  blood,  almost  entirely  ceases,  and  the  heat  of  the  body 
is  greatly  lowered.  Indeed  Newport  has  shown  that  the  devel- 
opment of  heat  in  Insects,  just  as  in  Vertebrates,  depends  on  the 
"quantity  and  activity  of  respiration,  and  the  volume  and 
velocity  of  the  circulation."  The  Humble-bee,  according  to 
Newport,  possesses  the  voluntary  power  of  generating  heat  by 
breathing  faster.  He  says,  confirming  Huber's  observations, 


ORGANS    OF    SECRETION.  43 

"the  manner  in  which  the  bee  performs  her  incubatory  office  is 
by  placing  herself  upon  the  cell  of  a  nymph  (pupa)  that  is 
soon  to  be  developed,  and  then  beginning  to  respire  at  first 
very  gradually.  In  a  short  time  the  respirations  become  more 
and  more  frequent,  until  at  length  they  are  increased  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty,  or  one  hundred  and  thirty  per  minute. 
The  body  of  the  insect  soon  becomes  of  a  high  temperature, 
and,  on  close  inspection,  is  often  found  to  be  bathed  with  per- 
spiration. When  this  is  the  case  the  temperature  of  the  insect 
soon  becomes  reduced,  and  the  insect  leaves  the  cell,  and  an- 
other bee  almost  immediately  takes  her  place.  When  respira- 
tion is  performed  less  violently,  and  consequently  less  heat  is 
evolved,  the  same  bee  will  often  continue  on  a  cell  for  many 
hours  in  succession.  This  extreme  amount  of  heat  was  evolved 
entirely  by  an  act  of  the  will  in  accelerating  the  respiratory  ef- 
forts, a  strong  indication  of  the  relation  which  subsists  between 
the  function  of  respiration  and  the  development  of  animal  heat." 

ORGANS  OF  SECRETION.  The  urinary  vessels,  or  what  is 
equivalent  to  the  kidneys  of  the  higher  animals,  consist  in  In- 
sects of  several  long  tubes  which  empty  by  one  or  two  common 
secretory  ducts  into  the  posterior  or  "pyloric"  extremity  of 
the  stomach.  There  are  also  odoriferous  glands,  analogous  to 
the  cutaneous  glands  of  vertebrates.  The  liquid  poured  out  is 
usually  offensive,  and  it  is  used  as  a  means  of  defence.  The 
Bees,  Wasps,  Gall-flies,  etc.,  and  Scorpions,  have  a  poison-sac 
(Fig.  54  g)  developed  in  the  tip  of  the  abdomen.  The  bite  of 
the  Mosquito,  the  Horse-fly,  and  Bed-bug  is  thought  by  New- 
port to  be  due  to  the  simple  act  of  thrusting  their  lancet-like 
jaws  through  the  skin,  and  it  is  not  known  that  these  and 
other  insects  which  bite  severely  eject  any  poison  into  the 
wound.  But  in  the  spiders  a  minute  drop  of  poison  exudes  from 
an  orifice  at  the  end  of  the  mandibles,  "which  spreads  over  the 
whole  wound  at  the  instant  it  is  inflicted."  This  poison  is 
secreted  by  a  gland  lodged  in  the  cephalo-thorax,  and  which 
is  thought  by  Audouin  to  correspond  in  position  to  the  salivary 
apparatus  and  the  silk  glands  of  the  Winged  Insects. 

ORGANS  OF  GENERATION.  We  have  already  described  the 
external  parts.  The  internal  parts  of  the  male  insect  consist, 


44 


THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 


of  a  duct,  the  ductus  ejaculatorius,  which  opens  into  the  external 
intromittent  organ.  This  duct  extends  backwards,  connecting 
with  the  vesiculce  seminales,  which  lead  by 
the  vasa  deferentia  to  the  testes  (Fig.  53). 
The  latter  are  usually  rounded  glandular 
bodies,  sometimes,  as  in  Mdolontha  and 
Lucanus,  numbering  six  on  a  side.  These 
organs  lie  in  the  abdominal  cavity,  usually 
above  and  on  each  side  of  the  alimentary 
canal. 

The  sperm,  or  fertilizing  fluid,  contains 
very  active 
spermatic  par- 
ticles which 
are  developed 
in  large  cells 
in  the  testes, 
Fig.  53.  where  they  are 

united  into  bundles   of  various 
forms. 

In  the  female,  the  internal  re- 
productive organs  (Fig.  54)  are 
more  simple  than  those  of  the 
other  sex.  The  external  open- 
ing of  the  female  is  situated  at 
the  end  of  the  oviduct,  that 
leads  by  two  tubes  to  the  ovary, 
which  consists  of  two  or  more 
tubes  (in  the  Queen  Bee  one  hundred  and  sixty  to  one  hundred 
and  eighty)  in  which  the  ova  are  developed.  On  the  upper  side 


Fig.  54. 


FIG.  53.  Male  organs  of  Athnlia  centifolice.  h,  the  penis,  or  external  portion, 
in  which  the  ductus  ejaculatorius  (/)  terminates,  which  extends  backwards,  and  is 
connected  with  the  vesiculce  seminales  (e),  and  rasa  deferentia  (rf)  which  are  con- 
nected with  the  epididymis  (6),  and  the  testes  (a),  i  and  I,  two  pairs  of  homy  plates, 
surrounded  by  a  horny  ring  (/„•).  ?,  horny  prehensile  hooks  attached  to  k.  m,  two 
elongated  muscular  parts  inclosing  the  penis  (7i).  —  From,  Newport. 

FIG.  54.  Female  organs  of  generation  of  Athalia  centifolife.  a,  6,  c,  the  eighteen 
ovarial  tubes  originating  from  each  of  the  two' oviducts  (e),  and  containing  the  im- 
mature eggs ;  /,  the  spermatheca ;  <7,  poison-sac,  the  poison  being  secreted  in  the 
secretory  vessels  h.  The  poison  flows  through  the  oviduct  into  the  sting  and  thence 
into  the  wound  made  by  the  sting.  10,  the  terminal  ganglia  of  the  nervous  cord. 
—  From  Newport. 


ORGANS    OF    GENERATION.  45 

of  the  oviduct  are  from  one  to  five  appendages,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  is  the  spermatheca  (the  others  being  sebaceous 
glands),  which  receives  the  fertilizing  fluid  of  the  male  during 
sexual  union,  and  in  which,  according  to  Darwin,  the  male  ele- 
ment "is  enabled  to  keep  alive  four  or  five  years." 

Insects  bisexual.  With  the  exception  of  the  Tardigrades, 
which  are  doubtfully  referred  to  the  Mites  (Acarina),  there  are 
no  hermaphrodites  among  Insects,  that  is,  there  are  no  individ- 
uals having  both  male  and  female  organs,  and  capable  of  self- 
impregnation.  On  the  contrary,  the  sexes  are  distinct ;  Insects 
are  bisexual. 

Hermaphrodites,  so-called.t  Cases  not  nnfrequently  occur  in 
which  from  arrest  of  development  of  the  embryo,  the  sexual 
organs  are  imperfectly  developed,  so  as  to  present  the  appear- 
ance of  being  both  male  and  female.  "Siebold  has  investigated 
some  hermaphrodite  Honey-bees  belonging  to  the  Italian  race, 
obtained  from  a  Dzierzon  hive  at  Constance.  He  found  in 
many  of  them  a  combination  of  sexual  characters,  not  only  in  the 
external  parts,  but  also  in  the  generative  organs.  The  mixture 
of  the  external  characters  is  manifested  sometimes  only  in  the 
anterior  or  posterior  part  of  the  body,  sometimes  in  all  parts 
of  the  body,  or  only  in  a  few  organs.  Some  specimens  pre- 
sent male  and  worker  characters  on  the  two  sides  of  the  body. 
The  development  of  the  internal  organs  is  singularly  correla- 
ted with  these  peculiarities  of  external  organization.  The  sting, 
with  its  vesicle  and  gland,  is  well  developed  in  hermaphrodites 
with  the  abdomen  of  the  worker  ;  soft  in  those  with  the  drone- 
abdomen.  The  seminal  receptacle,  when  present,  is  empty. 
The  ovaries  contain  no  ova.  In  the  hermaphrodites  with  the 
drone-abdomen,  the  male  sexual  organs  are  well  developed,  and 
the  testes  contain  spermatozoids.  Frequently  with  testicular 
and  ovarian  organs  present  on  each  side,  the  epididymis  and 
copulatory  apparatus  are  well  developed,  and  an  imperfect 
poison-apparatus  exisfs.  In  these  cases  the  tube  contains 
spermatozoids,  but  there  are  no  ova  in  the  ovaries.  The  her- 
maphrodites are  thrown  out  of  the  cell  by  the  workers  as  soon 
as  they  emerge,  and  speedily  perish.  Siebold  ascribes  the  pro- 
duction of  these  hermaphrodites  to  an  imperfect  fecundation 
of  the  ovum."  (Zeitschrift  fur  Wissenschaftliche  Zoologie, 
1864,  p.  73.  See  Gunther's  Zoological  Review  for  1864.) 


46  THE   CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 

Mr.  Dunning  describes  a  specimen  of  Fidonia  piniaria, 
"which  was  sexually  a  female,  and  the  abdomen  was  appar- 
ently distended  with  eggs ;  the  general  color  was  midway  be- 
tween the  colors  of  the  ordinary  male  and  female,  but  the  size 
and  markings  were  those  of  the  male.  (Transactions  Ento- 
mological Society,  London,  Aug.  7,  1865.)  Professor  West- 
wood  states  that  "he  had  an  Orange-tip  Butterfly  (Anthocharis 
cardamines) ,  which  was  female  in  every  respect,  except  that 
on  the  tip  of  one  fore- wing  were  about  a  dozen  of  the  bright 
orange  scales  which  characterize  the  male." 

THE  EGG.  Professor  H.  J.  Cl^i'k  (Mind  in  Nature)  defines 
an  egg  to  be  a  globule  surrounded  by  the  vitelline  membrane, 
or  yelk-envelope,  which  is  protected  by  the  clwrion,  or  egg- 
shell, consisting  of  "two  kinds  of  fluid,  albumen  and  o?7,  which 
are  always  situated  at  opposite  sides  or  poles."  "In  the  earli- 
est stages  of  all  eggs,  these  two  poles  shade  off  into  each 
other,"  but  in  the  perfectly  developed  egg  the  small,  or  albu- 
minous pole,  is  surrounded  by  a  membrane,  and  forms  the 
Purkinjean  (germinal)  vesicle ;  and  thirdly  and  last,  the  inner- 
most of  the  three  globules  is  developed.  This  last  is  the 
Wagnerian  vesicle,  or  germinal  dot.  The  oily  matter  forms  the 
yolk.  Thus  formed,  the  egg  is  the  initial  animal.  It  becomes 
an  animal  after  contact  with  the  male  germs  (unless  the  product 
of  organic  reproduction),  and  the  egg-shell  or  chorion  is  to  be 
considered  as  a  protection  to  the  animal,  and  is  thrown  off 
when  the  embryo  is  hatched,  just  as  the  larva  throws  off  its 
skin  to  transform  into  the  pupa.  So  that  the  egg-state  is 
equivalent  to  the  larva  state,  and  hence  there  are  four  stages 
in  the  life  of  an  insect,  i.  e.  the  egg,  the  larva,  the  pupa,  and 
the  imago,  or  adult  state. 

The  egg  is  not  always  laid  as  a  perfect  egg  (Clark).  It 
sometimes,  as  in  the  Ants,  continues  to  grow  after  it  is  laid  by 
the  parent,  like  those  of  frogs,  which,  according  to  Clark,  "Are 
laid  before  they  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  become  fully  formed 
as  eggs."  Again,  others  are  laid  some  time  after  the  embryo 
has  begun  to  form ;  and  in  some,  such  as  Melopliagus  and 
Bmula,  the  larva  is  fully  formed  before  it  is  expelled  from  the 
oviduct. 


THE    EGG.  47 

Eggs  are  usually  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
parent ;  but  in  many  minute  forms  (i.e.  Pulex,  Pediculus,  etc.) 
they  are  proportionately  much  larger.  In  shape  eggs  are 
either  spherical  or  oblong.  In  some  there  are  radiating  append- 
ages at  one  end,  as  in  those  of  Nepa  and  Eanatra ;  or  they  are 
provided  with  a  single  stalk,  as  in  Chrysopa,  Cynips,  and 
Opliion. 

The  eggs  of  most  Hymenoptera,  Diptera,  and  many  Coleop- 
tera  are  usually  cylindrical ;  those  of  Lepidoptera  are  more 
generally  spherical.  The  eggs  of  the  Mosquito  are  laid  in  a 
boat-shaped  mass,  which  floats  on  the  surface  of  quiet  pools, 
while  those  of  the  Chrysopa,  or  Lace-winged  Fly  (Fig.  55),  are 
supported  on  long  pedicels. 
They  are  almost  invariably 
laid  near  or  upon  objects  des- 
tined to  be  the  food  of  the  Fig.  55. 
future  larva.  Thus  the  Copris,  or  "Tumble-bug,"  places  its 
egg  in  a  ball  of  dung  which  it  rolls  away  to  a  secure  place ; 
the  Flesh-fly  oviposits  on  meat ;  and  all  vegetable-feeders  lay 
their  eggs  on  the  food-plant  where  the  larva,  upon  its  exit 
from  the  egg,  shall  readily  find  an  ample  supply  of  food. 

The  posterior  end  of  the  egg  is  more  often  the  fixed  one,  and 
it  may  thus  be  distinguished  from  the  anterior  pole.  In  the 
eggs  of  some  Diptera  and  Orthoptera,  the  ventral  side  of  the 
embryo,  according  to  Gerstaecker,  corresponds  to  the  convex 
side  of  the  egg,  and  the  concave  side  of  the  latter  corresponds 
to  the  dorsal  region  of  the  embryo. 

The  surface  of  the  chorion,  or  egg-shell,  which  is  dense  and 
brittle,  is  often  covered  by  a  mosaic-work  of  more  or  less  regu- 
lar facets.  In  many  small  eggs  the  surface  is  only  minutely 
granulated,  or  ornamented  with  ribs  and  furrows,  as  in  those 
of  many  Butterflies. 

TJie  Micropyle.  On  the  anterior  end  (though  sometimes 
at  both  ends)  of  the  egg  is  one  or  more  pores  of  exceeding 
minuteness,  through  which  the  spermatozoa  (more  than  one 
of  which,  according  to  Darwin,  is  requisite  to  fertilize  an 
ovule)  enter  to  fertilize  the  egg-contents.  In  some  cases 
these  micropyles  are  scattered  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  egg. 
Fig.  56  a  represents  the  micropyles  of  Nepa  cinerea,  consisting 


48  THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 

of  a  whorl  of  long  bristles.     Those  of  Locnsta  viridissima  (Fig. 

566)  slightly  resemble  toadstools.  Fig.  56  c  represents  the  an- 
terior pole  of  the  egg  with 
the  mieropyles  of  Pyrrkocoris 
apterus. — (From  Gerstaecker.)  ^ 

This    contact    of  a    maUr 
sperm-cell   with    the    yolk    is 
the    fertilization   of   the    egg. 
From  this  moment  begins  the 

t5 

life  of  the  embryo.  Fertiliza- 
tion of  the  female  germ  by 
Fig-  M-  means  of  the  male  sperm, 

through  the  congress  of  the  sexes,  is  the  rule  with  bisexual 
animals,  but  there  are  exceptions  among  insects.  An  embryo 
may  start  into  being  without  the  interposition  of  the  male  ;  to 
this  mode  of  generation  has  been  applied  by  Leuckart  the  term 

Parthenogenesis.  Among  certain  species  of  insects  there  are 
some  individuals  which,  by  a  sort  of  budding  process,  and  with- 
out the  aid  of  the  male  element,  throw  off  summer  broods,  con- 
sisting of  "asexual"  individuals,  which,  as  winter  approaches, 
are  succeeded  by  a  brood  of  true  males  and  females,  the  latter 
of  which  lay  eggs.  This  phenomenon,  called  by  Steenstrup 
''alternation  of  generations,"  has  been  observed  among  a  com- 
paratively few  species,  and  the  apparent  design  of  such  an 
anomalous  mode  of  reproduction  is  to  afford  an  immense  num- 
ber of  individuals,  thus  providing  for  the  continuance  of  the 
species.  The  individuals  in  whom  this  budding  process  takes 
place  are  called  "asexual"  because,  though  they  may  resemble 
the  female  sex  outwardly,  their  sexual  organs  are  only  partially 
developed.  This  budding  process  is  the  same  in  kind  with  that 
observable  in  the  Jelly-fish,  which  throw  off  b}-  parthenogen- 
esis, or  alternations  of  generations,  summer  broods  of  immense 
extent,  but  in  winter  propagate  b}r  true  eggs.  Huxley  has 
studied  the  development  of  Aphis  by  parthenogenesis,  the 
anomalous  nature  of  which  had  previously  been  discovered  by 
Bonnet,  Trembly,  Lyonet,  Degeer,  Kyber,  and  others,  arid 
arrives  at  the  following  conclusions : 

"1.  Ova  deposited  by  impregnated  female  Aphides  in  autumn 
are  hatched  in  the  spring. 


ALTERNATION  OF  GENERATIONS.  49 

2.  From  these  ova  viviparous,  and,  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases,  apterous  forms  proceed. 

3.  The  broods  to  which  these  give  rise  are  either  winged  or 
apterous,  or  both. 

4.  The  number  of  successive  broods  has  no  certain  limit,  but 
is,  so  far  as  we  know  at  present,  controlled  only  by  tempera- 
ture and  the  supply  of  food. 

5.  On  the  setting  in  of  cold  weather,  or  in  some  cases  on  the 
failure  of  nourishment,  the  weather  being  still  warm,  males 
and  oviparous  females  are  produced. 

6.  The  males  may  be  either  winged  or  apterous. 

7.  So  far  as  I  am  aware,  there  is  no  proof  of  the  existence 
of  any  exception  to  the  law  that  the  oviparous  female  is  apte- 
rous. 

8.  Viviparous  Aphides  may  hybernate,  and  may  co-exist  with 
oviparous  females  of  the  same  species."    (Linnsean  Transac- 
tions, xxii,  p.  198.) 

The  origin  of  the  viviparous,  asexual,  or  agamic  (from  the 
Greek  a,  without ;  game,  marriage)  individual,  as  it  may  be 
more  properly  called,  is,  up  to  a  certain  stage,  the  same  as 
that  of  the  true  egg,  i.e.  until  the  germ  (pseudovum)  of 
the  former  is  detached  from  the  false  ovary  (pseudovarium). 
"From  this  point  onwards,  however,  the  fate  of  the  pseudovum 
is  different  from  that  of  the  ovum.  The  former  begins  at  once 
to  be  converted  into  the  germ  ;  the  latter  accumulates  yelk-sub- 
stance, and  changes  but  little.  Both  bodies  acquire  their  mem- 
branous investment  rather  late;  within  it  the  pseudovum 
becomes  a  living  larva,  while  the  ovum  is  impregnated,  laid, 
and  remains  in  a  state  of  rest  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period. 

"Although,  then,  the  pseudovum  and  the  ovum  of  Aphis 
are  exceedingly  similar  in  structure  for  some  time  after  they 
have  passed  out  of  the  condition  of  indifferent  tissue,  it  cannot 
be  said  that  the  sole  difference  between  them  is,  that  the  one 
requires  fecundation  and  the  other  not.  When  the  ovum  is  of 
the  size  of  a  pseudovum  which  is  about  to  develop  into  an  em- 
bryo, and,  therefore,  long  before  fecundation,  it  manifests  its 
inherent  physiological  distinctness  by  becoming,  not  an  em- 
bryo, but  an  ovum.  Up  to  this  period  the  influence  of  fecunda- 
tion has  not  been  felt ;  and  the  production  of  ova,  instead  of 
4 


50  THE   CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 

pseiidova,  must  depend  upon  a  something  impressed  upon  the 
constitution  of  the  parent  before  it  was  brought  forth  by  its 
viviparous  progenetrix."  (Huxley.) 

Siebold  has  also  shown  that  the  "ova  of  the  Queen-bee  pro- 
duces females  or  males,  according  as  they  are  fecundated  or 
not.  The  fecundated  ovum  produces  a  queen  or  a  neuter 
according  to  the  food  of  the  larva  and  the  other  conditions  to 
which  it  is  subjected;  the  unfecundated  ovum  produces  a 
drone."  This  is  analogous  to  the  agamic  reproduction  of 
Aphis,  and  "  demonstrates  still  more  clearly  the  impossi- 
bility of  drawing  any  absolute  line  of  demarcation  histologi- 
cally  between  ova  and  buds." 

This  process  of  reproduction  is  not  known  in  the  Myriapods. 
It  occurs  among  the  mites  (Acarina),  and  occurs  in  isolated 
genera  of  Hemiptera  (Aphis,  Chermes,  Lecanium,  and  Aspidi- 
otus  according  to  Gerstaecker). 

Among  Lepidoptera  the  Silk-moth  sometimes  lays  fertile 
eggs  without  previous  sexual  union.  This  very  rarely  hap- 
pens, for  M.  Jourdain  found  that,  out  of  about  58,000  eggs 
laid  by  unimpregnated  silk-moths,  many  passed  through  their 
early  embryonic  stages,  showing  that  they  were  capable  of 
self-development,  but  only  twenty-nine  out  of  the  whole 
number  produced  caterpillars.  (Darwin.)  Several  other  moths* 
have  been  found  to  lay  fertile  eggs  without  previous  sexual 
union,  and  among  Hymenoptera,  Nematus  ventricosus,  Cynips, 
Neuroterus,  perhaps  Apophyllus  (according  to  Gerstaecker), 
and  Cynips  spongijica  (according  to  Walsh,  Proceedings  of 

*  We  give  a  list  from  Gerstaecker  (Bronn's  Classen  und  Ordnungen  des  Thier- 
reichs)  of  all  the  known  cases  of  agamic  reproduction  in  this  suborder,  with  the 
number  of  times  the  phenomenon  has  been  observed,  and  the  names  of  the  ob- 

Gastropacha  quercus,  once  (Plieninger). 
Liparis  dispar,  once  (Carlier). 


Sphinx  ligustri,  once  (Treviranus). 
Smerinthus  populi,  four  times    (Nord- 

mann). 

Smerinthus  ocellatus,  once  (Johnston). 
Euprepia  caja,  five  times  (Brown,  etc.). 

"  villica,  once  (Stowell). 
Telea  Polyphemus,  twice  (Curtis). 
Gastropacha  pini,  three  times  (Scopoli, 

Gastropacha  quercifolia,  once  (Easier). 
potatoria,  once    (Burmeis- 
ter). 

The  subject  has  been  also  discussed  by  Siebold  in  his  work  entitled,  A  true  Par- 
thenogenesis in  Lepidoptera  and  Bees;  by  Owen,  in  his  "Parthenogenesis,"  and 
by  Sir  J.  Lubbock  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  London,  vol.  147,  pt.  1. 


"  Efjgermoth"  (? Liparis  dispar),  (Tardy, 

Westwood). 

Liparis  ochropoda,  once  (Popoff). 
Orgyia  pudibunda,  once  (Werneburg). 
Psyche  apiformis,  once  (Rossi). 

"•     helix  (Siebold). 
Solenobia  lichenella  (Siebold). 

"         triquetrella  (Siebold). 
Bombyx  mori,  several  times. 


ALTERNATION    OF   GENERATIONS.  51 

the  Entomological  Society  of  Philadelphia).  Parthenogenesis, 
or  agamic  reproduction,  is,  then,  the  result  of  a  budding  pro- 
cess, or  cell-growth.  This  process  is  a  common  mode  among 
the  Radiates,  the  low  Worms,  and  the  Crustaceans.  Metamor- 
phosis is  simply  a  series  of  marked  stages,  or  periods,  of 
growth ;  and  hence  growth,  metamorphosis,  and  agamic  re- 
production are  morphologically  identical.  All  animals,  there- 
fore, as  well  as  plants,  grow  by  the  multiplication  of  cells. 

After  hearing  the  surprising  revelations  of  Bonnet,  Reaumur, 
Owen,  Burnett,  and  Huxley  on  the  asexual  mode  of  generation 
in  the  Aphis,  we  are  called  to  notice  still  a  new  phase  of  repro- 
duction. None  of  the  observers  just  mentioned  were  accus- 
tomed to  consider  the  virgin  aphis  as  immature,  but  rather  as 
a  wingless  adult  Plant-louse.  But  Nicolas  Wagner,  Professor 
of  Zoology  at  Kasan,*  supported  by  able  vouchers  for  the 
truth  of  his  assertions,  both  in  Russia  and  in  Germany,  who 
have  repeated  and  thoroughly  tested  his  observations,  has 
observed  an  asexual  reproduction  in  the  larva  of  a  Cecidomy- 
ian  fly,  Miastor  metraloas  (Fig.  297),  and  Meinert  has  observed 
it  in  this  species  and  the  Oligarces  paradoxus  Meinert. 

Says  Dr.  R.  Leuckart,  whose  article f  we  have  drawn  largely 
upon  in  the  present  account,  "This  reproduction  was  said  to 
commence  in  autumn,  to  continue  through  the  winter  and 
spring,  giving  origin,  during  the  whole  of  this  period,  to  a 
series  of  successive  generations  of  larvae,  until,  finally,  in  June, 
the  last  of  them  were  developed  into  perfect  and  sexually 
mature  animals.  The  flies,  then,  as  usual,  after  copulation, 
lay  eggs,  and  thus  recommence  the  developmental  cycle  just 
described." 

Professor  Leuckart  has  observed  these  facts  anew  in  the 
larvae  of  a  species  of  dipterous  gall-fly,  and  which  he  believes 
distinct  from  the  Russian  species,  found  under  the  bark  of  a 
half  dead  apple-tree  that  was  attacked  by  fungi.  The  young 
are  developed  within  the  body  of  the  larva-like  parent  from  a 

*K.  E.  Von  Baer,  "Report  on  a  New  Asexual  Mode  of  Reproduction  observed 
by  Professor  Wagner  in  Kasan."  Bull.  Acad.  St.  Petersburg,  1863,  pt.  vi,  p.  239. 
Also,  Wagner  in  the  Journal  of  the  University  of  Kasan,  1861. 

f  On  the  Asexual  Reproduction  of  Cecidomyia  Larvae.  Annals  and  Magazine 
of  Natural  History,  March,  1866.  Translated  from  Zeitschrift  f  ttr  Wissenschaftliche 
Zoologies  Bd.  xiv. 


52  THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 

"germ-ball"  essentially  agreeing  with  the  ovary,  and  the  asex- 
ual larvae  begin  life  as  egg-like  bodies  developed  from  this 
germ-ball,  just  as  eggs  are  developed  in  the  little  tubes  of 
which  the  ovary  is  an  aggregation.  Hence  these  worms  bud 
out  from  the  germ-stock,  just  as  we  have  seen  in  the  case  of 
the  Aphides.  Leuckart  and  Wagner  farther  agree,  that  "  the 
so-called  chorion  never  being  formed  in  either  of  them,  the 
vitellus  [yelk]  remains  without  that  envelope  which  has  so  re- 
markable and  peculiar  a  development  in  the  true  egg  of  in- 
sects." ....  "The  processes  of  embryo-formation  agree  in 
all  essential  points  with  the  ordinary  phenomena  of  devel- 
opment in  a  fecundated  egg,  exactly  as  has  been  proved  (by 
Huxley)  to  be  the  case  in  the  Aphides."  ....  "The  only 
difference  consists  in  the  germ-chambers  of  the  Cecidomyide 
larvae  separating  from  the  germ-stock,  and  moving  about  freely 
in  the  cavity  of  the  body,  whilst  in  the  Aphides  they  remain 
permanently  attached,  and  constitute  an  apparatus  which,  in 
its  form  and  arrangement,  reproduces  the  conditions  of  the 
female  organs." 

Another  case  of  psedogenesis,  which  unites  that  of  Miastor 
with  the  parthenogenesis  of  the  Cocci  dee,  has  been  discovered 
by  Grimm  who  found,  in  the  spring  of  1869,  the  pupa  of  a 
species  of  Chironomus  laying  eggs.  But  in  the  autumn  other 
pupae  become  flies  without  laying  eggs,  while  the  fly  itself  de- 
posits a  larger  number  of  eggs  than  the  spring  pupa.  Grimm 
also  found  that  on  removing  from  the  perfectly  developed  in- 
sect, before  it  has  left  the  pupa-case,  the  eggs  which  would 
otherwise  have  been  fertilized,  and  preserving  them  in  water, 
the  development  of  the  larva  took  place  in  them  also,  but 
lasted  a  little  longer  (about  six  days).  Previous  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  primitive  band,  the  germ  develops  as  in  the  Coc- 
cidce  ;  afterwards  it  resembles  that  of  other  Diptera  (Simu- 
/wm  and  Chironomidce). 

Dimorphism  is  intimately  connected  with  agamic  reproduc- 
tion. Thus  the  asexual  Aphis,  and  the  perfect  female,  may  be 
called  dimorphic  forms.  Or  the  perfect  female  may  assume 
two  forms,  so  much  so  as  to  be  mistaken  for  two  distinct  spe- 
cies. Thus  Cynips  quercus-spongiftca  occurs  in  male  and  female 
broods  in  the  spring,  while  the  fall  brood  of  females  were 


DIMORPHISM.  53 

described  as  a  separate  species,  C.  aciculata.  Mr.  B.  D.  Walsh 
considers  the  two  sets  of  females  as  dimorphic  forms,  and  he 
thinks  that  C.  aciculata  lays  eggs  which  produce  C.  quercus- 
spongifica. 

Huber  supposes  there  are  two  sizes  of  the  three  forms  (i.  e. 
male,  female,  and  worker)  of  Bombus,  one  set  being  a  little 
larger  than  the  other. 

Alfred  Wallace  has  discovered  that  there  are  two  forms  of 
females  of  Papilio  Memnon  of  the  East  Indies  ;  one  is  normal, 
having  its  wings  tailed  and  resembles  a  closely  allied  species, 
Papilio  Coon,  which  is  not  dimorphous,  while  the  other  is  tail- 
less, resembling  its  tailless  male.  Papilio  Pammon  has  three 
sorts  of  females,  and  is  hence  "trimorphic."  One  of  its  forms 
predominates  in  Sumatra,  and  a  second  in  Java,  while  a  third, 
(described  as  P.  Romulus)  abounds  in  India  and  Ceylon.  P. 
Ormenus  is  trimorphic,  as  Mr.  Wallace  obtained  in  the  island 
of  Waignion,  "a  third  female  quite  distinct  from  either  of  the 
others,  and  in  some  degree  intermediate  between  the  ordinary 
male  and  female."  Much  the  same  thing  occurs  in  the  North 
American  P.  Turnus.  Papilio  Glaucus  is  now  known  to  be  a 
dimorphic  form  of  the  former  butterfly,  both  having,  according 
to  Mr.  Uhler,  been  bred  from  the  same  batch  of  eggs.  Mr, 
W.  H.  Edwards  has  found  that  Papilio  Ajax  is  polymorphous, 
the  same  batch  of  eggs  giving  rise  to  P.  Ajax,  and  varieties 
Walshii,  Telamonides,  and  Marcellus.  The  male  sex  also  pre- 
sents dimorphic  forms.  Mr.  Pascoe  states  that  there  are  di- 
morphic forms  of  Anthribidce;  that  they  occur  in  the  males 
of  Stenocerus  and  Micoceros.  Six  species  of  Dytiscus  have  two 
female  forms,  the  most  common  having  the  elytra  deeply  sul- 
cate,  while  in  the  rarer  forms  the  elytra  are  smooth  as  in  the 
male. 

There  is  a  tendency,  we  would  observe,  in  the  more  abnor- 
mal of  the  two  sexual  forms,  to  revert  to  a  lower  type.  Thus 
the  agamic  Aphis  is  more  generally  wingless,  and  the  tailless 
female  butterfly  mimics  the  members  of  a  lower  genus,  Pieris. 
The  final  cause  of  Dimorphism,  like  that  of  agamic  reproduc- 
tion, is  the  continuance  of  the  species,  and  is,  so  far  as  yet 
known,  an  exceptional  occurrence. 

Mimetic  forms.     Many  insects  often  resemble,  in  a  remark- 


54:  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

able  manner,  those  of  other  groups.  They  are  called  mimetic 
forms.  Insects  are  related  to  each  other  by  analogy  and  affin- 
ity. Thus  the  truly  tailless  species  of  Papilio,  i.  e.  those  where 
the  tail  is  absent  in  both  sexes,  are  related  by  affinity  to  Pie- 
ris,  which  has  rounded  hind  wings.  They  also  stand  next  to 
Pier  is  in  the  system  of  Nature.  But  there  are,  on  the  other 
hand,  mimetic  forms,  which  borrow  the  features  of  groups  far 
above  them  in  the  natural  system.  Thus  the  Sesia  resembles  a 
Bee,  Bombylius  and  Laphria  resemble  Bombus;  the  Syrphus 
flies  are  easily  mistaken  for  Wasps.  So  in  the  second  series 
of  suborders  of  Insects,  Forficula  resembles  the  Staphylinus ; 
Termes  resembles  the  true  Ant ;  Psocus,  the  Aphis;  Ascalaphus 
resembles  Papilio ;  Mantispa  recalls  the  Orthopterous  Mantis,  and 
Panorpa  reminds  us  of  the  Tipulce  (Bittacus  being  strikingly 
analogous  to  the  Dipterous  Bittacomorpha) .  Thus  these  lower, 
more  variable  groups  of  insects  strive,  as  it  were,  to  connect 
themselves  by  certain  analogous,  mimetic  forms,  with  the  more 
stable  and  higher  groups. 

Comprehensive  types  are  mimetic  forms  which  combine  the 
characters  of  other  and  generally  higher  groups.  Thus  each 
Neuropterous  family  contains  mimetic  forms  which  ally  them 
strongly  with  some  one  of  the  six  other  suborders  of  insects. 
The  early  fossil  insects  are  remarkable  for  combining  the  char- 
acters of  groups  which  appear  ages  after.  The  most  remark- 
able comprehensive  type  is  a  Carboniferous  insect,  the  Eugereon 
Boeckingi  mentioned  farther  on. 

HYBRIDITY.  Hybrids  are  sometimes  produced  between  differ- 
ent species,  but  though  it  is  known  that  different  genera  unite 
sexually,  we  know  of  very  few  authentic  instances  of  the  pro- 
duction of  hybrids  therefrom.  One  is  related  by  Mr.  Midford, 
who  exhibited  at  the  March  4th  (1861)  meeting  of  the  London 
Entomological  Society,  hybrids  produced  from  a  male  Phiga- 
lia  pilosaria,  and  a  female  Nyssia  hispidaria.  "  The  males 
resemble  JV.  hispidaria,  but  in  color  have  the  lighter  and 
greener  tint  and  transparency  of  wing  of  P.  pilosaria." 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSECTS.  Immediately  after  the  fer- 
tilization of  the  egg,  the  first  act  in  the  organization  of  the 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF  INSECTS. 


55 


future  embryo  is  the  formation  of  the  germinal  layer,  or  blas- 
toderm (from  the  Greek,  meaning  primitive  skin) .  This  layer 
is  formed  at  the  surface  out  of  a  surface-layer  of  largerj  often 
nucleolated,  cells  which  nearly  encompass  the  yolk-mass.  At 
one  point  there  is  a  break  in  this  cellular  layer,  and  the  yolk 
granules  reach  to  the  surface,  so  that  it  appears  darker  than 
the  other  parts  of  the  egg.  This  cellular  layer  is  soon  resolved 
into  the  blastoderm,  or  germinal  layer,  which  thickens  and 
narrows,  forming  a  longitudinal  band.  This  is  the  first  stage 
of  the  embryo,  which  lies  as  a  thin  layer  of  cells  upon  the  outer 
surface  of  the  yolk.  Both  ends  of  the  body  are  alike,  and  we 
shall  afterwards  see  that  its  back  lies  next  to  the  centre  of  the 
egg,  its  future  ventral  side  looking  outwards.  The  embryo  is 
thus  bent  on  itself  backwards. 

In  the  next  stage  the  blastoderm  divides  into  a  certain  num- 
ber of  segments,  or  joints,  which  appear  as  indentations  in  the 
body  of  the  embryo.  The  head  can  now  be  distinguished  from 
the  posterior  end  chiefly  by  its  larger  size,  and  both  it  and  the 
tail  are  folded  back  upon  the  body  of  the  embryo,  the  head 
especially  being  sunk  backwards  down  into  the  yolk-mass. 

In  a  succeeding  stage,  as  we  have  observed  in  the  embryo  of 
Diplax,  a  Dragon-fly  (Fig.  57),  the  head  is  partially  sketched 


Fig.  58. 

out,  with  the  rudiments  of  the  limbs  and  mouth-parts  ;  and  the 
sternites,  or  ventral  walls/  of  the  thorax  and  of  the  two  basal 
rings  of  the  head  appear.  The  anterior  part  of  the  head,  in- 
cluding the  so-called  "procephalic  lobes"  overhangs  and  con- 

FIG.  57.  Side  view  of  embryo.  The  procephalic  lobes  are  not  shown.  1,  antennae; 
2,  mandibles;  3,  maxillae;  4,  second  maxillae  (labium);  5-7,  legs.  These  numbers 
and  letters  are  the  same  in  all  the  figures  from  57-60.  The  under-side  (sternum) 
of  six  segments  are  indicated.  FIG.  58.  Ventral  view  of  the  same. 


56  THE    CLASS   OF    INSECTS. 

ceals  the  base  of  the  antennae.  It  is  probable  that  more 
careful  observation  would  have  shown  the  end  of  the  abdomen 
folded  back  upon  the  dorsal  region,  as  usual  at  this  period  in 
the  embryos  of  those  insects  whose  embryology  has  been 
studied. 

The  antennae,  mandibles,  and  maxillae  form  a  group  by  them- 
selves, while  the  second  maxillae  (or  labium)  are  very  much 
larger  and  turned  backwards,  being  temporarily  grouped  with 
the  legs. 

There  are  traces  only  of  the  two  basal  sterna  of  the  abdo- 
men. This  indicates  that  the  basal  abdominal  segments  grow 
in  succession  from  the  base  of  the  abdomen,  the  middle  ones 
appearing  last.  The  post-abdomen  (Fig.  59  A)  has  probably 
been  developed  synchronous  with  the  procephalic  lobes,  as  it  is 
in  all  insect  and  crustacean  embryos  yet  observed.  As  stated 
by  Zaddach,  these  two  lobes  in  their  development  are  exact 
equivalents ;  antero- posterior  symmetry  is  very  clearly  de- 
marked,  the  two  ends  of  the  body  at  first  looking  alike.  But 
in  this  stage,  after  the  two  ends  of  the  body  have  been  evolved 
from  the  primitive  cell-layer,  development  in  the  post-abdomi- 
nal region  is  retarded,  that. of  the  head  progressing  with  much 
greater  rapidity. 

In  the  next  stage  (not  figured)  the  yolk  is  completely  walled 
in,  though  no  traces  of  segments  appear  on  the  back  or  side  of 
the  embryo.  The  revolution  of  the  embryo  has  taken  place ; 
the  post-abdomen  being  curved  beneath  the  body,  and  the  back 
presenting  outwards. 

The  rudiments  of  the  eyes  appear  as  a  darker,  rounded  mass 
of  cells  indistinctly  seen  through  the  yolk-granules,  and  situ- 
ated at  the  base  of  the  antennae.  They  consist  of  a  few  epithe- 
lial cells  of  irregular  form,  the  central  one  being  the  largest. 

The  second  maxillae  are  a  little  over  twice  the  length  of  the 
first  maxillae  and  are  grouped  with  the  legs,  being  curved  back- 
wards. They  are,  however,  now  one-third  shorter  than  the  an- 
terior legs.  The  second  maxillary  sternum  is  still  visible. 

The  tip  of  the  abdomen  (or  post-abdomen)  consists  of  four 
segments,  the  terminal  one  being  much  the  larger,  and  ob- 
scurely divided  into  two  obtuse  lobes. 

The  abdominal  sternites  are  now  well  marked,  and  the  ner- 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   INSECTS. 


57 


32  E 


1  C 


vous  cord  is  represented  by  eight  or  nine  large  oblong-square 
'seen  sideways)  ganglia,  which  lie  contiguous  to  each  other. 

The  formation  of  the  eyes,  the  post-abdomen,  the  sternites, 
and  median  portion  of  the  nervous  cord  seems  nearly  synchro- 
nous with  the  closing  up  of  the  dorsal  walls  of  the  body,  though 
the  division  of  the  tegument  into  segments  has  not  apparently 
taken  place  over  the  yolk-mass. 

The  succeeding  stage  (Fig.  59)  is  signalized  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  rudiments  of  the  intestine, 
while  the  second  maxillae  are  directed 
more  anteriorly. 

In  form  the  body  is  ovate-cylin- 
drical, and  there  is  a  deep  constric- 
tion separating  the  post -abdomen 
from  the  anterior  part  of  the  abdo- 
men. 

The   terminal    (eleventh)    ring  is 
immensely  disproportioned  to  its  size  in  the  embryo  just  pre- 
vious to  hatching  (see  Fig.  61,  where  it  forms  a  triangular  piece 

situated  between  its  appendages, 
the  anal  stylets).  At  a  later 
period  of  this  stage  two  more  ab- 
dominal segments  have  been  added, 
one  to  the  end  of  the  main  body 
of  the  abdomen,  and  another  to 
the  post- abdomen.  They  have 
been  apparently  interpolated  at  the 
junction  of  the  post-abdomen  to 
the  abdomen  proper.  Should  this 
observation  be  proved  to  be  correct,  it  may  then  be  considered 
as  a  rule  that,  after  reaching  a  certain  number  of  segments,  all 
additional  ones  are  interpolated  between  the  main  body  of  the 
abdomen  and  its  terminal  segment  or  segments.  This  is  the 
law  of  increase  in  the  number  of  segments  in  Worms,  and  in 
Myriopods  (lulus,  according  to  Newport's  observations),  in 
Arachnids  (Claparede),  and  Crustacea  (Rathke). 

The  next  stage  (Fig.  60),  is  characterized  by  the  differentia- 

FIG.  59.  An  embryo  much  farther  advanced,  c,  clypeus;  E,  eye;  A,  bi-lobed 
extremity  of  the  abdomen ;  i,  the  rudiments  of  the  intestines. 


c!23 


58 


THE    CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 


tion  of  the  head  into  the  rudiments  of  the  antennary  ring,  and 
the  supraclypeal  piece,  and  clypeus,  together  with  the  approx- 
imation of  the  second  pair  of  maxillae,  which,  when  united,  form 
the  labium,  the  extremities  of  which  are  now  situated  in  the 
middle  of  the  body.  r<a 

The  antennae  now  extend  to  the  middle  of  the  labium,  just 
passing  beyond  the  extremities  of  the  mandibles  and  maxillae. 
The  oesophagus  can  also  be  seen  going  from  the  mouth-opening 
situated  just  beneath  the  labium.  It  curves  around  just  behind 
the  eyes.  There  are  at  this  period  no  appearances  of  movable 
blood-disks  or  of  a  dorsal  vessel. 

The  abdomen  is  now  pointed  at  the  extremity  and  divided 
into  the  rudiments  of  the  two  anal  stylets,  which  form  large, 
acute  tubercles.     The  yolk-mass  is  also  almost 
entirely  inclosed  within  the  body  walls,  form- 
ing an  oval  mass. 

Another  embryo,  observed  July  27th,  had 
reached  about  the  same  stage  of  growth.  The 
front  of  the  head,  including  the  antennary 
segment,  is  farther  advanced  than  before.  The 
entire  head  is  divided  into  two  very  distinct 
regions ;  i.  e.  one  before  the  mouth-opening 
(the  preoral  region,  including  the  antennary, 
or  first  segment  of  the  head,  carrying  the 
organs  of  vision  ;  namely,  the  ocelli  and  com- 
pound eyes,  and  the  organs  of  sense,  or  an- 
tennae) ;  and  the  other  behind  the  mouth 
(pastoral)  consisting  of  the  mandibular,  or 
second  segment,  the  first  maxillary,  or  third  segment,  and  the 
second  maxillary,  or  labial,  being  the  fourth  and  last  segment. 
At  a  later  period  the  embryo  is  quite  fully  formed,  and  is 
about  ready  to  leave  the  egg.  The  three  regions  of  the  body 
are  now  distinct.  The  articulations  of  the  tergum  are  present, 
the  yolk-mass  being  completely  inclosed  by  the  tergal  walls. 

FIG.  61.  The  embryo  taken  from  the  egg,  but  nearly  ready  to  hatch.  T,  the 
dotted  line  crosses  the  main  trachea,  going  through  the  yolk-mass,  now  restricted 
to  the  thoracic  region.  At  x,  the  tracheae  send  off  numerous  branches  around  an 
enlargement  of  the  intestine  (colon),  where  the  blood  is  aerated ;  better  seen  in  fig. 
62.  The  abdomen  consists  of  eleven  segments,  the  last  being  a  minute  triangular 
piece. 


Fig.  61. 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   INSECTS. 


59 


The  body  is  so  bent  upon  itself  that  the  extremities  of  the 
second  maxillae  just  overlap  the  tip  of  the  abdomen. 

The  two  limbs  of  the  labium  are  now  placed  side  by  side, 
with  the  prominent  spinous  appendage  on  the  outer  edges  of 
the  tip.  These  spines  are  the  rudiments  of  the  labial  palpi. 

The  general  form  of  the  embryo  at  a  still  later  period  (Fig. 
61),  on  being  taken  from  the  egg  and  straightened  out,  re- 
minds us  strikingly  of 
the  Thysanura,  and,  in 
these  and  other  re- 
spects, tend  to  prove 
that  the  Podurse  and 
Lepismse,  and  allied 
genera,  are  embryonic, 
degraded  forms  of  Neu- 
roptera,  and  should 
therefore  be  considered 
as  a  family  of  that  sub- 
order. Seen  laterally, 
the  body  gradually  ta- 
pers from  the  large  N 
head  to  the  pointed  ex- 
tremity. The  body  is 
flattened  from  above 
downwards .  At  this 
stage  the  appendages 
are  still  closely  ap- 
pressed  to  the  body. 

Just  before   the   ex- 
clusion of  the  embryo, 
the    legs    and   mouth- 
parts   stand   out   freer  Fig.  62. 
from  the  body.     The  labium,  especially,  assumes  a  position  at 
nearly  right  angles  to   the   body.     The  antennae,  mandibles, 
and  maxillae  have  taken  on  a  more  definite  form,  being  like 

FIG.  62.  The  larva  just  hatched  and  swimming  in  the  water.  N,  ventral  cord  or 
nervous  ganglia;  D,  dorsal  vessel,  or  "heart,"  divided  into  its  chambers.  The 
anal  valves  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen,  which  open  and  shut  during  respiration,  are 
represented  as  being  open.  Both  of  the  dotted  lines  cross  the  tracheae,  x,  net- 
work of  the  tracheae,  surrounding  the  cloaca. 


60 


THE   CLASS   OF  INSECTS. 


Fig.  63. 


that  of  the  young  larva,  and  stand  out  free  from  the  body. 
The  head  is  much  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the 
body,  and  bent  more  upon  the  breast. 

The  Larva  (Fig.  62) 
when  hatched  is  about 
five  hundredths   of  an 
inch  in  length.       The 
head  is  now  free  and 
the  antennae  stand  out 
free  from  the    front. 
The  thorax  has  greatly 
diminished   in  size, 
while  the  abdomen  has 
become  wider,  and  the 
limbs  very  long ;    and 
the  numerous  minute  tubercles,  seen  in  the  preceding  stage, 
have  given  origin  to  hairs.     The  dorsal  vessel  can  now,  for  the 
first  time,  be  seen.   When  in  motion,  the  resemblance 
to  a  spider  is  most  striking.     The  flow  of  blood  to 
the  head,  and  the  return  currents  through  the  lacunar 
or  venous  circulation  along  the  side  of  the  body  were 
easily  observed.     The  vessels  were  not  crowded  with 
blood  disks,  the  latter  being  few  in  number,  only  one 
Fig.  64.     or  two  passing  along  at  a  time.     Two  currents,  pass- 
ing in  opposite  directions,  were  observed  in  the  legs. 

FIG.  63.  Side  view  of  the  head  of  the  larva  of  Diplax  before  the  first  moult,  c, 
deciduous  tubercles  terminating  in  a  slender  style;  their  use  is  unknown;  they 
have  not  been  observed  in  the  full-grown  larva,  e,  the  compound  eyes.  1,  the 
three  jointed  antennae,  the  terminal  joint  nearly  three  times  as  long  as  the  two 
basal  ones.  2,  the  mandibles,  and  also  enlarged,  showing  the  cutting  edge  divided 
into  four  teeth.  3,  maxillae  divided  into  two  lobes :  d,  the  outer  and  anterior  lobe, 
2-jointed,  the  basal  joint  terminating  in  two  setae;  and  a,  the  inner  lobe  concealed 
from  view,  in  its  natural  position,  by  the  outer  lobe,  d.  4,  the  base  or  pedicel  of 
the  second  maxillae,  or  labium,  the  expanded  terminal  portion  being  drawn  sepa- 
rately; d  and  a,  two  movable  stout  styles  representing,  perhaps,  the  labial  palpi; 
the  lobe  to  which  they  are  attached  is  multidentate,  and  adapted  for  seizing 
prey ;  on  the  right  side  the  two  styles  are  appressed  to  the  lobe,  x  represents, 
perhaps,  the  ligula;  but  we  have  not  yet  studied  its  homologies  carefully:  this 
part  is  attached  to  a  transversely  linear  piece  soldered  to  the  main  part  of  the 
labium.  y,  the  llth  abdominal  ring,  with  its  pair  of  conical  anal  styles.  2,  the 
last  tarsal  joint  and  pair  of  long  slender  claws. 

FIG.  64.  The  pupa  of  Diplax,  having  rudimentary  wings,  in  which  the  eyes  are 
much  larger,  and  the  legs  much  shorter  than  in  the  recently  hatched  larva;  in- 
troduced  to  be  compared  with  the  young  larva.  Figs.  57-64,  original. 


TRANSFORMATIONS    OF   THE   INSECT.  61 

On  review  it  will  be  seen  how  remarkable  are  the  changes  in 
form  of  the  insect  before  it  is  hatched,  and  that  all  are  the 
result  of  simple  growth.  We  have  seen  that  the  two  ends  of 
the  body  are  first  formed,  and  that  the  under  side  of  the  body 
is  formed  before  the  back ;  that  the  belly  is  at  first  turned  out- 
wards, and  afterwards  the  embryo  reverses  its  position,  the 
back  presenting  outwards.  All  the  appendages  are  at  first 
simple  protrusions  from  the  body-walls,  and  new  segments  are 
interpolated  near  the  tip  of  the  abdomen.  These  changes  take 
place  very  rapidly,  within  a  very  few  days,  and  some  of  the 
most  important  and  earlier  ones  in  a  few  hours.  We  can  now 
better  understand  that  the  larva  and  pupa  stages  are  the  result 
of  a  similar  mode  of  growth,  though  very  marked  from  being 
in  a  different  medium,  the  insect  having  to  seek  food  and  act 
as  an  independent  being. 

TRANSFORMATIONS  OF  THE  INSECT.  We  have  seen  that 
during  the  growth  of  the  embryo,  the  insect  undergoes  remark- 
able changes  of  form,  the  result  of  simple  growth.  The  meta- 
morphoses of  the  animal  within  the  egg  are  no  less  marked 
than  those  which  occur  after  it  has  hatched.  It  will  also  be 
seen  that  the  larva  and  pupa  stages  are  not  always  fixed,  defi- 
nite states,  but  only  pauses  in  the  development  of  the  insect, 
concealing  beneath  the  larva  and  pupa  skins  the  most  impor- 
tant changes  of  form. 

The  process  of  hatching.  No  other  author  has  so  carefully 
described  the  process  of  hatching  as  Newport,  who  observed 
it  in  the  larva  of  Meloe.  "When  the  embryo  larva  is  ready 
for  its  change,  the  egg-shell  becomes  thinned  and  concave  on 
that  side  which  covers  the  ventral  surface  of  the  body,  but  is 
much  enlarged,  and  is  more  convex  on  the  dorsal,  especially 
towards  the  head.  The  shell  is  then  burst  longitudinally  along 
the  middle  of  the  thoracic  segments,  and  the  fissure  is  ex- 
tended forwards  to  the  head,  which  then,  together  with  the 
thoracic  segments,  is  partially  forced  through  the  opening,  but 
is  not  at  once  entirely  withdrawn.  The  antennae,  parts  of  the 
mouth,  and  legs  are  still  inclosed  within  separate  envelopes, 
and  retain  the  larva  in  this  covering  in  the  shell.  Efforts  are 
then  made  to  detach  the  posterior  segments  of  the  body,  which 


62  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

are  gradually  released,  and  with  them  the  antennae,  palpi,  and 
legs,  and  the  larva  removes  itself  entirely  from  the  shell  and 
membranes.  In  this  process  of  evolution  the  young  Meloe 
throws  off  two  distinct  coverings  :  first,  the  shell  with  its  lining 
membrane,  the  analogue  of  the  membrane  in  which,  as  I  have 
elsewhere  shown,*  the  young  Myriopod  is  inclosed,  and  re- 
tained several  days  after  the  bursting  of  the  ovum,  and  which 
represents  in  the  Articulata,  not  the  allantois,  but  apparently 
the  amnion,  of  Vertebrata  ;  next,  the  first,  or  foetal  deciduation 
of  the  tegument,  analogous  probably  to  the  first  change  of  skin 
in  the  Myriopod,  after  it  has  escaped  from  the  amnion,  and 
also  to  the  first  change  which  the  young  Arachnidan  invariably 
undergoes  a  few  clays  after  it  has  left  the  egg,  and  before  it 
can  take  food.  This  tegument,  which,  perhaps,  may  be  analo- 
gous to  the  vernix  caseosa  of  Vertebrata,  thrown  off  at  the 
instant  of  birth,  is  left  by  the  young  Meloe  with  the  amnion 
in  the  shell ;  and  its  separation  from  the  body,  at  this  early 
period,  seems  necessary  to  fit  the  insect  for  the  active  life  it 
has  commenced."  (Linn.  Trans,  xx.  p.  306,  etc.) 

The  larva  state.  The  larva  (Latin  larva,  a  mask)  was  so 
called  because  it  was  thought  to  mask  the  form  of  the  perfect 
insect.  The  larvae  of  Butterflies  and  Moths  are  called  cater- 
pillars; those  of  Beetles,  grubs;  and  those  of  the  two-winged 
Flies  (Diptera)  maggots;  the  larvae  of  other  groups  have  no 
distinctive  common  names. 

As  soon  as  it  is  hatched  the  larva  feeds  voraciously,  as  if  in 
anticipation  of  the  coming  period  of  rest,  the  pupa  state,  for 
which  stores  of  fat  (the  fatty  bodies)  are  developed  for  the 
supply  of  fat  globules  out  of  which  the  tissues  of  the  new 
body  of  the  pupa  and  imago  are  to  be  formed. 

Most  larvae  moult,  or  change  their  skin,  four  or  five  times. 
In  the  inactive  thin-skinned  larvae,  such  as  those  of  Bees, 
Wasps,  and  Gall-flies,  the  moults  are  not  apparent ;  as  the 
larva  increases  in  size  it  out-grows  the  old  skin,  which  comes 
off  in  thin  shreds.  But  in  the  active  larvae,  such  as  cater- 
pillars, grasshoppers,  and  grubs,  from  the  rapid  absorption  of 
vessels  in  the  outer  layer  of  the  skin,  just  before  the  change, 

*  Philosophical  Transactions,  Pt.  2, 1841,  p.  111. 


TRANSFORMATIONS   OF    THE    INSECT.  63 

it  becomes  hard  and  dry,  and  too  small  for  the  growing  in- 
sect, and  is  then  cast  off  entire. 

A  series  of  bee-larvae  can  be  selected  showing  a  graduation 
in  size  and  form  from  the  egg  and  recently  hatched  larva  up  to 
the  full-grown  larva.  In  the  caterpillar  and  other  active  larvae, 
there  are  usually  four  or  five  stages,  each  showing  a  sudden  and 
marked  increase  in  size.  Newport  states  that  the  caterpillar 
of  Sphinx  ligustri  moults  six  times,  and  at  the  last  moult  be- 
comes a  third  larger  than  at  any  earlier  period ;  the  larva  of 
Arctia  coy  a  moults  from  five  to  ten  times. 

A  few  days  before  the  assumption  of  the  pupa  state,  the 
larva  becomes  restless,  stops  eating,  and  deserts  its  food,  and 
usually  spins  a  silken  cocoon,  or  makes  one  of  earth,  or  chips, 
if  a  borer,  and  there  prepares  for  the  change  to  the  pupa  state. 

During  this  semipupa  period  (lasting,  in  many  insects,  only 
for  a  day  or  several  days,  but  in  some  Saw-flies  through  the 
winter)  the  skin  of  the  pupa  grows  beneath  that  of  the  quies- 
cent larva.  While  the  worm-like  larva  exhibits  no  trire- 
gional  distinctions,  the  muscles  of  the  growing  pupa  contract 
and  enlarge  in  certain  parts  so  as  to  modify  the  larva  form, 
until  it  gradually  assumes  the  triregional  form  of  the  adult 
insect,  with  the  differentiation  of  the  body  into  a  head,  thorax, 
and  abdomen. 

In  a  series  of  careful  studies,  abundantly  illustrated  with 
excellent  plates,  Weismann  has  recently  shown  that  Swammer- 
dam's  idea  that  the  pupa  and  imago  skins  were  in  reality 
already  concealed  under  that  of  the  larva  is  partially  founded 
in  truth.  Swammerdam  states,  "I  can  point  out  in  the  larva 
all  the  limbs  of  the  future  nymph,  or  Culex,  concealed  beneath 
the  skin,"  and  he  also  observed  beneath  the  skin  of  the  larvae 
of  bees  just  before  pupating,  the  antennae,  mouth-parts,  wings, 
and  limbs  of  the  adult.  (Weismann.) 

During  its  transformations  the  pupa  skin  is  developed  from 
the  hypodermis,  or  inner  layer  of  skin.  This  peals  off,  as  it 
were,  from  the  inner  layer  of  the  old  larva  skin,  which  soon 
dries  and  hardens,  and  is  thrown  off.  Meanwhile  the  muscles 
of  the  body  contract  and  change  in  form,  thus  causing  the  origi- 
nal segments  of  the  larva  to  infold  and  contract  at  certain  parts, 
gradually  producing  the  pupa  form.  If,  during  this  period,  the 


64  THE    CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 

insect  be  examined  at  intervals,  a  series  of  slight  changes  of 
form  may  be  seen,  from  the  larva  to  the  imago  state.  In  some 
cases  each  change  is  accompanied  by  a  moult,  as  in  the  "ac- 
tive "  Ephemera,  where  Lubbock  counted  twenty  one  moults. 

As  a  general  rule,  then,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  body  of 
the  larva  is  transformed  into  that  of  the  imago ;  ring  answer- 
ing to  ring,  and  limb  to  limb  in  both,  the  head  of  the  one 
is  homologous  with  that  of  the  other,  and  the  appendages  of 
the  larva  are  homologous  with  the  appendages  of  the  imago. 

Weismann  has  shown  that  in  the  larva  of  the  Meat-fly,  Musca 
vomitoria,  the  thorax  and  head  of  the  imago  are  developed 
from  what  he  calls  "imaginal  disks."  These  disks  are  minute 
isolated  portions  of  the  hypodermis,  which  are  formed  in  the 
embryo,  before  it  leaves  the  egg,  and  are  held  in  place  within 
the  body-cavity  of  the  larva  by  being  attached  either  to  nerves 
or  tracheae,  or  both.  After  the  outer  layer  of  the  larva  skin 
dries  and  hardens,  and  forms  the  cask-shaped  puparhim,  the 
use  of  which  corresponds  to  the  cocoon  of  moths,  etc.,  these 
imaginal  disks  increase  in  size  so  as  to  form  the  tegument  of 
the  thorax  and  head.  The  abdomen  of  the  Meat-fly,  however, 
is  formed  by  the  direct  conversion  of  the  eight  hinder  segments 
of  the  body  of  the  larva,  into  the  corresponding  segments  of 
the  imago. 

Accompanying  this  change  in  the  integument  there  is  a 
destruction  of  all  the  larval  system  of  organs ;  this  is  either 
total  or  effected  by  the  gradual  destruction  of  tissues.  Now 
we  see  the  use  of  the  "fatty  body;"  this  breaks  up,  setting 
free  granular  globules  of  fat,  which,  as  we  have  seen  in  the 
embryo,  produces  by  the  multiplication  of  cells  the  new  tissues 
of  the  pupa.  Thus  the  larva- skin  is  cast  aside,  and  also  the 
softer  organs  within,  but  the  formation  of  new  tissues  keeps 
even  pace  with  the  destruction  of  the  old,  and  the  insect  pre- 
serves its  identity  throughout.  The  genital  glands,  however, 
are  indicated  even  in  the  embryo,  and  are  gradually  developed 
throughout  the  growth  of  the  insect,  so  that  this  histotysis,  or 
destruction  of  tissues,  is  not  wholly  complete.  The  quiescent 
pupa-state  of  Musca  is  long-continued,  and  its  vitality  is  latent, 
the  acts  of  respiration  and  circulation  being  almost  suspended. 
(Weismann. ) 


TRANSFORMATIONS    OF   THE   INSECT.  65 

In  the  metamorphosis  of  Corethra,  a  Mosquito-like  Fly,  which 
is  active  both  in  the  larva  and  pupa  states,  "the  segments  of 
the  larva  are  converted  directly  into  the  corresponding  seg- 
ments of  the  body  of  the  imago,  the  appendages  of  the  head 
into  the  corresponding  ones  of  the.  head  of  the  imago ;  those 
of  the  thorax  are  produced  after  the  last  moult  of  the  larva 
as  diverticula  of  the  hypodermis  round  a  nerve  or  trachea, 
from  the  cellular  envelope  of  which  the  formation  of  tissue  in 
the  interior  of  the  appendages  issues.  The  larval  muscles  of 
the  abdominal  segments  are  transferred  unchanged  into  the 
imago ;  the  thoracic  muscles  peculiar  to  the  imago,  as  also 
some  additional  abdominal  muscles,  are  developed  in  the  last 
larval  periods  from  indifferent  cellular  cords  which  are  indi- 
cated even  in  the  egg.  The  genital  glands  date  back  to  the 
embryo,  and  are  gradually  developed ;  all  the  other  systems  of 
organs  pass  with  little  or  no  alteration  into  the  imago.  Fatty 
body  none  or  inconsiderable.  Pupa-state  short  and  active." 
(Weismann.) 

As  the  two  types  are  most  clearly  discriminated  by  the 
presence  or  absence  of  true  imaginal  disks,  Weismann  suggests 
that  those  insects  which  undergo  a  marked  metamorphosis 
might  be  divided  into  Insecta  discota  (or  Insects  with  imaginal 
disks),  and  those  without,  into  Insecta  adiscota. 

The  metamorphosis  of  Corethra  may  prove  to  be  a  type  of 
that  of  all  insects  which  are  active  in  their  preparatory  stages  ; 
and  that  of  Musca  typical  of  all  those  that  are  quiescent  in  the 
pupa-state,  at  least  the  Lepidoptera  and  those  Diptera  which 
have  a  coarctate  *  pupa,  together  with  the  Coleoptera  and  those 
Neuroptera  in  which  the  metamorphosis  is  complete,  as  Pliry- 
ganea,  Hemerobius,  etc. 

The  transformations  of  the  Humble-bee  are  easily  observed 
by  taking  a  nest  after  the  first  brood  have  matured,  when  we 
shall  find  individuals  in  all  stages  of  development  from  the 
larva  to  the  imago  state.  The  figures  below  show  four  stages, 
but  in  reality  there  is  every  gradation  between  these  stages. 

*The  larvae  of  some  of  the  higher  Diptera  spin  a  slight  cocoon,  while  the  true 
flies,  such  as  the  Muscidse  and  Syrphidae,  etc.,  change  to  pupse  within  the  larva 
skin  which  contracts  into  a  cylindrical  "puparium"  corresponding  in  use  to  the 
cocoon;  such  pupae  are  called  "coarctate." 

5 


66 


THE   CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 


Fig.  64  shows  what  we  may  call  the  semipupa,  concealed  by 
the  old  larval  skin.  There  are  ten  pairs  of  stigmata,  two 
thoracic  and  eight  abdominal.  The  head  of  the  semi-pupa 
lies  under  the  head  (a)  and  prothoracic  ring  (6).  The  basal 
ring  of  the  abdomen  (c),  or  fourth  ring  from  the  head,  is  un- 
changed in  form.  This  figure  also  will  suffice  to  represent 

k          I 


Fig.  65. 


Fig.  66.  Fig.  67. 

the  larva,  though  a  little  more  produced  anteriorly  than  in 
its  natural  form. 

In  another  stage  (Fig.  65)  of  the  semi-pupa,  the  larval  skin 
is  entirely  sloughed  off,  the  two  pairs  of  wing-pads  lying  paral- 
lel, and  very  equal  in  size,  like  the  wings  of  Netiroptera.  The 
thoraco- abdominal  ring,  or  propodeum  (c),  is  distinguished  by 
its  oblong  spiracle  (n),  essentially  differing  from  those  on 
the  abdomen.  At  this  point  the  body  contracts,  but  the  head 


TRANSFORMATIONS    OF   THE    INSECT.  67 

and  thorax  together  are  yet,  as  still  more  in  the  previous 
stage,  much  smaller  than  in  the  pupa,  and  there  is  still  a  con- 
tinuous curve  from  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  to  the  head.  (0, 
antenna ;  7i,  lingua,  maxillae,  and  palpi ;  i,  fore-legs ;  ,;',  mid- 
dle legs ;  ft,  meso-scutum ;  Z,  meso-scutellum ;  w,  spiracle  of 
the  propodeum.) 

In  a  succeeding  stage  (Fig.  66)  of  the  semi-pupa,  the  head 
and  thorax  together  nearly  equal  in  size  the  abdomen,  and  the 
propodeum  (c)  has  become  entirely  transferred  to  the  thorax. 
The  head  has  become  greatly  enlarged  ;  the  rings  are  very  un- 
equal, the  hinder  pair  are  much  smaller,  and  overlaid  by  the 
anterior  pair ;  the  three  terminal  pair  of  abdominal  rings,  so 
large  in  Fig.  65,  have  been  absorbed,  and  partially  inclosed  in 
the  cavity  of  the  abdomen ;  and  there  has  been  a  farther  dif- 
ferentiation of  the  ring  into  the  sternite  (d),  pleurite  (e),  and 
tergite  (/).  (a,  eye;  7i,  lingua;  o,  ovipositor,  two  outer 
rhabdites  exposed  to  view.)  The  abdominal:  spiracles  in  Figs. 
65  and  66,  are  represented  by  a  row  of  dots.  In  the  pupa 
they  are  concealed  by  the  tergites,  which  overlap  the  sternites. 

Fig.  67  represents  the  pupa  state,  where  the  body  has  become 
much  shorter,  and  the  appendages  of  the  head  and  thorax  greatly 
differentiated  ;  the  external  genital  organs  are  wholly  retracted 
within  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen ;  the  head  is  freer  from  the 
body,  and  the  whole  bulk  of  the  head  and  thorax  together,  in- 
cluding the  appendages,  greater  than  that  of  the  abdomen. 
These  changes  of  form,  assumed  by  the  insect  in  its  passage 
from  the  larva  to  the  pupa  state,  are  nearly  as  striking  as 
the  so-called  "  hypermetamorphosis "  of  Meloe  and  Sitaris 
described  by  Newport  and  Fabre.  (7,  mesoscutellum ;  p,  cly- 
peus  ;  g,  maxillae  with  the  palpi ;  r,  lingua.) 

We  have  also  observed  similar  changes  in  the  semi-pupa  of  a 
Tineid  larva,  which  we  found  in  the  mud-cells  of  Odynerus 
albophaleratus.  There  were  over  a  dozen  specimens  in  different 
stages  of  growth  from  the  larva  to  the  pupa,  which  were  but 
partially  paralyzed  by  the  well-directed  sting  of  the  intelligent 
wasp,  so  that  some  continued  to  transform  into  perfect  pupae. 

The  following  changes  were  noticed :  the  larva  straightened 
out,  and  became  a  little  shorter,  the  prothoracic  ring  remaining 
the  same ;  the  head  of  the  pupa  being  beneath  it ;  the  meso- 


68  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

thoracic  ring  enlarged,  swelling  and  rounding  above  and  on  the 
sides,  and  with  this  increase  in  size  drawing  the  meta-thorax 
forwards.  The  first  visible  portion  of  the  pupa  beneath  is  the 
mesothorax.  The  thoracic  legs  of  the  larva  are  now  con- 
stricted at  their  base,  and  have  become  useless. 

In  the  next  stage,  the  most  important  change  noticed  is  in 
the  metathorax,  which  now  becomes  broadly  heart-shaped.  In 
a  succeeding  stage,  the  whole  thorax  bulges  out,  and  is  much 
larger  and  clearly  distinguished  from  the  head  and  abdomen. 
The  prothorax  of  the  larva  disappears,  and  that  of  the  pupa 
takes  its  place.  The  occiput  of  the  pupa,  just  before  the  larva- 
skin  is  thrown  off,  can  be  distinctly  seen  under  the  larval  occi- 
put, pushing  aside  each  half  of  the  latter. 

In  the  last  stage  of  Bombus  just  before  the  imago  leaves  its 
cell,  the  body  and  limbs  are  surrounded  by  a  thin  pellicle. 
This  pellicle  also  envelops  the  moth,  just  before  it  leaves  the 
pupal  state,  and  is  cast  off  when  it  moults  the  pupa-skin.  This 
is  probably  identical  with  the  skin  cast  by  the  active  subimago 
of  Ephemera,  soon  after  it  has  taken  its  flight.  Westwood  also 
considers  this  subimago  skin  identical  with  that  covering  the 
bodies  of  coarctate  Diptera,  as  in  Eristalis. 

Newport  states,  that  when  the  imago  of  Sphinx  is  about  to 
cast  off  the  pupa-skin  the  abdominal  segments  are  elongated 
beyond  their  original  extent,  this  being  the  first  part  of  the 
insect  that  is  entirely  freed  from  its  attachment  within  the 
pupa-case.  After  this  the  thorax  slits  down,  and  the  body  is 
drawn  out  of  the  rent.  In  the  Butterfly  the  wings  mature  in  a 
few  moments,  but  those  of  /Sphinx  being  thicker,  require  two 
or  three  hours. 

Newport  (Philosophical  Transactions,  London,  1832  and 
1834)  has  detailed  with  great  minuteness  the  internal  changes 
of  Sphinx  ligustri  while  transforming.  The  most  marked 
changes  are  in  the  nervous  and  digestive  systems. 

Several  anomalous  modes  of  metantorphosis  have  been  ob- 
served, one  in  Diptera  and  the  other  in  Sitaris  and  Meloe.  The 
development  of  the  latter  insect  will  be  noticed  beyond. 

Sir  John  Lubbock  has  described  the  singular  metamorphosis 
of  Lonchoptera,  which  he  considers  to  be  allied  to  Sargus, 
though  the  adult  stages  differ  greatly.  The  larvae  are  oblong 


TRANSFORMATIONS    OF   THE   INSECT.  69 

ovate,  flattened,  with  four  long  setae  in  front  and  two  behind, 
with  the  sides  of  the  body  emarginate  and  spinulated.  They 
were  found  under  logs.  "When  the  larva  is  full  grown,  it  de- 
taches itself  from  the  skin,  which  retains  its  form,  and  within 
which  the  insect  changes  into  a  white  opaque  fleshy  grub  con- 
sisting apparently  of  thirteen  segments  which  gradually  dimin- 
ish in  size  from  one  end  to  the  other.  There  are  no  limb-cases. 
According  to  analogy  the  pupa  should  be  i  incomplete ; '  it  is 
probable,  therefore,  that  the  legs  and  wings  njake  their  appear- 
ance at  a  later  stage.  If  this  be  so  the  perfect  form  is  only 
attained  after  passing  through  three  well-marked  stages.  I  re- 
gret, however,  that  the  specimens  at  my  disposal  did  not  enable 
me  to  decide  this  point."  (Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  London,  Third 
Ser.  i,  1862.) 

Haliday  states  that  Thrips  goes  through  a  propupa  and  pupa 
stage.  There  are  five  well-defined  stages  in  the  Homopterous 
Typhlocyba,  and  more  than  three  in  Aphis.  Yersin  has  noticed 
several  stages  in  the  development  of  Oryllus  campestris,  and 
the  genus  Psocus  has  four  such  stages. 

The  duration  of  the  different  stages  varies  with  the  changes 
of  the  seasons.  Cold  and  damp  weather  retards  the  process  of 
transformation.  Reaumur  kept  the  pupa  of  a  Butterfly  two 
years  in  an  ice-house  before,  on  being  removed  to  a  warm  place, 
it  changed  to  a  butterfly.  Chrysalids  survive  great  alter- 
nations of  heat  and  cold ;  they  may  be  frozen  stiff  on  ice,  and 
then,  on  being  gradually  exposed  to  the  heat,  thaw  out  and 
finish  their  transformations. 

Retrograde  Development.  There  are  certain  degradational 
forms  among  the  lowest  members  of  each  group  of  Insects 
which  imitate  the  group  beneath  them.  The  Tardigrades  (which 
are  considered  by  some  authors  to  be  allied  to  the  Mites)  are 
mimicked  by  the  low  parasitic  worm-like  Demodex  folliculorum  ; 
the  low  Neuroptera,  such  as  Lepisma.  imitate  the  Myriopoda  ; 
and  the  wingless  Lice  remind  us  of  the  larvse  of  the  Neuropter- 
ous  HemeroUus. 

Among  the  Coleoptera,  the  history  of  Stylops  affords  a  strik- 
ing example.  The  active  six-footed  larva  is  transformed  into 
the  strange  bag-like  female  which  takes  on  the  form  of  a  cylin- 
drical sac,  the  head  and  thorax  being  consolidated  into  a 


70  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

minute  flattened  portion.  The  process  of  degradation  here 
seems  carried  out  to  its  farthest  limit. 

Thus  the  degraded  forms  of  the  lower  series  of  Hexapods 
take  on  a  Myriopod  aspect.  In  the  more  highly  cephalized 
Diptera,  Lepidoptera,  and  Hymenoptera  the  degraded  forms 
are  modelled  on  a  higher  articulate  type.  The  idea  of  a  divis- 
ion into  three  regions  is  involved.  Thus  the  wingless  forms 
of  Flies,  such  as  the  Bird-louse,  Nirmus;  the  Bat-tick,  Nycte- 
ribia;  the  Bee-lojise,  Braida;  and  Chionea  resemble  strikingly 
the  biregional  Arachnids. 

In  the  wingless  female  of  Orgyia  and  the  Canker-worm  moth, 
the  head  is  free,  but  the  thorax  is  merged  into  the  abdomen. 
The  resemblance  to  the  lower  insects  is  less  striking.  The 
worker  ants  and  wingless  Ichneumons,  Pezomachus,  still  more 
strictly  adhere  to  the  type  of  their  suborder,  and  in  them  the 
triregional  form  of  the  body  persists.  Among  the  first  of  the 
examples  here  cited  we  have  seen  the  workings  of  a  law,  by 
which  most  degraded  forms  of  insects  (and  this  law  is  exerted 
with  greater  force  in  Crustacea)  tend  to  revert  to  the  worm-like, 
or,  as  we  may  call  it,  the  archetypal,  form  of  all  Articulata. 

We  have  seen  that  many  winged  forms  mimic  the  groups 
above  them,  whereas  the  wingless  degraded  species  revert  to  a 
worm-like  form.  In  either  case,  the  progress  is  towards  a 
higher  or  a  lower  form.  The  latter  is  the  more  exceptional,  as 
the  evolution  and  growth  of  all  animals  is  upwards  towards  a 
more  specialized,  differentiated  form. 

The  Imago.  After  completing  its  transformations  the  adult 
insect  immediately  seeks  to  provide  for  the  propagation  and 
continuance  of  the  species.  The  sexes  meet,  and,  soon  after, 
the  male,  now  no  longer  of  use  in  the  insect  economy,  perishes. 
The  female  hastens  to  lay  her  eggs  either  in,  upon,  or  near 
what  is  to  be  the  food  of  the  young,  and  then  dies.  This 
period  generally  occurs  in  the  summer  and  autumn,  and  during 
the  winter  the  species  is  mostly  represented  by  the  egg  alone. 
Rarely  does  the  adult  insect  hibernate,  but  in  many  species 
the  pupa  hibernates  to  disclose  the  adult  in  early  summer. 
The  larva  seldom,  as  such,  lives  through  the  winter. 

Re'aumur  kept  a  virgin  butterfly  for  two  years  in  his  hot- 
house. From  this  it  would  seem  that  the  duration  of  the  life 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION.  71 

of  an  insect  may  be  in  this  way  greatly  prolonged.  Most  in- 
sects live  one  year.  Hatching  from  the  egg  in  early  summer, 
they  pass  through  the  larva  state,  and  in  the  autumn  become 
pupae,  to  appear  as  images  for  a  few  days  or  weeks  in  the 
succeeding  summer.  Many  Lepidoptera  are  double-brooded,  and 
some  have  even  three  broods,  while  the  parasitic  insects  such  as 
Lice  and  Fleas,  and  many  Flies,  keep  up  a  constant  succession 
of  broods.  Warmth,  Mr.  R.  C.  R.  Jordan  remarks  in  the  Ento- 
mologists' Monthly  Magazine,  has  much  to  do  with  rapidity 
of  development,  as  insects  may  be  forced  artificially  into  hav- 
ing a  second  brood  during  the  same  season.  Some  Coleoptera, 
such  as  the  Lamellicorns,  are  supposed  to  live  three  years  in 
the  larva  state,  the  whole  time  of  life  being  four  years.  The 
Cockchafer  (Melolontha)  of  Europe  is  three  years  in  arriving 
at  the  perfect  state,  and  the  habits  of  the  Goldsmith  Beetle 
(Cotalpa  lanigera),  according  to  Rev.  Samuel  Lockwood 
(American  Naturalist,  vol.  2,  p.  186),  and  of  the  June  Beetle, 
and  allied  genera,  are  probably  the  same. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION.  The  insect-fauna  of  a  coun- 
try comprises  all  the  insects  found  within  its  limits.  The 
Polar,  Temperate,  and  Tropical  zones  each  have  their  distinct 
insect-fauna,  and  each  continent  is  inhabited  by  a  distinct 
assemblage  of  insects.  It  is  also  a  curious  fact  that  the  insect- 
fauna  of  the  east  coast  of  America  resembles,  or  has  many  an- 
alogues in,  that  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere,  and  the  west  coast 
of  one  repeats  the  characteristics  of  the  west  coast  of  the 
other.  Thus  some  California  insects  are  either  the  same  spe- 
cies or  analogues  (i.e.  representative  species)  of  European 
ones,  and  the  Atlantic  coast  affords  forms  of  which  the  ana- 
logues are  found  in  Eastern  Asia  and  in  India.  This  is  corre- 
lated with  the  climatic  features  which  are  repeated  on  alternate 
sides  of  the  two  hemispheres. 

The  limits  of  these  faunae  are  determined  by  temperature  and 
natural  boundaries,  i.  e.  the  ocean  and  mountain  ranges;  Thus 
the  insect-fauna  of  the  polar  regions  is  much  the  same  in 
Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America ;  certain  widely  spread  polar 
species  being  common  to  all  three  of  these  continents. 

When  we  ascend  high  mountains  situated  in  the  temperate 


72  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

zone,  whose  summits  nearly  reach  the  snow-line,  we  find  a 
few  insects  which  are  the  same  or  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
polar  regions ;  such  an  assemblage  is  called  an  Alpine  fauna. 

The  insect-fauna  of  each  great  continent  may  be  divided  into 
an  Arctic,  or  polar,  a  Temperate,  and  a  Tropical  fauna,  and  an 
Alpine  fauna  if  there  are  mountains  in  the  warm  latitudes  which 
reach  near  the  snow-line.  Mountain  barriers,  inland  seas,  des- 
erts, and  peculiarities  in  the  flora  (or  collection  of  plants 
peculiar  to  a  certain  district),  are  boundaries  of  secondary 
importance  in  limiting  the  distribution  of  species. 

On  the  other  hand  insects  are  diffused ~by  winds,  rivers, 
oceanic  currents,  and  the  agency  of  man.  By  the  latter  im- 
portant means  certain  insects  become  cosmopolitan.  Certain 
injurious  insects  become  suddenly  abundant  in  newly  cultivated 
tracts.  The  balance  of  nature  seems  to  be  disturbed,  and 
insects  multiplying  rapidly  in  newly  settled  portions  of  the 
country,  become  terrible  pests.  In  the  course  of  time,  how- 
ever, they  seem  to  decrease  in  numbers  and  moderate  their 
attacks. 

Insect-faunae  are  not  limited  by  arbitrary  boundaries,  but 
fade  into  each  other  by  insensible  gradations  corresponding  in 
a  general  way  to  the  changes  of  the  temperature  of  different 
portions  of  the  district  they  inhabit. 

The  subject  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  insects,  of 
which  we  have  as  yet  but  given  the  rudiments,  may  be  studied 
to  great  advantage  in  North  America.  The  Arctic  insect-fauna 
comprises  Greenland,  the  arctic  American  Archipelago,  and  the 
northern  shores  of  the  continent  beyond  the  limit  of  trees.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  insects  found  in  this  region  occur  in 
arctic  Europe  and  arctic  Asia,  and  are  hence  called  circum- 
polar,  while  other  species  are  indigenous  to  each  country. 
Again,  the  arctic  fauna  of  Labrador  and  Hudson's  Bay  differs 
from  that  of  the  arctic  portions  of  the  region  about  Behring's 
Straits,  certain  species  characterizing  one  side  of  the  continent 
being  replaced  by  representative  species  which  inhabit  the 
opposite  side. 

The  Alpine  fauna  of  the  White  Mountains  consists,  besides 
a  very  few  peculiar  to  them,  of  circumpolar  species,  which  are 
now  only  found  in  Labrador  and  Greenland,  and  which  are 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION.  73 

supposed  to  be  relics  of  a  glacial  fauna  which  formerly  inhab- 
ited the  northern  part  of  the  temperate  zone,  and  in  former 
times  followed  the  retreat  of  a  glacial,  or  arctic  climate  from 
the  low-lands  to  the  Alpine  summits.  These  patches,  or  out- 
liers, of  an  Arctic  fauna,  containing  however  a  preponderance 
of  subarctic  forms,  also  occur  in  the  Colder  parts  of  New 
England. 

The  subarctic  fauna  is  spread  over  British  North  America, 
stretching  north-westerly  from  the  interior  of  Labrador  and  the 
northern  shores  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  following  the  course  of 
the  isothermal  lines  which  run  in  that  direction,  and  north  of 
which  no  cereals  grow.  There  are  subarctic  forms  which  inhabit 
the  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  especially  about  Eastport, 
Maine,  where  the  fogs  and  cold  arctic  marine  currents  lower 
the  climate. 

Dr.  J.  L.  Leconte,  in  a  paper  on  the  Coleoptera  of  Kansas 
and  Eastern  New  Mexico  (Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowl- 
edge), thus  subdivides  the  Coleopterous  fauna  of  the  United 
States,  and  gives  a  useful  map  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 

"The  whole  region  of  the  United  States  is  divided  by  merid- 
ional, or  nearly  meridional  lines  into  three,  or  perhaps  four, 
great  zoological  districts,  distinguished  each  by  numerous 
peculiar  genera  and  species,  which,  with  but  few  exceptions,  do 
not  extend  into  the  contiguous  districts.  The  eastern  one 
of  these  extends  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  arid  prairies  on 
the  west  of  Iowa,  Missouri,  and  Arkansas,  thus  embracing 
(for  convenience  merely)  a  narrow  strip  near  the  sea-coast  of 
Texas.  This  narrow  strip,  however,  belongs  more  properly 
to  the  eastern  province  of  the  tropical  zoological  district  of 
Mexico. 

"The  central  district  extends  from  the  western  limit  of  the 
eastern  district,  perhaps  to  the  mass  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  of 
California,  including  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Utah,  New  Mexico, 
Arizona,  and  Texas.  Except  Arizona,  the  entomological  fauna 
of  the  portion  of  this  district  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  in  fact  that  of  the  mountain  region  proper,  is  entirely  un- 
known ;  and  it  is  very  probable  that  the  region  does  in  reality 
constitute  two  districts  bounded  by  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
the  southern  continuation  thereof. 


74  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

"The  western  district  is  the  maritime  slope  of  the  continent 
to  the  Pacific,  and  thus  includes  California,  Oregon,  and  Wash- 
ington Territories. 

"These  great  districts  are  divided  into  a  number  of  prov- 
inces, of  unequal  size,  and  which  are  limited  by  changes  in 
climate,  and  therefore  sometimes  distinctly,  sometimes  vaguely 
defined." 

"The  method  of  distribution  of  species  in  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  districts,  as  already  observed  by  me  in  various  memoirs, 
is  entirely  different.  In  the  Atlantic  district,  a  large  number 
of  species  are  distributed  over  a  large  extent  of  country  ;  many 
species  are  of  rare  occurrence,  and  in  passing  over  a  distance 
of  several  hundred  miles,  but  small  variation  will  be  found  in 
the  species  obtained.  In  the  Pacific  district,  a  small  number- 
of  species  are  confined  to  a  small  region  of  country ;  most 
species  occur  in  considerable  numbers,  and  in  travelling  even 
one  hundred  miles,  it  is  found  that  the  most  abundant  species 
are  replaced  by  others,  in  many  instances  very  similar  to  them ; 
these  small  centres  of  distribution  can  be  limited  only  after 
careful  collections  have  been  made  at  a  great  number  of  locali- 
ties, and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  very  interesting  and  im- 
portant subject  of  investigation  may  soon  receive  proper  atten- 
tion from  the  lovers  of  science  of  our  Pacific  shores. 

"  In  the  Central  district,  consisting,  as  it  does  to  a  very 
large  extent,  of  deserts,  the  distribution  seems  to  be  of  a  mod- 
erate number  of  species  over  a  large  extent  of  country,  with  a 
considerable  admixture  of  local  species  ;  such  at  least  seems  to 
be  the  result  of  observations  in  Kansas,  Upper  Texas,  and 
Arizona." 

There  are  a  very  few  species  which  range  from  New  England 
to  Brazil,  and  fewer  still  (Xyleutes  robinice,  according  to  Bois- 
duval,  is  found  in  California)  range  from  New  England  to 
California.  Junonia  ccem'a,  according  to  authors,  is  found  both 
in  the  Southern  States  and  California,  and  Pyrrliarctia  Isabella 
of  the  Eastern  States  would  be  easily  confounded  with  P.  Cali- 
fornica. 

Variation.  Islands  afford  more  variable  forms  than  conti- 
nents ;  the  Madeiran  insects  and  those  of  Great  Britain  vary 
more  than  the  same  species  found  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION.  75 

A  species  spread  through  two  zones  of  temperature  also  varies  j 
many  European  species,  according  to  McLachlan,  becoming 
"melanized"  in  going  northward,  while  others  become  paler. 
Such  varieties  have  been  described  as  different  species. 

Mr.  Alfred  Wallace  finds  that  the  most  constant  forms  of 
species  are  those  the  most  limited  in  their  geographical  range 
as  to  a  particular  island,  while  those  species,  which  range  over 
a  large  part  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  vary  very  consider- 
ably. It  is  a  general  rule  throughout  the  animal  and  vegetable 
world,  that  the  most  widely  spread  species  are  those  capable  of 
withstanding  the  greatest  climatic  changes,  and  adapting  them- 
selves to  the  greatest  diversities  of  topography. 

While  the  most  widely  distributed  species  are  thought  to  be 
the  most  variable,  Mr.  Scudder  finds  in  the  genus  Chionobas 
that  C.  semidea,  restricted  to  the  summit  of  Mt.  Washington 
varies  almost  as  much  as  C.  Oeno,  which  is  circumpolar,  being 
found  both  in  Labrador  and  Northern  Europe. 

Mr.  Wallace  (Transactions  of  the  Linnsean  Society,  xxv, 
1865,  p.  14)  mentions  the  following  facts  "as  showing  the 
special  influence  of  locality  in  giving  a  peculiar  fades  to  the 
several  disconnected  species  that  inhabit  it." 

"  On  examining  the  closely  allied  species,  local  forms,  and 
varieties  distributed  over  the  Indian  and  Malayan  regions,  I 
find  that  larger  or  smaller  districts,  or  even  single  islands,  give 
a  special  character  to  the  majority  of  their  Papilionidse.  For 
instance:  1.  The  species  of  the  Indian  region  (Sumatra,  Java, 
and  Borneo)  are  almost  invariably  smaller  than  the  allied  spe- 
cies inhabiting  the  Celebes  and  Moluccas ;  2.  The  species  of 
New  Guinea  and  Australia  are  also,  though  in  a  less  degree, 
smaller  than  the  nearest  species  or  varieties  of  the  Moluccas  ; 
3.  In  the  Moluccas  themselves  the  species  of  Amboyna  are  larg- 
est ;  4.  The  species  of  Celebes  equal  or  even  surpass  in  size  those 
of  Amboyna ;  5.  The  species  and  varieties  of  Celebes  possess 
a  striking  character  in  the  form  of  the  anterior  wings,  differing 
from  that  of  the  allied  species  and  varieties  of  all  the  surrounding 
islands  ;  6.  Tailed  species  in  India  or  the  Indian  region  become 
tailless  as  they  spread  eastward  through  the  archipelago." 

Variety  breeding.  Varieties  may  be  produced  artificially ; 
thus  negro  varieties  of  insects  may  be  raised  "from  parents 


76  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

more  or  less  tainted  with  melanism,  and  according  to  Knaggs, 
there  is  a  "frequent  recurrence  of  individuals  wanting  a  hind 
wing,  which  may  be  noticed  even  at  large  in  Macaria  notata." 
"Few  species  are  liable  to  the  same  extent  of  variation,  and 
many  apparently  to  none  at  all."  Certain  species  vary  "ac- 
cording as  they  may  have  reproduced,  generation  after  gen- 
eration, on  a  chalky,  peaty,  gravelly,  or  other  soil."  Food  also 
exerts  an  influence  in  inducing  variation,  according  as  cater- 
pillars of  the  same  species  feed  on  different  plants  ;  this  occurs 
most  Commonly  in  the  Micro-lepidoptera.  (Knaggs,  in  the 
Entomologist's  Monthly  Magazine,  London.) 

Introduced  species  of  insects,  like  those  of  plants,  often  thrive 
more  vigorously  than  the  native  forms.  This  is  instanced  by 
native  insects  which  abound  in  unusual  numbers  in  newly 
cleared  districts  where  the  former  presence  of  forests  and 
their  natural  foes  kept  them  under.  The  Potato-beetle,  Can- 
ker-worm, and  Clisiocampa  must  have  lived  formerly  in  mod- 
erate numbers  on  our  native  plants,  where  now  countless  hosts 
affect  our  introduced  plants.  Among  species  introduced  from 
a  foreign  country  we  have  only  to  instance  the  Hessian  Fty, 
the  Wheat-midge,  the  Coddling-moth,  the  Clothes-moth,  the 
Apple  Bark-louse,  and  the  Grain-weevil.  Mr.  W.  T.  Brig- 
ham  informs  us  that  some  of  the  most  abundant  insects  in  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  are  introduced  species  carried  by  vessels 
from  Europe.  Vanessa  Antiopa,  Pyrameis  cardui,  and  P. 
Atalanta,  so  abundant  in  this  country,  are  supposed  to  be  intro- 
duced butterflies.  Aphodius  fimetarius,  found  by  us  living  in 
dung  on  Mt.  Washington,  is  one  of  our  most  common  beetles, 
and  the  Asparagus-beetle,  introduced  from  Europe  a  few  years 
since,  is  common  in  gardens  in  Eastern  New  York,  while  Mr. 
Walsh  has  recorded  the  appearance  of  the  European  Gooseberry 
Saw-Fly,  which  ravages  the  Gooseberry  and  Currant.  Pieris 
rapce,  the  Cabbage-butterfly,  introduced  from  Europe  into 
Quebec  about  1859,  soon  became  abundant  within  a  circle  of 
forty  miles  radius  about  that  city,  and  has  even  spread  into 
Maine  and  Vermont  along  the  railroads  leading  from  Quebec. 

Insect  Years.  There  are  insect  years  as  well  as  "apple 
years,"  seasons  when  insects  most  abound.  Every  collector 
knows  that  there  are  certain  years  when  a  particular  species  of 


GEOLOGICAL   DISTRIBUTION.  77 

insect  is  unusually  common.  The  Army-worm,  Leucania  uni- 
puncta,  swarms  in  countless  numbers  in  a  summer  following 
a  dry  and  warm  spring.  After  a  cold  and  rainy  spring,  insects 
are  less  abundant.  Mr.  F.  Smith  remarks  that  in  England  the 
summer  and  autumn  of  1860  were  unusually  wet,  which  dis- 
abled the  bees,  wasps,  and  fossorial  hymenoptera  generally,  in 
building  their  nests.  We  know  how  ants  are  hindered  from 
building  their  nests  by  rain,  and  in  a  very  r&my  season  num- 
bers probably  die.  A  succession  of  rainy  seasons  caused  the 
Andrense,  or  Spring  bees,  to  disappear  from  the  vicinity  of 
London.  While  a  severe  winter,  if  the  cold  be  continuous,  is 
not  injurious  to  insects,  mild  periods  in  winter,  when  it  is  warm 
enough  to  rouse  them  from  torpidity,  are  as  fatal  to  insects  as 
to  vegetation,  should  severe  cold  immediately  follow. 

GEOLOGICAL  DISTRIBUTION.  The  geological  distribution  of 
insects  corresponds  generally  with  that  of  other  animals, 
though  insect-remains  are  few  in  number,  owing  naturally  to 
the  difficulty  with  which  their  fragile  forms  are  preserved 
in  the  rocks.  Professor  C.  F.  Hartt  has  discovered  near  St. 
John,  New  Brunswick,  the  oldest  insect-remains  in  the  world. 
They  occur  in  some  plant-beds  of  the  Upper  Devonian  forma- 
tion, and  consist  of  six  species  of  Neuroptera.  Mr.  Scudder, 
who  has  referred  to  them  in  vol.  1  of  the  American  Naturalist, 
states  that  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  Ephemeridse,  or 
May-flies,  they  mostly  represent  families  which  are  now  extinct. 
He  describes  a  gigantic  May-fly,  Platephemera  antiqua  (PL  1 , 
fig.  3)  ;  Litlientomum  Harttii  (PL  1,  fig.  5)  ;  Homothetus  fossi- 
lis  (PL  1,  fig.  7)  ;  and  Xenoneura  anti-quorum  which  is  supposed 
to  bear  a  stridulating  organ  like  that  of  the  Grasshoppers, 
so  that  he  "is  inclined  to  believe  there  were  chirping  Neu- 
roptera in  those  days." 

Ascending  to  the  Carboniferous  rocks,  insect-remains  appear 
more  abundant.  At  Morris,  Illinois,  have  been  collected  some 
remarkable  forms.  Among  them  are  Miamia  Bronsonii  Dana 
(PL  1,  fig.  1),  allied  to  the  White  Ants  and  Hemeristia  occi- 
dentalis  Dana,  allied  to  Hemerobius  and  Chrysopa.  From  the 
same  locality  Mr.  Harger  has  described  Arthrolycosa  antiqua 
(Fig.  68),  a  singular  form  with  a  jointed  abdomen. 


78  THE    CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 

In  the  Coal-beds  of  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia,  sev- 
eral interesting  Myriopodous,  Neuropterous 
and  Orthopterous  insects  have  been  found  ; 
among  them  a  Cockroach,  Archimulacris 
Acadica  (PL  1,*  fig.  2).  In  Europe,  Car- 
boniferous insects  have  been  discovered  at 
Wettin,  Saarbriick,  etc. 

The   insects  from   these   two   formations 
show  a   tendency  to   assume   gigantic   and 
strange    shapes.      They   are    also    compre- 
Fig.  68.  hensive  types,  combining   the  characters  of 

different  families  and  even  different  suborders.  The  most  re- 
markable instance  is  the  Eugereon  Boeckingii  Dohrn,  from  the 
Coal  Formation  of  Germany.  It  has  been  referred  by  Dr. 
Hagen,  with  some  doubt,  to  the  Hemiptera,  from  its  long  im- 
mense rostrum  into  which  all  the  mouth-parts  are  produced,  the 
labium  ensheathing  them  as  usual  in  the  Hemiptera.  Its  fore- 
legs are  large  and  raptorial ;  but  the  filiform  many-jointed  an- 
tennae, and  the  net-veined  wings  are  Neuropterous  characters. 
Hence  Dohrn  considers  it  as  a  comprehensive  type  uniting 

*  EXPLANATION   OF  PLATE    1. 

Fig.  1.  Miamia  Bronsonii.  A  Neuropterous  insect  found  in  iron-stone  concre- 
tions in  the  Carboniferous  beds  at  Morris,  Illinois.  The  figure  is  magnified  one- 
third,  and  has  all  its  parts  restored ;  the  dotted  lines  indicate  the  parts  not  existing 
on  the  stone.  Reduced  from  a  figure  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Nat- 
ural History,  Vol.  I. 

Fig.  2.  Archimulacris  Acadica.  Wing  of  a  Cockroach  observed  by  Mr.  Barnes 
in  the  coal-formation  of  Nova  Scotia. 

Fig.  3.  Platephemera  antiqua.  A  gigantic  May-fly  obtained  by  Mr.  Hartt  in  the 
Devonian  rocks  of  New  Brunswick. 

Fig.  4.  Xylobius  sigillarice.  The  Myriopod  (or  Gaily- worm)  found  in  the  coal- 
formation  of  Nova  Scotia,  by  J.  W.  Dawson.  Copied  from  a  figure  in  Dr.  Dawson's 
Air-breathers  of  the  Coal-period.  Magnified. 

Fig.  5.  Lithentomum  Hartii.  A  Neuropterous  insect,  the  specimen  first  dis- 
covered by  Mr.  Hartt  in  the  Devonian  rocks  of  New  Brunswick.  This  fossil,  and 
those  accompanying  it,  are  the  oldest  insect-remains  in  the  world. 

Fig.  6.  Three  facets  from  the  eye  of  an  insect,  considered  by  Dr.  Dawson  a 
Dragon-fly.  It  was  found  in  coprolites  of  reptiles  in  the  rocks  containing  the  My- 
riopod, represented  in  Fig.  4.  Copied  from  Dr.  Dawson's  figure,  greatly  magnified. 

Fig.  7.  Homothetus  fossilis.  A  Neuropterous  insect  from  the  Devonian  rocks  of 
New  Brunswick ;  it  was  discovered  by  Mr.  Hartt. 

Fig.  8.  HaplophleUum  Barnesii.  A  curious  Neuropterous  insect,  of  large  size, 
probably  allied  to  our  May-flies;  taken  by  Mr.  Barnes  from  the  coal  of  Cape  Bre- 
ton. 

These  figures,  with  the  exception  of  1,  4,  and  6,  are  of  life  size,  and  borrowed 
from  the  new  edition  of  Dr.  Dawson's  Acadian  Geology. 


Plate  1. 


Fig.2. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8. 


FOSSIL    INSECTS. 


GEOLOGICAL   DISTRIBUTION.  79 

the  characters  of  the  Neuroptera  and  Hemiptera.  It  is  a 
large  insect,  spreading  about  two  inches ;  its  body  must  have 
measured  over  an  inch  in  length. 

In  the  Mesozoic  rocks,  the  celebrated  Solenhofen  locality  in 
Bavaria  is  rich  in  Liassic  insect-remains.  Dr.  Hagen  (Ento- 
mologist's Annual,  London,  1862)  states  that  among  the  Solen- 
hofen fossils  the  Neuroptera  and  Orthoptera  are  most  largely 
represented  ;  as  out  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  species  of  insects, 
one  hundred  and  fifty  are  Neuroptera,  of  which  one  hundred 
and  thirty-six  are  Dragon-flies,  and  besides  "there  is  a  Cory- 
dalus,  one  Chrysopa,  a  large  Apochrysa,  and  a  beautiful 
Nymplies.  The  last  two  genera,  which  do  not  seem  very  remote 
from  Chrysopa,  are  now  found  only  in  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere, Nymphes  is  peculiarly  an  Australian  genus." 

The  Lias  of  England  is  very  rich  in  fossil  insects,  especially 
the  Purbeck  and  Rhoetic  Beds  (see  Brodie's  Work  on  Fos- 
sil Insects  and  also  Westwood  in  the  Geological  Journal,  etc. 
Vol.  X.). 

In  the  Trias,  or  New-Red  Sandstone  of  the  Connecticut 
Valley,  Professor  Hitchcock  has  found  numerous  remains  of 
the  larva  of  an  aquatic  insect. 

The  insects  of  the  Tertiary  formation  more  closely  resemble 
those  of  the  present  day.  The  most  celebrated  European 
localit}T  is  GEningen  in  Switzerland. 

According  to  Professor  O.  Heer,  over  five  thousand  specimens 
of  fossil  insects  have  been  found  at  CEningen,  comprising  844 
species,  of  which  518  are  Coleopterous.  From  all  Tertiary 
Europe  there  are  1,322  species,  as  follows  :  166  Hymenoptera, 
18  Lepidoptera,  166  Diptera,  660  Coleoptera,  217  Hemiptera, 
39  Orthoptera,  and  56  Neuroptera. 

"If  we  inquire  to  what  insect-fauna  of  the  present  period 
the  Tertiary  fauna  is  most  analogous,  we  shall  be  surprised  to 
find  that  most  of  the  species  belong  to  genera  actually  found  in 
the  old  and  the  new  world.  The  insect-fauna  of  (Eningen  con- 
tains 180  genera  of  this  category,  of  which  114  belong  to  the 
Coleoptera.  Of  these  last,  two  (Dineutes  and  Caryborus)  re- 
main in  Europe,  while  all  the  others  are  now  found  living  both 
in  Europe  and  in  America.  The  whole  number  of  Coleopterous 
genera  furnished  by  CEningen,  and  known  to  me,  amount  to 


80  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

158  ;  those  that  are  common  to  both  hemispheres  forming  then 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  whole  number,  while  of  the  actual 
Coleopterous  fauna  of  Europe,  according  to  the  calculation  of 
M.  Lacordaire,  there  is  only  one-third.  The  genera  found  to-day 
in  both  parts-  of  the  world  have  then  during  the  Tertiary  epoch 
played  a  more  important  part  than  is  the  case  now ;  hence 
the  knowledge  of  the  character  of  the  fauna  is  rendered  more 
difficult.  We  find  at  CEningen  but  a  very  small  number  (five) 
of  genera  exclusively  European ;  seventeen  are  found  to-day 
in  Europe,  in  Asia,  and  in  Africa,  but  not  in  America.  For  the 
most  part  they  belong  to  the  Mediterranean  fauna  (comprising 
eight  genera)  and  give  to  the  insect-fauna  of  CEningen  a  strong 
proportion  of  Mediterranean  forms.  In  this  fauna  I  only  know 
of  one  exclusively  Asiatic  genus ;  two  are  peculiar  to  Africa, 
and  two  others  (Anoplites  and  Naupactus)  are  American. 

"There  are  now  living,  however,  in  Europe  certain  genera 
which,  without  being  exclusively  American,  since  they  are  found 
in  Asia  and  in  Africa,  belong  more  peculiarly  to  America  ;  such 
are  Belostomum,  Hypselonotus,  Diplonyclius,  Evagorus,  Sten- 
opoda,  Plecia,  Caryborus,  and  Dineutes.  .  .  .  The  genera  peculiar 
to  our  fauna  of  Tertiary  insects  amount  to  forty-four,  of  which 
twenty-one  belong  to  the  Coleoptera;  among  the  Orthoptera 
there  is  one,  and  six  Hymenoptera,  six  Diptera,  and  eleven 
Hemiptera.  They  comprise  140  species."  (Heer.) 

An  apparently  still  richer  locality  for  Tertiaiy  insects  has 
been  discovered  by  Professor  Denton  west  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, near  the  junction  of  the  White  and  Green  Rivers,  Colo- 
rado. According  to  Mr.  Scudder  "between  sixty  and  seventy 
species  of  insects  were  brought  home,  representing  nearly  all 
the  different  suborders ;  about  two-thirds  of  the  species  were 
Flies,  —  some  of  them  the  perfect  insect,  others  the  maggot-like 
larvae, — but,  in  no  instance,  did  both  imago  and  larva  of  the 
same  insect  occur.  The  greater  part  of  the  beetles  were  quite 
small ;  there  were  three  or  four  kinds  of  Homoptera  (allied  to 
the  tree-hoppers),  Ants  of  two  different  genera,  and  a  poorly 
preserved  Moth.  Perhaps  a  minute  Tlirips,  belonging  to  a 
group  which  has  never  been  found  fossil  in  any  part  of  the 
world,  is  of  the  greatest  interest." 

He  thus  sums  up  what  is  known  of  American  fossil  insects. 


THE   DISEASES   OF  INSECTS.  81 

"The  species  of  fossil  insects  now  known  from  North  America, 
number  eighty-one  :  six  of  these  belong  to  the  Devonian,  nine 
to  the  Carboniferous,  one  to  the  Triassic,  and  sixty-five  to  the 
Tertiary  epochs.  The  Hymenoptera,  Honioptera,  and  Diptera 
occur  only  in  the  Tertiaries  ;  the  same  is  true  of  the  Lepidop- 
tera,  if  we  exclude  the  Morris  specimen,  and  of  the  Coleoptera, 
with  one  Triassic  exception.  The  Orthoptera  and  Myriopods 
are  restricted  to  the  Carboniferous,  while  the  Neuroptera  occur 
both  in  the  Devonian  and  Carboniferous  formations."  Mr. 
Scudder  describes  from  the  Carboniferous  formation  of  Nova 
Scotia,  besides  Xylobius  sigillarice  Daws.,  four  additional  spe- 
cies (X.  similis,  fractus  and  Dawsoni,  and  Arcliiulus  xylobio- 
ides,  n.  g.  and  sp.),  forming  the  family  Archiulidce. 

THE  DISEASES  OF  INSECTS  have  attracted  but  little  atten- 
tion. They  are  so  far  as  known  mostly  the  result  of  the  attacks 
of  parasitic  plants  and  animals,  though  epidemics  are  known 
to  break  out  and  carry  off  myriads  of  insects.  Dr.  Shinier 
gives  an  account  of  an  epidemic  among  the  Chinch  bugs,  which 
"was  at  its  maximum  during  the  moist  warm  weather  that  fol- 
lowed the  cold  rains  of  June  and  the  first  part  of  July,  1865." 

Species  of  microscopic  plants  luxuriate  in  infinitesimal  for- 
ests within  the  alimentary  canal  of  some  wood-devouring  insects, 
and  certain  fungi  attack  those  species  which  are  exposed  to 
dampness,  and  already  enfeebled  by  other  causes.  Among  the 
true  entophyte,  or  parasitic  plants,  which  do  not  however  ordi- 
narily occasion  the  death  of  their  host,  Professor  Leidy  describes 
Enterobryus  elegans,  E.  spiralis,  E.  alternatus,  Arthromitus 
cristatus,  Cladophytum  comatum,  and  Corynodadus  radiatus, 
which  live  mostly  attached  to  the  mucous  walls  of  the  interior 
of  the  intestine  of  Julus  marginatus  and  two  other  species  of 
Julus,  and  Passalus  cornutus.  Eccrina  longa  Leidy,  lives  in 
Polydesmus  Virginiensis ;  and  E.  moniliformis  Leidy  in  P. 
granulatus. 

But  there  are  parasitic  fungi  that  are  largely  destructive  to 
their  hosts.  Such  are  Sphaeria  and  Isaria.  "These  fungi 
grow  with  great  rapidity  within  the  body  of  the  animal  they 
attack,  not  only  at  the  expense  of  the  nutritive  fluids  of  the 
latter,  but,  after  its  death,  all  the  interior  soft  tissues  appear 


82  THE   CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 

to  be  converted  into  one  or  more  aerial  receptacles  of  spores." 
(Leidy.)  These  fungi,  so  often  infesting  caterpillars,  are  hence 
called  "caterpillar  fungi."  They  fill  the  whole  body,  distend- 
ing even  the  legs,  and  throw  out  long  filaments,  sometimes 
longer  than  the  larva  itself,  giving  a  grotesque  appearance  to 
the  insect.  Leidy  has  found  a  species  which  is  very  common 
in  the  Seventeen-year  Locust,  Cicada  septendecim.  He  found 
"among  myriads  of  the  imago  between  twelve  and  twenty 
specimens,  which,  though  living,  had  the  posterior  third  of  the 
abdominal  contents  converted  into  a  dry,  powdery,  ochreous- 
yellow,  compact  mass  of  sporuloid  bodies."  He  thinks  this 
Cicada  is  very  subject  to  the  attacks  of  these  fungi,  and  that 
the  spores  enter  the  anal  and  genital  passages  more  readily 
than  the  mouth ;  thus  accounting  for  their  development  in  the 
abdomen. 

The  most  formidable  disease  is  the  "  Muscardine"  caused  by 
a  fungus,  the  Botrytus  Bassiana  of  Balsamo.  It  is  well  known 
that  this  disease  has  greatly  reduced  the  silk  crop  in  Europe. 
Balbiani  has  detected  the  spores  of  this  fungus  in  the  eggs  of 
Bombyx  mori  as  well  as  in  the  different  parts  of  the  body  of 
the  insect  in  all  stages  of  growth.  Extreme  cleanliness  and 
care  against  contagion  must  be  observed  in  its  prevention. 

Among  plants  a  disease  like  Muscardine,  due  to  the  presence 
of  a  minute  fungus  (Mucor  mellitopJiorus) ,  fills  the  stomach 
of  some  insects,  including  the  Honey-bee,  with  its  colorless 
spores,  and  greatly  weakens  those  affected.  Another  fungus, 
JSporendonema  muscce,  infests  the  common  House-fly. 

Another  Silk-worm  disease  called  ' '  Pebrine"  carries  off  many 
silk-worms.  Whether  it  is  of  pathological  or  vegetable  origin 
is  not  yet  settled. 

There  are  also  a  few  intestinal  worms  known  to  be  para- 
sitic in  insects.  The  well-known  "Hair-worm"  (Gordius) 
in  its  young  state  lives  within  the  body  of  various  insects  in- 
cluding the  Spiders.  The  tadpole-like  young  differs  greatly 
from  the  parent,  being  short,  sac-like,  ending  in  a  tail.  Upon 
leaving  the  egg  they  work  their  way  into  the  body  of  insects, 
and  there  live  on  the  fatty  substance  of  their  hosts,  where  they 
undergo  their  metamorphosis  into  the  adult  hair-like  worm, 
and  make  their  way  to  the  pools  of  water  in  which  they  live 


THE   DEFORMITIES   OF  INSECTS.  83 

and  beget  their  species,  and  lay  "millions  of  eggs  connected 
together  in  long  cords."  Leidy  thus  writes  regarding  the 
habits  of  a  species  which  infests  grasshoppers. 

"The  number  of  Gordii  in  each  insect  varies  from  one  to  five, 
their  length  from  three  inches  to  a  foot ;  they  occupy  a  position 
in  the  visceral  cavity,  where  they  lie  coiled  among  the  viscera, 
and  often  extend  from  the  end  of  the  abdomen  forward  through 
the  thorax  even  into  the  head  ;  their  bulk  and  weight  are  fre- 
quently greater  than  all  the  soft  parts,  including  the  muscles, 
of  their  living  habitation.  Nevertheless,  with  this  relatively 
immense  mass  of  parasites,  the  insects  jump  about  almost  as 
freely  as  those  not  infested. 

"The  worms  are  milk-white  in  color,  and  undivided  at  the 
extremities.  The  females  are  distended  with  ova,  but  I  have 
never  observed  them  extruded.  When  the  bodies  of  Grass- 
hoppers, containing  these  entozoa,  are  broken  and  lain  upon 
moist  earth,  the  worms  gradually  creep  out  and  pass  below  its 
surface." 

Goureau  states  that  Filaria,  a  somewhat  similar  worm,  in- 
habits Hibernia  brumata  and  Vanessa  prorsa.  (Ann.  Ent.  Soc. 
France.) 

Siebold  describes  Gordius  subbifurcus  which  infests  the 
Honey-bee,  especially  the  drones,  though  it  is  rather  the  work- 
ers, which  frequent  the  pools  where  the  Gordii  live,  that  we 
would  expect  to  find  thus  infested.  Another  entozoan  is  Mer- 
mis  albicans  of  Siebold,  which  is  a  very  slender  whitish  worm 
much  like  Gordius,  and  about  five  inches  long.  It  is  found  in 
the  drone  of  the  honey-bee  and  in  some  other  insects. 

Deformities  of  Insects.  Numerous  instances  of  supernume- 
rary legs  and  antennae  are  recorded.  The  antennae  are  some- 
times double,  but  more  commonly  the  legs.  "Of  these  As- 
muss  has  collected  eight  examples,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  in 
six  of  them  the  parts  on  one  side  are  treble."  Newport,  from 
whom  we  have  quoted,  states  that  "the  most  remarkable  ex- 
ample is  that  given  by  Lefebvre  of  Scarites  Pyraclimon  in  which 
from  a  single  coxa  on  the  left  side  of  the  prosternum  two  tro- 
chanters  originated.  The  anterior  one,  the  proper  trochanter, 
supported  the  true  prothoracic  leg ;  while  the  posterior  one,  in 
the  form  of  an  oblong  lanceolate  body,  attached  to  the  base  of 


84  THE    CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 

the  first,  supported  two  additional  legs  equally  well  formed  as 
the  true  one." 

The  wings  are  often  partially  aborted  and  deformed  ;  this  is 
especially  noticeable  in  the  wings  of  butterflies  and  moths. 
Mr.  F.  G.  Sanborn  has  described  and 
figured  a  wing  of  a  female  of  Libellula 
luctuosa  Burm.    (Fig.    69),  in  which 
among  other  deformities    "the  ptero- 
Fig.  69.  stigma  is  shorter  and  broader  than  that 

of  the  opposite  wing,  and  is  situated  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
only  from  the  nodus,  only  one  cubital  vein  occurring  between 
them,  instead  of  fourteen  as  in  the  opposite  wing."  (Proceed- 
ings of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  vol.  xi,  p.  326.) 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  COLLECTING  AND  PRESERVING  INSECTS. 
Insects  differ  sexually  in  that  the  female  generally  appears  to 
have  one  abdominal  ring  less  (one  ring  disappearing  during  the 
semi-pupa  state,  when  the  ovipositor  is  formed),  and  in  being 
larger,  fuller,  and  duller  colored  than  the  males,  while  the  lat- 
ter often  differ  in  sculpture  and  ornamentation.  In  collect- 
ing, whenever  the  two  sexes  are  found  united  they  should  be 
pinned  upon  the  same  pin,  the  male  being  placed  highest. 
When  we  take  one  sex  alone,  we  may  feel  sure  that  the  other 
is  somewhere  in  the  vicinity ;  perhaps  while  one  is  flying  about 
so  as  to  be  easily  captured,  the  other  is  hidden  under  some 
leaf,  or  resting  on  the  trunk  of  some  tree  near  by,  wrhich  must 
be  examined  and  every  bush  in  the  vicinity  vigorously  beaten 
by  the  net.  Many  species  rare  in  most  places  have  a  metropolis 
where  they  occur  in  great  abundance.  During  seasons  when 
his  favorites  are  especially  abundant  the  collector  should  lay 
up  a  store  against  years  of  scarcity. 

At  no  time  of  the  year  need  the  entomologist  rest  from  his 
labors.  In  the  winter,  under  the  bark  of  trees  and  in  moss  he 
can  find  many  species,  or  on  trees,  etc.,  detect  their  eggs,  which 
he  can  mark  for  observation  in  the  spring  when  they  hatch  out. 

He  need  not  relax  his  endeavors  day  or  night.  Mothing  is 
night  employment.  Skunks  and  toads  entomologize  at  night. 
Early  in  the  morning,  at  sunrise,  when  the  dew  is  still  on 
the  leaves,  insects  are  sluggish  and  easily  taken  with  the  hand ; 

• 


COLLECTING   AND   PRESERVING   INSECTS.  85 

so  at  dusk,  when  many  species  are  found  flying,  and  in  the 
night,  the  collector  will  be  rewarded  with  many  rarities,  many 
species  flying  then  that  hide  themselves  by  day,  while  many 
caterpillars  leave  their  retreats  to  come  out  and  feed,  when  the 
lantern  can  be  used  with  success  in  searching  for  them. 

Wollaston  (Entomologist's  Annual,  1865)  states  that  sandy 
•districts,  especially  towards  the  coast,  are  at  all  times  prefer- 
able to  clayey  ones,  but  the  intermediate  soils,  such  as  the 
loamy  soil  of  swamps  and  marshes  are  more  productive.  Near 
the  sea,  insects  occur  most  abundantly  beneath  pebbles  and 
other  objects  in  grassy  spots,  or  else  at  the  roots  of  plants. 
In  many  places,  especially  in  Alpine  tracts,  as  we  have  found 
on  the  summit  of  Mt.  Washington  and  in  Labrador,  one  has  to 
lie  down  and  look  carefully  among  the  short  herbage  and  in 
the  moss  for  Coleoptera. 

The  most  advantageous  places  for  collecting  are  gardens  and 
farms,  the  borders  of  woods  and  the  banks  of  streams  and 
ponds.  The  deep,  dense  forests,  and  open,  treeless  tracts  are 
less  prolific  in  insect  life.  In  winter  and  early  spring  the  moss 
on  the  trunks  of  trees,  when  carefully  shaken  over  a  newspaper 
or  white  cloth,  reveal  many  beetles  and  Hymenoptera.  In  the 
late  summer  and  autumn,  toadstools  and  various  fungi  and  rot- 
ten fruits  attract  many  insects,  and  in  early  spring  when  the 
sap  is  running  we  have  taken  rare  insects  from  the  stumps  of 
freshly  cut  hard- wood  trees.  Wollaston  says,  "  Dead  animals, 
partially-dried  bones,  as  well  as  the  skins  of  moles  and  other 
vermin  which  are  ordinarily  hung  up  in  fields  are  magnificent 
traps  for  Coleoptera ;  and  if  any  of  these  be  placed  around  or- 
chards and  inclosures  near  at  home,  and  be  examined  every 
morning,  various  species  of  Nitidulce,  Silphidoe,  and  other 
insects  of  similar  habits,  are  certain  to  be  enticed  and  cap- 
tured. 

"Planks  and  chippings  of  wood  may  be  likewise  empkwed 
as  successful  agents  in  alluring  a  vast  number  of  species  which 
might  otherwise  escape  our  notice,  and  if  these  be  laid  down 
in  grassy  places,  and  carefully  inverted  every  now  and  then 
with  as  little  violence  as  possible,  many  insects  will  be  found 
adhering  beneath  them,  especially  after  dewy  nights  and  in 
showery  weather.  Nor  must  we  omit  to  urge  the  importance 


86  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

of  examining  the  under  sides  of  stones  in  the  vicinity  of  ants' 
nests,  in  which  position,  during  the  spring  and  summer  months, 
many  of  the  rarest  of  our  native  Coleoptera  may  be  occasion- 
ally procured."  Excrementitious  matter  always  contains  many 
interesting  forms  in  various  stages  of  growth. 

The  trunks  of  fallen  and  decaying  trees  offer  a  rich  harvest 
for  many  wood-boring  larvae,  especially  the  Longicorn  beetles, 
and  weevils  can  be  found  in  the  spring,  in  all  their  stages.  Nu- 
merous carnivorous  Coleopterous  and  Dipterous  larvae  dwell 
within  them,  and  other  larvae  which  eat  the  dust  made  by  the 
borers.  The  inside  of  pithy  plants  like  the  elder,  raspberry, 
blackberry,  and  syringa,  are  inhabited  by  many  of  the  wild 
bees,  Osmia,  Ceratina,  and  the  wood-wasps,  Crabro,  Stigmus, 
etc.,  the  habits  of  which,  with  those  of  their  Chalcid  and  Ich- 
neumon parasites,  offer  endless  amusement  and  study. 

Ponds  and  streams  shelter  a  vast  throng  of  insects,  and 
should  be  diligently  dredged  with  the  water-net,  and  stones 
and  pebbles  should  be  overturned  for  aquatic  beetles,  He- 
miptera,  and  Dipterous  larvae. 

The  various  sorts  of  galls  should  be  collected  in  spring  and 
autumn  and  placed  in  vials  or  boxes,  where  they  may  be  rear- 
ed, and  the  rafters  of  out-houses,  stone-walls,  etc.,  should  be 
carefully  searched  for  the  nests  of  Mud-wasps. 

Collecting  Apparatus.  First  in  importance  is  the  net.  This 
is  made  by  attaching  a  ring  of  brass  wire  to  a  handle  made 
to  slide  on  a  pole  six  feet  long.  The  net  may  be  a  foot  in 
diameter,  and  the  bag  itself  made  of  thin  gauze  or  mosquito- 
netting  (the  finer,  lighter,  and  more  durable  the  better),  and 
should  be  about  twenty  inches  deep.  It  should  be  sewed  to  a 
narrow^  border  of  cloth  placed  around  the  wire.  A  light  net 
like  this  can  be  rapidly  turned  upon  the  insect  writh  one  hand. 
The  insect  is  captured  by  a  dexterous  twist  which  also  throws 
the  bottom  over  the  mouth  of  the  net.  The  insect  should  be 
temporarily  held  between  the  thumb  and  fore-finger  of  the  hand 
at  liberty,  and  then  pinned  through  the  thorax  while  in  the  net. 
The  pin  can  be  drawn  through  the  meshes  upon  opening  the 
net.  The  beating-net  should  be  made  much  stouter,  with  a  shal- 
Jower  cloth  bag  and  attached  to  a  shorter  stick.  It  is  used  for 
beating  trees,  bushes,  and  herbage  for  beetles  and  Hemiptera 


COLLECTING   AND   PRESERVING    INSECTS.  87 

and  various  larvae.  Its  thorough  use  we  would  recommend  in 
the  low  vegetation  on  mountains  and  in  meadows.  The  water- 
net  may  be  either  round  or  of  the  shape  indicated  in  Fig.  70. 
The  ring  should  be  made  of  brass,  and 
the  shallow  net  of  grass-cloth  or  coarse 
millinet.  It  is  used  for  collecting  aqua- 
tic insects. 

Various  sorts  of  forceps  are  indispen-  Fig.  70. 

sable  for  handling  insects.  Small  delicate  narrow-bladed  for- 
ceps with  fine  sharp  points  in  use  by  jewellers,  and  made 
either  of  steel  or  brass,  are  excellent  for  handling  minute 
specimens.  For  larger  ones  long  curved  forceps  are  very  con- 
venient. For  pinning  insects  into  boxes  the  forceps  should  be 
stout,  the  blades  blunt  and  curved  at  the  end  so  that  the  insect 
can  be  pinned  without  slanting  the  forceps  much.  The  ends 
need  to  be  broad  and  finely  indented  by  lines  so  as  to  firmly 
hold  the  pin.  With  a  little  practice  the  forceps  soon  take  the 
place  of  the  fingers.  They  will  have  to  be  made  to  order  by 
a  neat  workman  or  surgical-instrument  maker.  Some  persons 
use  the  ordinary  form  of  pliers  with  curved  handles,  but  they 
should  be  long  and  slender.  A  spring  set  in  to  separate  the 
handles  when  not  grasped  by  the  hand  is  a  great  convenience. 

Various  pill-boxes,  vials,  and  bottles  must  always  be  taken, 
some  containing  alcohol  or  whiskey.  Many  collectors  use  a 
wide-mouth  bottle,  containing  a  sponge  saturated  with  ether, 
chloroform,  or  benzine,  or  bruised  laurel  leaves,  the  latter  be- 
ing pounded  with  a  hammer  and  then  cut  with  scissors  into 
small  pieces,  which  give  out  exhalations  of  prussic  acid  strong 
enough  to  kill  most  small  insects. 

Besides  these  the  collector  needs  a  small  box  lined  with 
corn-pith,  or  cork,  and  small  enough  to  slip  into  the  coat- 
pocket  ;  or  a  larger  box  carried  by  a  strap.  Most  moths  and 
small  flies  can  be  pinned  alive  without  being  pinched  (which 
injures  their  shape  and  rubs  off  the  scales  and  hairs) ,  and  then 
killed  by  pouring  a  little  benzine  into  the  bottom  of  the  box. 

Killing  Insects  for  the  Cabinet.  Care  in  killing  affects  very 
sensibly  the  looks  of  the  cabinet.  If  hastily  killed  and  dis- 
torted by  being  pinched-,  with  the  scales  rubbed  off  and  other- 
wise mangled,  the  value  of  such  a  specimen  is  diminished 


88  THE   CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 

either  for  purposes  of  study  or  the  neat  appearance  of  the  col- 
lection. 

Besides  the  vapor  of  ether,  chloroform,  and  benzine,  the 
fumes  of  sulphur  readily  kill  insects.  Large  specimens  may 
be  killed  by  inserting  a  pin  dipped  in  a  strong  solution  of  ox- 
alic acid.  An  excellent  collecting  bottle  is  made  by  putting 
into  a  wide-mouth  bottle  two  or  three  small  pieces  of  cyanide 
of  potassium,  which  may  be  covered  with  cotton,  about  half- 
filling  the  bottle.  The  cotton  may  be  covered  with  paper 
lightly  attached  to  the  glass  and  pierced  with  pin-holes ;  this 
keeps  the  insect  from  being  lost  in  the  bottle.  For  Diptera, 
Loew  recommends  moistening  the  bottom  of  the  collecting  box 
with  creosote.  This  is  excellent  for  small  flies  and  moths,  as  the 
mouth  of  the  bottle  can  be  placed  over  the  insect  while  at  rest ; 
the  insect  flies  up  into  the  bottle  and  is  immediately  suffocated. 
A  bottle  well  prepared  will,  according  to  Laboulbene,  last 
several  months,  even  a  year,  and  is  vastly  superior  to  the  old 
means  of  using  ether  or  chloroform.  He  states,  "  the  incon- 
venience of  taking  small  insects  from  a  net  is  well  known,  as 
the  most  valuable  ones  usually  escape  ;  but  by  placing  the  end 
of  the  net,  filled  with  insects,  in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  and 
putting  in  the  cork  for  a  few  minutes,  they  will  be  suffocated." 

Pinning  Insects.  The  pin  should  be  inserted  through  the 
thorax  of  most  insects.  The  Coleoptera,  however,  should  be 
pinned  through  the  right  wing-cover ;  many  Hemiptera  are 
best  pinned  through  the  scutellum.  The  specimens  should  all 
be  pinned  at  an  equal  height,  so  that  about  one-fourth  of  the 
pin  should  project  above  the  insect. 

The  best  pins  are  those  made  in  Berlin  by  Klager.  They  are 
of  five  sizes,  No.  1  being  the  smallest;  Nos.  1,  2,  and  5  are 
the  most  convenient.  For  very  minute  insects  still  smaller  pins 
are  made.  A  very  good  but  too  short  pin  is  made  by  Edles- 
ton  and  Williams,  Crown  Court,  Cheapside,  London.  Their 
Nos.  19  and  20  may  be  used  to  impale  minute  insects  upon, 
and  then  stuck  through  a  bit  of  cork,  or  pith,  through  which  a 
No.  5  Klager  pin  may  be  thrust.  Then  the  insect  is  kept  out 
of  the  reach  of  devouring  insects.  Still  smaller  pins  are  made 
by  cutting  off  bits  of  very  fine  silvered  wire  at  the  right  length, 
which  may  be  thrust  by  the  forceps  into  a  piece  of  pith,  after 
the  insects  have  been  impaled  upon  them. 


COLLECTING   AND   PRESERVING. INSECTS.  89 

Small  insects,  especially  beetles,  may  be  mounted  on  cards 
or  pieces  of  mica  through  which  the  pin  may  be  thrust.  The 
French  use  small  oblong  bits  of  mica,  with  the  posterior  half 
covered  with  green  paper  on  which  the  number  may  be  placed. 
The  insect  may  be  gummed  on  the  clear  part,  the  two  sexes  to- 
gether. The  under  side  can  be  seen  through  the  thin  mica. 

Others  prefer  triangular  pieces  of  card,  across  the  end  of 
which  the  insect  may  be  gummed,  so  that  nearly  the  whole  un^ 
der  side  is  visible. 

Mr.  Wollaston  advocates  gumming  small  Coleoptera  upon 
cards.  Instead  of  cutting  the  pieces  of  cards  first,  he  gums  them 
promiscuously  upon  a  sheet  of  card-board.  "Having  gummed 
thickly  a  space  on  your  card-board  equal  to,  at  least,  the  entire 
specimen  when  expanded,  place  the  beetle  upon  it,  drag  out 
the  limbs  with  a  pin,  and,  leaving  it  to  dry,  go  on  with  the 
next  one  that  presents  itself.  As  the  card  has  to  be  cut  after- 
wards around  your  insect  (so  as  to  suit  it),  there  is  no  advan- 
tage in  gumming  it  precisely  straight  upon  your  frame, — though 
it  is  true  that  a  certain  amount  of  care  in  this  respect  lessens 
your  after  labor  of  cutting-off  very  materially.  When  your 
frame  has  been  filled,  and  you  are  desirous  of  separating  the 
species,  cut  out  the  insect  with  finely  pointed  scissors." 

For  mending  broken  insects,  i.e.  gumming  on  legs  and  an- 
tennae which  have  fallen  off,  inspissated  ox-gall,  softened  with  a 
little  water,  is  the  best  gum. 

For  gumming  insects  upon  cards  Mr.  Wollaston  recommends 
a  gum  "composed  of  three  parts  of  tragacanth  to  one  of 
Arabic,  both  in  powder  ;  to  be  mixed  in  water  containing  a  grain 
of  corrosive  sublimate,  without  which  it  will  not  keep,  until 
of  a  consistency  just  thick  enough  to  run.  As  this  gum  is  of 
an  extremely  absorbent  nature,  nearly  a  fortnight  is  required 
before  it  can  be  properly  made.  The  best  plan  is  to  keep  add- 
ing a  little  water  (and  stirring  it)  every  few  days  until  it  is 
of  the  proper  consistency.  It  is  advisable  to  dissolve  the  grain 
of  corrosive  sublimate  in  the  water  which  is  poured  first  upon 
the  gum." 

Preservative  Fluids.  The  best  for  common  use  is  alco- 
hol, diluted  with  a  little  water  ;  or  whiskey,  as  alcohol  of  full 
strength  is  too  strong  for  caterpillars,  etc.,  since  it  shrivels  them 


90  THE    CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 

up.  Glycerine  is  excellent  for  preserving  the  colors  of  cater- 
pillars, though  the  internal  parts  decay  somewhat,  and  the 
specimen  is  apt  to  fall  to  pieces  on  being  roughly  handled. 

Laboulbene  recommends  for  the  preservation  of  insects  in  a 
fresh  state  plunging  them  in  a  preservative  fluid  consisting  of 
alcohol  with  an  excess  of  arsenious  acid  in  fragments,  or  the 
common  white  arsenic  of  commerce.  A  pint  and  a  half  of  al- 
cohol will  take  about  fourteen  grains  (troy)  of  arsenic.  The 
living  insect,  put  into  this  preparation,  absorbs  about  T<j3(j<y  of  its 
own  weight.  When  soaked  in  this  liquor  and  dried,  it  will  be 
safe  from  the  ravages  of  Moths,  Anthrenus,  or  Dermestes.  This 
liquid  will  not  change*  the  colors  of  blue,  green,  or  red  beetles 
if  dried  after  soaking  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours.  He- 
miptera  and  Orthoptera  can  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 

A  stay  of  a  month  in  this  arseniated  alcohol  mineralizes  the 
insect,  so  that  it  appears  very  hard,  and,  after  drying,  becomes 
glazed  with  a  white  deposit  which  can,  however,  be  washed  off 
with  alcohol.  In  this  state  the  specimens  become  too  hard  for 
dissection  and  study,  but  will  do  for  cabinet  specimens  designed 
for  permanent  exhibition. 

Another  preparation  recommended  by  Laboulbene  is  alcohol 
containing  a  variable  quantity  of  corrosive  sublimate,  but  the 
latter  has  to  be  weighed,  as  the  alcohol  evaporates  easily,  the 
liquor  becoming  stronger  as  it  gets  older.  The  strongest  soli*- 
tion  is  one  part  of  corrosive  sublimate  to  one  hundred  of  alco- 
hol ;  the  weakest  and  best  is  one-tenth  of  a  part  of  corrosive 
sublimate  to  one  hundred  parts  of  alcohol.  Insects  need  not  re- 
main in  this  solution  more  than  two  hours  before  drying.  Both 
of  these  preparations  are  very  poisonous  and  should  be  handled 
with  care.  The  last-named  solution  preserves  specimens  from 
mould,  which  will  attack  pinned  insects  during  damp  summers. 

A  very  strong  brine  will  preserve  insects  until  a  better  liquor 
can  be  procured.  Professor  A.  E.  Verrill  recommends  two  sim- 
ple and  cheap  solutions  for  preserving,  among  other  specimens, 
the  larvae  of  insects  "with  their  natural  color  and  form  remark- 
ably perfect."  The  first  consists  of  two  and  a  half  pounds  of 
common  salt  and  four  ounces  of  nitre  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of 
water,  and  filtered.  Specimens  should  be  prepared  for  perma- 
nent preservation  in  this  solution  by  being  previously  immersed 


COLLECTING   AND    PRESERVING   INSECTS.  91 

in  a  solution  consisting  of  a  quart  of  the  first  solution  and 
two  ounces  of  arseniate  of  potash  and  a  gallon  of  water.  (Pro- 
ceedings Boston  Society  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  x,  p.  257.) 

The  nests,  cocoons,  and  chrysalids  of  insects  may  be  pre- 
served from  injury  from  other  insects  by  being  soaked  in  the 
arseniated  alcohol,  or  dipped  into  benzine,  or  a  solution  of  car- 
bolic acid  or  creosote. 

Preparing  Insects  for  the  Cabinet.  Dried  insects  may  be 
moistened  by  laying  them  for  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours  in 
a  box  containing  a  layer  of  wet  sand,  covered  with  one  thick- 
ness of  soft  paper.'  Their  wings  can  then  be  easily  spread. 
/Setting-boards  for  spreading  the  wings  of  insects  may  be  made 
by  sawing  deep  grooves  in  a  thick  board,  and  placing  a  strip 
of  pith  or  cork  at  the  bottom.  The  groove  may  be  deep  enough 
to  allow  a  quarter  of  the  length  of  the  pin  to  project  above 
the  insect.  The  setting-board  usually  consists  of  thin  parallel 
strips  of  board,  leaving  a  groove  between  them  wide  enough  to 
receive  the  body  of  the  insect,  at  the  bottom  of  which  a  strip 
of  cork  or  pith  should  be  glued.  The  ends  of  the  strips  should 
be  nailed  on  to  a  stouter  strip  of  wood,  raising  the  surface  of 
the  setting-board  an  inch  and  a  half  so  that  the  pins  can  stick 
through  without  touching.  Several  setting-boards  can  be  made 
to  form  shelves  in  a  frame  covered  with  wire  gauze,  so  that 
the. specimens  may  be  preserved  from  dust  and  destructive  in- 
sects, while  the  air  may  at  the  same  time  have  constant  access 
to  them.  The  surface  of  the  board  should  incline  a  little  to- 
wards the  groove  for  the  reception  of  the  insect,  as  the  wings 
often  gather  a  little  moisture,  relax  and  fall  down  after  the 
insect  is  dried.  Moths  of  medium  size  should  remain  two  or 
three  days  on  the  setting-board,  while  the  larger  thick-bodied 
Sphinges  and  Bombycidce  require  a  week  to  dry.  The  wings 
can  be  arranged  by  means  of  a  needle  stuck  into  a  handle 
of  wood.  They  should  be  set  horizontally,  and  the  front  mar- 
gin of  the  fore-wings  drawn  a  little  forward  of  a  line  perpen- 
dicular to  the  body,  so  as  to  free  the  inner  margin  of  the  hind 
wings  from  the  body,  that  their  form  may  be  distinctly  seen. 
When  thus  arranged,  they  can  be  confined  by  pieces  of  card 
pinned  to  the  board  as  indicated  in  figure  71,  or,  as  we  prefer, 
by  square  pieces  of  glass  laid  upon  them. 


92  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

After  the  insects  have  been  thoroughly  dried  they  should  not 
be  placed  in  the  cabinet  until  after  having  been  in  quarantine 
to  see  that  no  eggs  of  Dermestes  or 
Anthrenus,  etc.,  have  been  deposited 
on  them. 

For  preserving  dried  insects  in  the 
cabinet  Laboulbene  recommends  plac- 
ing a  rare  insect  (if  a  beetle  or  any 
Fig.  71.  other  hard  insect)  in  water  for  an  hour 

until  the  tissues  be  softened.  If  soiled,  an  insect  can  be 
cleansed  under  water  with  a  fine  hair-pencil,  then  submit  it  to 
a  bath  of  arseniated  alcohol,  or,  better,  alcohol  with  corrosive 
sublimate.  If  the  insect  becomes  prune-colored,  it  should  be 
washed  in  pure  alcohol  several  times.  This  method  will  do 
for  the  rarest  insects  ;  the  more  common  ones  can  be  softened 
on  wet  sand,  and  then  the  immersion  in  the  arseniated  alcohol 
suffices.  After  an  immersion  of  an  hour  or  a  quarter  of  an 
hour,  according  to  the  size  of  the  insect,  the  pin  is  not  affected 
by  the  corrosive  sublimate,  but  it  is  better  to  unpin  the  insect 
previous  to  immersion,  and  then  pin  it  when  almost  dry. 

For  cleaning  insects  ether  or  benzine  is  excellent,  applied 
with  a  hair-pencil ;  though  care  should  be  taken  in  using  these 
substances  which  are  very  inflammable. 

After  the  specimens  are  placed  in  the  cabinet,  they  should  be 
farther  protected  from  destructive  insects  by  placing  in  the 
drawers  or  boxes  pieces  of  camphor  wrapped  in  paper  perfo- 
rated by  pin-holes,  or  bottles  containing  sponges  saturated  with 
benzine.  The  collection  should  be  carefully  examined  every 
month ;  the  presence  of  insects  can  be  detected  by  the  dust 
beneath  them.  Where  a  collection  is  much  infested  with 
destructive  insects,  benzine  should  be  poured  into  the  bottom 
of  the  box  or  drawer,  when  the  fumes  and  contact  of  the  ben- 
zine with  their  bodies  will  kill  them.  The  specimens  them- 
selves should  not  be  soaked  in  the  benzine  if  possible,  as  it 
renders  them  brittle. 

Insect-cabinet.  For  permanent  exhibition,  a  cabinet  of  shal- 
low drawers,  protected  by  doors,  is  most  useful.  A  drawer 
may  be  eighteen  by  twenty  inches  square,  and  two  inches  deep 
in  the  clear,  and  provided  with  a  tight  glass  cover.  For  constant 


COLLECTING   AND   PRESERVING   INSECTS. 


93 


use,  boxes  made  of  thin,  well-seasoned  wood,  with  tight-fitting 
covers,  are  indispensable.  For  Coleoptera,  Dr.  Leconte  recom- 
mends that  they  be  twelve  by  nine  inches  (inside  measurement). 
For  the  larger  Lepidoptera  a  little  larger  box  is  preferable. 
Others  prefer  boxes  made  in  the  form  of  books,  which  may  be 
put  away  like  books  on  the  shelves  of  the  cabinet,  though  the 
cover  of  the  box  is  apt  to  be  in  the  way. 

The  boxes  and  drawers  should  be  lined  with  cork  cut  into 
thin  slips  for  soles ;  such  slips  come  from  the  cork-cutter  about 
twelve  by  four  inches  square,  and  an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick.  A 
less  expensive  substitute  is  paper  stretched  upon  a  frame.  Mr. 
E.  S.  Morse  has  given  in  the  American  Naturalist  (vol.  I,  p. 
156)  a  plan  which  is  very  neat  and  useful  for  lining  boxes  in  a 
large  museum,  and  which 
are  placed  in  horizontal 
show-cases  (Fig.  72).  "A 
box  is  made  of  the  re- 
quired depth,  and  a  light 
frame  is  fitted  to  its  in- 
terior. Upon  the  upper 
and  under  surfaces  of  this 
frame,  a  sheet  of  white 
paper  (drawing  or  log- 
paper  answers  the  pur- 
pose) is  securely  glued.  Kg.  72. 
The  paper,  having  been  previously  dampened,  in  drying  con- 
tracts and  tightens  like  a  drum-head.  The  frame  is  then 
secured  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  from  the  bottom  of  the 
box,  and  the  pin  is  forced  down  through  the  thicknesses  of 
paper,  and  if  the  bottom  of  the  box  be  of  soft  pine,  the  point 
of  the  pin  may  be  slightly  forced  into  it.  It  is  thus  firmly  held 
at  two  or  three  different  points,  and  all  lateral  movements  are 
prevented.  Other  advantages  are  secured  by  this  arrangement 
besides  firmness  ;  when  the  box  needs  cleaning  or  fumigation, 
the  entire  collection  may  be  removed  by  taking  out  the  frame, 
or  camphor,  tobacco,  or  other  material  can  be  placed  on  the 
bottom  of  the  box,  and  concealed  from  sight.  The  annexed 
figure  represents  a  transverse  section  of  a  portion  of  the  side 
and  bottom  of  the  box  with  the  frame.  A,  A,  box ;  B,  frame ; 


94  THE   CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 

P,  P,  upper  and  under  sheets  of  paper ;  C,  space  between 
lower  sheet  of  paper  and  bottom  of  box." 

Other  substitutes  are  the  pith  of  various  plants,  especially 
of  corn  ;  and  palm  wood,  and  "inodorous  felt"  is  used,  being 
cut  to  fit  the  bottom  of  the  box. 

Leconte  recommends  that  "for  the  purpose  of  distinguish- 
ing specimens  from  different  regions,  little  disks  of  variously 
colored  paper  be  used  ;  they  are  easily  made  by  a  small  punch, 
and  should  bs  kept  in  wooden  pill-boxes  ready  for  use ;  at 
the  same  time  a  key  to  the  colors,  showing  the  regions  em- 
braced by  each,  should  be  made  on  the  fly-leaf  of  the  catalogue 
of  the  collection."  He  also  strongly  recommends  that  the 
"  specimens  should  all  be  pinned  at  the  same  height,  since  the 
ease  of  recognizing  species  allied  in  characters  is  greatly  in- 
creased by  having  them  on  the  same  level." 

He  also  states  that  "it  is  better,  even  when  numbers  with 
reference  to  a  catalogue  are  employed,  that  the  name  of  each 
species  should  be  written  on  a  label  attached  to  the  first  speci- 
men. Thus  the  eye  is  familiarized  with  the  association  of  the 
species  and  its  name,  memory  is  aided,  and  greater  power  given 
of  identifying  species  when  the  cabinet  is  not  at  hand."  For 
indicating  the  sexes  the  astronomical  sign  $  (Mars)  is  used  for 
the  male,  and  <j>  (Venus)  for  the  female,  and  9  for  the  worker. 

Transportation  of  Insects.  While  travelling,  all  hard-bodied 
insects,  comprising  many  Hymenoptera,  the  Coleoptera,  He- 
miptera,  and  many  Neuroptera  should  be  thrown,  with  their 
larvae,  etc.,  into  bottles  and  vials  filled  with  strong  alcohol. 
When  the  bottle  is  filled  new  liquor  should  be  poured  in,  and 
the  old  may  be  saved  for  collecting  purposes ;  in  this  way  the 
specimens  will  not  soften  and  can  be  preserved  indefinitely,  and 
the  colors  do  not,  in  most  cases,  change.  Leconte  states  that 
"if  the  bottles  are  in  danger  of  being  broken,  the  specimens, 
after  remaining  for  a  day  or  two  in  alcohol,  may  be  taken  out, 
partially  dried  by  exposure  to  the  air,  but  not  so  as  to  be  brit- 
tle, and  these  packed  in  layers  in  small  boxes  between  soft 
paper;  the  boxes  should  then  be  carefully  closed  with  gum- 
paper  or  paste,  so  as  to  exclude  all  enemies." 

Lepidoptera  and  Dragon-flies  and  other  soft-bodied  insects 
may  be  well  preserved  by  placing  them  in  square  pieces  of  pa- 


REARING   LARV^.  95 

per  folded  into  a  triangular  form  with  the  edges  overlapping. 
Put  up  thus,  multitudes  can  be  packed  away  in  tin  boxes,  and 
will  bear  transportation  to  any  distance.  In  tropical  climates, 
chests  lined  with  tin  should  be  made  to  contain  the  insect- 
boxes,  which  can  thus  be  preserved  against  the  ravages  of 
white  ants,  etc. 

In  sending  live  larvae  by  mail,  they  should  be  inclosed  in  lit- 
tle tin  boxes,  and  in  sending  dry  specimens,  the  box  should  be 
light  and  strong,  and  directions  given  at  the  post-office  to 
stamp  the  box  lightly.  In  sending  boxes  by  express  they 
should  be  carefully  packed  in  a  larger  box,  having  an  inter- 
space of  two  inches,  which  can  be  filled  in  tightly  with  hay  or 
crumpled  bits  of  paper.  Beetles  can  be  wrapped  in  pieces  of 
soft  paper.  Labels  for  alcoholic  specimens  should  consist 
of  parchment  with  the  locality,  date  of  capture,  and  name  of 
collector  written  in  ink.  A  temporary  label  of  firm  paper  with 
the  locality,  etc.,  written  with  a  pencil,  will  last  for  several 
years. 

Preservation  of  Larvce.  Alcoholic  specimens  of  insects,  in  all 
stages  of  growth,  are  very  useful.  Few  collections  contain  al- 
coholic specimens  of  the  adult  insect.  This  is  a  mistake.  Many 
of  the  most  important  characters  are  effaced  during  the  drying 
process,  and  for  purposes  of  general  study  alcoholic  speci- 
mens, even  of  Bees,  Lepidoptera,  Diptera,  and  Dragon-flies  are 
very  necessary. 

Larvce^  generally,  may  be  well  preserved  in  vials  or  bottles 
of  alcohol.  They  should  first  be  put  into  whiskey,  and  then 
into  alcohol.  If  placed  in  the  latter  first,  they  shrivel  and 
become  distorted.  Mr.  E.  Burgess  preserves  caterpillars  with 
the  colors  unchanged,  by  immersing  them  in  boiling  water 
thirty  or  forty  seconds,  and  then  placing  them  in  equal  parts 
of  alcohol  and  water.  It  is  well  to  collect  larvae  and  pupae 
indiscriminately,  even  if  we  do  not  know  their  adult  forms  ;  we 
can  approximate  to  them,  and  in  some  cases  tell  very  exactly 
what  they  must  be. 

REARING  LARVAE.  More  attention  has  been  paid  to  rearing 
Caterpillars  than  the  young  of  any  other  suborder  of  insects, 
and  the  following  remarks  apply  more  particularly  to  them,  but 


96  THE    CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 

very  much  the  same  methods  may  be  pursued  in  rearing  the 
larvae  of  Beetles,  Flies,  and  Ifymenoptera.  Subterranean 
larvae  have  to  be  kept  in  moist  earth,  aquatic  larvae  must  be 
reared  in  aquaria,  and  carnivorous  larvae  must  be  supplied 
with  flesh.  The  larvae  of  Butterflies  are  rare ;  those  of 
moths  occur  more  frequently,  while  their  imagos  may  be 
scarce.  In  some  years  many  larvae,  which  are  usually  rare, 
occur  in  abundance,  and  should  then  be  reared  in  numbers. 
In  hunting  for  caterpillars  bushes  should  be  shaken  and 
beaten  over  newspapers  or  sheets,  or  an  umbrella;  herbage 
should  be  swept,  and  trees  examined  carefully  for  leaf-rollers 
and  miners.  The  best  specimens  of  moths  and  butterflies  are 
obtained  by  rearing  them  from  the  egg,  or  from  the  larva  or 
pupa.  In  confinement  the  food  should  be  kept  fresh,  and  the 
box  well  ventilated.  Tumblers  covered  with  gauze,  pasteboard 
boxes  pierced  with  holes  and  fitted  with  glass  in  the  covers,  or 
large  glass-jars,  are  very  convenient  to  use  as  cages.  The  bot- 
tom of  such  vessels  may  be  covered  with  moist  sand,  in  which 
the  food-plant  of  the  larva  may  be  stuck  and  kept  fresh  for 
several  days.  Larger  and  more  airy  boxes,  a  foot  square,  with 
the  sides  of  gauze,  and  fitted  with  a  door,  through  which  a  bot- 
tle of  water  may  be  introduced,  serve  well.  The  object  is  to 
keep  the  food- plant  fresh,  the  air  cool,  the  larva  out  of  the  sun, 
and  in  fact  everything  in  such  a  state  of  equilibrium  that  the 
larva  will  not  feel  the  change  of  circumstances  when  kept  in 
confinement.  Most  caterpillars  change  to  -pupae  in  the  autumn ; 
and  those  which  transform  in  the  earth  should  be  covered  with 
earth,  kept  damp  by  wet  moss,  and  placed  in  the  cellar  until  the 
following  summer.  The  collector  in  seeking  for  larvae  should 
carry  a  good  number  of  pill-boxes,  and  especially  a  close  tin 
box,  in  which  the  leaves  may  be  kept  fresh  for  a  long  time. 
The  different  forms  and  markings  of  caterpillars  should  be 
noted,  and  they  should  be  drawn  carefully  together  with  a  leaf 
of  the  food-plant,  and  the  drawings  and  pupa  skins,  and  per- 
fect insect,  be  numbered  to  correspond.  Descriptions  of  cat- 
erpillars cannot  be  too  carefully  made,  or  too  long.  The 
relative  size  of  the  head,  its  ornamentation,  the  stripes  and 
spots  of  the  body,  and  the  position  and  number  of  tubercles, 
and  the  hairs,  or  fascicles  of  hairs,  or  spines  and  spinules, 


ENTOMOLOGICAL  WORKS.  97 

which  arise  from  them,  should  be  noted,  besides  the  general 
form  of  the  body.  The  lines  along  the  body  are  called  dorsal, 
if  in  the  middle  of  the  back,  subdorsal;  if  upon  one  side,  lat- 
eral, and  ventral  when  on  the  sides  and  under  surface,  or  stig- 
matal  if  including  the  stigmata  or  breathing  pores,  which  are 
generally  parti-colored.  Indeed,  the  whole  biography  of  an 
insect  should  be  ascertained  by  the  observer ;  the  points  to 
be  noted  are : 

1.  Date,  when  and  how  the  eggs  are  laid ;  and  number,  size, 
and  marking  of  the  eggs. 

2.  Date  of  hatching,  the  appearance,  food-plant  of  larva, 
and  number  of  days  between  each  moulting ;  the  changes  the 
larva  undergoes,  which  are  often  remarkable,  especially  before 
the  last  moulting,  with  drawings  illustrative  of  these  ;  the  hab- 
its of  the  larva,  whether  solitary  or  gregarious,  whether  a  day 
or  night  feeder ;  the  Ichneumon  parasites,  and  their  mode  of 
attack.     Specimens  of  larvae  in  the  different  moultings  should 
be  preserved  in  alcohol.     The  appearance  of  the  larvae  when 
full-fed,  the  date,  number  of  days  before  pupating,  the  forma- 
tion and  description  of  the  cocoon,  the  duration  of  larvae  in  the 
cocoon  before  pupation,  their  appearance  just  before  changing, 
their  appearance  while  changing,  and  alcoholic  specimens  of 
larvae  in  the  act,  should  all  be  studied  and  noted. 

3.  Date  of  pupation ;  description  of  the  pupa  or  chrysalis ; 
duration  of  the  pupa  state,  habits,  etc. ;  together  with  alcoholic 
specimens,  or  pinned  dry  ones.    Lepidopterous  pupae  should  be 
looked  for  late  in  the  summer  or  in  the  fall  and  spring,  about 
the  roots  of  trees,  and  kept  moist  in  mould  until  the  imago 
appears.     Many  Coleopterous  pupae  may  also  occur  in  mould, 
and  if  aquatic,  under  submerged  sticks  and  stones,  and  those 
of  borers  under  the  bark  of  decaying  trees. 

4.  Date  when  the  insect  escapes  from  the  pupa,  and  method 
of  escape ;  duration  of  life  of  the  imago ;  and  the  number  of 
broods  in  a  season. 

ENTOMOLOGICAL  WORKS.  The  titles  of  a  few  of  the  most  im- 
portant works  on  Insects  are  given  below.  The  more  advanced 
student  should,  however,  possess  Dr.  Hagen's  Bibliotheca  En- 
tomologica,  8vo,  2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1862-3,  which  contains  a 

7 


98  THE    CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 

complete  list  of  all  entomological  publications  up  to  the  year 
1862.  Besides  these  he  should  consult  the  annual  reports  on 
the  progress  of  Entomology  published  in  TViegmann's  Archiv 
fur  Naturgeschichte,  begun  in  1834,  and  continued  up  to  the 
present  time  ;  and  also  Giinther's  Zoological  Record  (8vo,  Van 
Voorst,  London),  beginning  with  the  year  1864.  Occasional 
articles  are  also  scattered  through  the  various  government  re- 
ports, and  those  of  agricultural  societies  and  agricultural 
papers. 

GENERAL  WORKS. 

The  works  of  Swammerdam,  Malphighi,  Leeuwenhoek,  Lyonnet,  Serres,  Meckel,. 

Ramdohr,  Suckow,  Merian,  and  Herbst. 
Reaumur,  Rene,  Ant.  de,    M^moires  pour  servir  a  P  Histoire  des  Insectes.  Paris,  1734 

-1742,  7  vols.  4to. 
Roesel,  Aug.  Joh.    Der  monatlich  herausgegeben  Insekten-Belustigung.   NUmberg, 

1746-1761,  4  vols.  4to,  illustrated. 
Geer,  Carl  de.    Memoires  pour  servir  a  1' Histoire  des  Insectes,  1752-1778,  7  vols. 

4  to. 

Linnceus,  Carolus.    Systema  Nahirae,  1735.    12th  edition,  1766-1768. 
Fabricius,  Joh.  Christ.    Systema  Entomologiae,  1775,  8vo. 

.    Genera  Insectorum,  1777,  8vo. 

i  Species  Insectorum,  1781.  2  vols.  8vo. 

.    Mantissa  Insectorum,  1787,  2  vols.  8vo. 

.    Entomologia  Systematica,  4  vols.  8vo,  1792-94. 

Cramer,  P.  Papillons  exotiques  des  trois  parties  du  monde.  4  vols.  4to,  1775-82. 
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1787-91. 
Smith,  J.  E.>  and  Abbot,  John.    The  Natural  History  of  the  Rarer  Lepidopterous 

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les  Classes  des  Crustaces,  des  Arachnides  et  des  Insectes. 

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Fabricius,   Otho.     Fauna   Groenlandica.     Hafniae,  1780,  Svo.    Contains  Libellula 

virgo  (erroneously),  Phryganea  rhombica,  Termes  divinatorium,  etc. 
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(ed.  Westwood,  1&37).    Numerous  species  are  figured  and  described. 
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Bd.  1  u.  2.    Gottingen,  1816-17,  4to. 

Mac  Leay,  W.  S.    Horae  Entomologicae,  2  vols.    London,  1819. 
Meigen,  F.  W.    Systematische  Beschreibung  der  bekannten  europaischen  zweiflii- 

geligen  Insecten.    7  vols.    Aachen  and  Hamm,  1818-1835.    (Although  this  work 

contains  only  European  species,  many  of  them  are  common  to  both  continents.) 
Say,  T.  American  Entomology.  3  vols.  With  plates.  Philadelphia,  1824, 25,  28. 
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Leconte,  M.  D.    2  vols.  Svo,  colored  plates.    New  York,  1859. 
Baer,  K.  E.  v.    Beitrage  zur  Kentniss  der  niederen  Thiere.    (Extracted  from  Nova 

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ENTOMOLOGICAL   WORKS.  99 

Palisot  de  Beauvais,  A.  J.  Insectes  recueillis  en  Afrique  et  en  Ame'rique,  dans  les 
royaumes  d'  Ovvare  et  de  Benin,  a  Saint-Domingue  et  dans  les  Etats-Unis,  pen- 
dant les  annees,  1786-97.  Foi.  with  90  plates,  Paris,  1805-21. 

Savigny,  J.  C.  de.  Description  de  1'  Egypte.  Histoire  naturelle.  Crustaces, 
Arachnides,  Myriapodes  et  Insectes,  53  pi.  in  gr.  fol.  Paris,  1809-1838.  Ex- 
plication sommaire  des  planches  par  J.  V.  Atidouin,  Paris,  1826,  fol. 

Curtis,  John.  Description  of  the  Insects  brought  home  by  Commander  James 
Clark.  Ross's  Second  Voyage.  App.  Nat.  Hist.,  1831 ,  4to,  plates.  (Several  Arctic 
species  are  described.) 

Kirby,  W.  $  W.  Spence.  An  Introduction  to  Entomology;  or,  Elements  of  the  Nat- 
ural History  of  Insects.  4  vols.  8vo,  1828.  Seventh  edition  (comprising  vols.  3 
&  4  of  the  early  editions).  London,  1856,  post  8vo. 

Wiedemann,C.R,W.  Aussereuropaische  Zweifliigelige  Insecten.  2  vols.  Hamm, 
1828-30.  With  plates. 

Curtis,  John.  Farm  Insects ;  being  the  Natural  History  and  Economy  of  the  Insects 
injurious  to  the  Field  Crops  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  8vo.  With  plates  and 
wood-cuts.  1860. 

Chevrolat,  Aug.    Coleopteres  du  Mexique.    Strasbourg,  1834-5. 

Stephens,  J.  F.  Illustrations  of  British  Entomology.  London,  8vo,  1835.  Sev- 
eral species  of  European  Insects  mentioned  in  this  work  have  been  found  in 
North  America. 

Kirby,  W.    Fauna  boreali- Americana,  etc.    Norwich,  1837,  4to. 

Kollar,  V.  Naturgeschichte  der  schaedlichen  Insekten.  Wien,  1837,  4to.  Contains 
Termesflavipes,  injurious  in  the  hot-houses  of  Schoenbrunn  and  Vienna.  This 
description  has  been  omitted  in  the  translation  of  this  work  by  Mr.  London, 
London,  1840. 

Macquart,  J.  Dipteres  Exotique  nouveaux  ou  pen  connus.  2  vols.  en  5  parties,  et 
5  supplements,  Paris,  1838-55.  With  numerous  plates.  (Published  originally  in 
the  Memoires  de  la  Societe"  des  Sciences  et  des  Arts  de  Lille,  1838-55.) 

Burmeister,  H.  Manual  of  Entomology,  translated  by  W.  E.  Shuckard.  London, 
8vo,  1836. 

Burmeister,  Hermann.    Zoologischer  Hand  Atlas.    Berlin,  1836-43  fol.,  41  plates. 

Westivood,  J.  O.  An  Introduction  to  the  Modern  Classification  of  Insects.  2  vols. 
8vo.  London,  1839-40. 

Cuvier,  G.  Le  Regne  animal  distribue"  d'apres  son  Organisation.  Nouvelle  edi- 
tion, accompagnee  de  planches  gravees,  representant  les  types  de  tons  les  Gen- 
res,etc.,  publiee  par  un  reunion  de  Disciples  de  G.  Cuvier.  Paris,  1S49,  8vo. 
Insectes,  Arachnides,  Crustace's  par  Audouin,  Blanchard,  Doyere,  Milne-Ed- 
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Guerin-Meneville,  F.  E.  Iconographie  du  Regne  Animal  de  G.  Cuvier,  ou  repre- 
sentation d'apres  nature  de  1'une  des  especes  les  plus  remarquables  et  sou  vent 
non  encore  figurees  de  chaque  genre  d'  animaux,  vols.  6  et  7 :  Annelides,  Crus- 
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Griffith,  E.  The  Animal  Kingdom,  described  and  arranged  in  conformity  with  its 
organization.  London,  1824-33,  Svo.  Class  Insecta,  2  vols.  with  140  pi.' 1832. 
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Suites  a  Buffon  et  Nouvelles  suites  a  Buffon.  Formant  avec  les  (Euvres  de  cet 
auteur  un  Cours  complet  d' Histoire  naturelle.  Paris,  Dufart,  1798-1807.  Paris, 
Roret,  1834-1864,  Svo.  (Insectes,  Crustaces,  Arachnides  etc.,  par  Latreille,  Lacor- 
daire,  Amyot,  Audinet-Serville,  Boisduval,  Guenee,  Rambur,  Lepeletier  de  St. 
Fargeau,  Macquart,  Milne- Edivards,  Walkenaer,  et  Gervais). 

Gosse,  P.  H.    Canadian  Naturalist.    London,  1840. 

Zetterstedt,  J.  W.  Insecta  Lapponica.  Lipsiae,  1840,  4to.  Several  species  from 
Lapland  have  been  found  in  the  Arctic  regions  of  North  America. 

Pictet,  F.  Histoire  naturelle,  etc.,  des  insectes  Neuropteres,  Part  I,  Perlides;  Part 
II,  Ephemerines.  Geneve,  1841-45,  Svo,  with  colored  plates. 


100  THE   CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 

Doubledcty,  E.,  and  Westwood,  J.  O.  The  Genera  of  Diurnal  Lepidoptera.  86  col- 
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Walker,  F.  List  of  the  specimens  of  Lepidopterous,  Dipterous,  Neuropterous,  and 
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Amyot,  C.,  and  Serville,  A.    Hemipteres.    8vo,  Paris,  lloret,  1843. 

Ratzeburg,J.T.C.    Die  Forstinsekten.    4to,  3  vols.    Berlin,  1837-44. 

Van  der  Hceven,  J.    Handbook  of  Zoology,  English  translation.    2  vols.  8vo,  1850. 

Gerstaecker,  A.  Handbuch  der  Zoologie  (in  connection  with  V.  Carus),  2  vols. 
8vo.  (vol.  2,  Arthropoda).  Leipzig,  1863. 

De  Selys  Longchamps,  E.  Revue  des  Odonates  on  Libellules  cV  Europe  avec  la  col- 
laboration de  H.  Hagen.  Paris,  1850,  8vo.  (Memoir.  Soc.  R.  Science  de  Liege, 
vol.  vi.)  (Two  species,  Lib.  Hudsonica,  p.  53,  and  Agrion  Doubledayi,  p.  209,  are 
described  in  this  work.) 

Hagen,  H.  Revue  des  Odonates;  Monographic  des  Calopterygines ;  Monographic 
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Agassiz,  L.  Lake  Superior,  its  Physical  Character,  its  Vegetation,  and  its  Animal  3, 
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Lepidoptera,  by  Dr.  T.  W.  Harris. 

Lacaze-Duthiers,  H.  Rechercb.es  sur  1'armure  ge"nitale  femelle  des  Insectes. 
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Melsheimer,  F.  E.  Catalogue  of  the  described  Coleoptera  of  the  United  States. 
Smithsonian  Institution.  8vo,  1853. 

Dallas,  W.  S.  Catalogue  of  Hemipterous  Insects  in  the  British  Museum.  1,2. 
Illustrated.  London,  1852. 

Fitch,  Asa.  The  noxious,  beneficial,  and  other  Insects  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
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Smith,  Frederic.  Catalogue  of  Hymenoptera  in  the  British  Museum.  Parts  i-vi. 
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Fallen,  C.  F.,  Stal,  C.,  and  Fieber.  Various  papers  on  Hemiptera  in  Scandinavian 
and  German  periodicals. 

Hilbner,  J.    Sammlung  Exotischer  Schmetterlinge.    5  vols.  4to.    Plates.    1800. 

Guenee,  A.  Species  general  des  Lepidopteres.  (Noctuida?,  Phalaenida?  and  Pyra- 
lidse)  Suite  a  Buffon.  Paris,  8vo,  1852-57. 

Stainton,  H.  T.  The  Natural  History  of  the  Tineina.  8vo,  with  many  plates.  Lon- 
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Lacordaire,  J.  T.    Genera  des  Coleopteres.    8vo,  tomes  1-7.    Paris,  Roret,  1854. 

Boisduval,  J.  A.  Histoire  generate  et  Iconographie  des  Lepidopteres  et  des  Che- 
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.    Species  generate  des  Lepidopteres.    8vo.    Roret,  Paris,  1856. 

Essai  sur  P  Entomologie  horticole.    8vo.    Paris,  1867. 

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injurious  to  Vegetation.  Third  edition,  illustrated.  Boston,  1862. 

Leconte,  J.  L.  Classification  of  the  Coleoptera  of  North  America.  Part  1, 1861-2. 
Smithsonian  Institution. 

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Smithsonian  Institution. 

Hagen,  H.  Synopsis  of  the  Neuroptera  of  North  America.  8vo.  1861.  Smith- 
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1860.  Smithsonian  Institution. 


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Osten  Sacken,  It.    Catalogue  of  the  described  Diptera  of  North  America.    1858. 

Smithsonian  Institution. 
Loew,  H.,  and  Osten  Sacken,  R.    Monograph  of  the  Diptera  of  North  America. 

Parts  1, 2,  8vo,  1802-64.    Smithsonian  Institution. 
Trimble,  I.  P.    A  Treatise  on  the  Insect  Enemies  of  Fruit  and  Fruit  Trees.    The 

Curculio  and  Apple  moth.    4to.    Plates.    New  York,  1865. 


MORPHOLOGY. 

Savigny,  J.  C.  Memoires  sur  les  Animatix  sans  Vertebres.  1  Partie.  Description 
et  Classification  des  Animaux  invertebres  et  articules,  1.  Fascicule.  The"orie  des 
Organes  de  la  Bouche  des  Crustaces  et  des  Insectes.  Paris,  1816. 

Audouin,  J.  V.  Ilecherches  anatomiques  sur  le  Thorax  des  animaux  articules  et 
celui  des  Insectes  hexapodes  en  particulier.  (Annales  d.  Scienc.  natur.  1, 1824, 
p.  97  and  416.) 

Eschscholtz,  J.  F.  Beschreibung  des  inneren  Skeletes  einiger  Insekten  aus  ver- 
schiedenen  Ordnungen.  Dorpat,  1820,  8vo,  p.  24-49,  2  Taf. 

Baer,  K.  E.  V.  Ueber  das  aussere  und  innere  Skelet  (Meckel's  Archiv.  f.  Anatom. 
u.  Physiol.  1826,  p.  327-374). 

Erichson,  W.  F.  Ueber  zoologische  Charaktere  der  Insekten,  Arachniden  und 
Cru§taceen.  (Entomographien,  S.  1-28.)  Berlin,  1840,  8vo. 

Brulle,  A.  Kecherches  sur  les  Transformations  des  Appendices  dans  les  Arti- 
cules (Annales  des  Sciences  naturelles,  3.  ser.  II,  1844,  p.  271-374). 

Leuckart,  R.  Ueber  die  Morphologic  und  die  Verwandtschaftsverhaltnisse  der 
Wirbellosen  Thiere.  Braunschweig,  1848,  8vo. 


ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 

Straus- Diirckheim,  H.  Considerations  generales  sur  1' Anatomic  compared  des 
Animaux  articules,  auxquelles  on  a  joint  1'  Anatomic  descriptive  du  Melolontha 
vulgaris.  Paris,  1828,  4to.  10  pi. 

Dufour,  L.  Numerous  anatomical  papers  in  the  Annales  des  Sciences  naturelles, 
Paris. 

Siebold,  C.  Th.  v.  Lehrbuch  der  Vergleichenden  Anatomic  der  wirbellosen  Thiere. 
Berlin,  1848,  8vo.  Translated  by  W.  I.  Burnett.  Boston,  1851,  8vo. 

Gegenbaur,  C.    Grundziige  der  vergleichenden  Anatomic.    Leipzig,  1859,  8vo. 

Geoffrey  St.  Hllaire,  Etienne.  Considerations  philosophiques  sur  la  determination 
du  Systeme  solide  et  du  Systeme  nerveux  des  Animaux  articules.  (Annal.  d. 
scienc.  natur.  II,  1824,  p.  295  ff.,  Ill,  p.  199  u.  p.  453  ff.) 

Newport,  G.  On  the  Structure,  Relations,  and  Development  of  the  nervous  and 
circulatory  Systems,  and  on  the  existence  of  a  complete  Circulation  of  the  Blood 
in  Vessels,  in  Myriapoda  and  Macrourous  Arachnida.  (Philosoph.  Transact. 
1843,  p.  243-302.) 

.  On  the  Structure  and  Development  of  the  Blood,  L.ser.  The  Development 

of  the  Blood  Corpuscle  in  Insects  and  other  Invertebrata,  and  its  Comparison 
with  that  of  Man  and  the  Vertebrata.  (Annals  of  Nat.  Hist.  XV,  1845,  p.  281-284.) 

.  On  the  Nervous  System  of  the  Sphinx  ligustri  Lin.  and  on  the  Changes 

which  it  undergoes  during  a  Part  of  the  Metamorphoses  of  the  Insect.  (Philo- 
soph. Transact.  1832,  p.  383-398,  and  1834,  380-423.) 

.  On  the  Temperature  of  Insects  and  its  Connexion  with  Functions  of  Res- 
piration and  Circulation  in  this  class  of  Invcrtebrated  Animals.  (Philosoph. 
Transact.  1837,  p.  259-338.) 

Blanchard,  E.  Recherches  anatomiques  et  zoologiques  sur  le  Systeme  nerveux  des 
Animaux  sans  vertebres.  Du  systeme  nerveux  des  Insectes.  (Annal.  d.  scienc. 
natur.  3.  ser.  V,  1846,  p.  273-379.) 


102  THE   CLASS   OF   INSECTS. 

Blanchard,  E.   Du  Systfeme  nerveux  chez  les  Inverte'bre's  dans  ses  rapports  avec  la 

Classification  de  ces  Animaux.    Paris,  1849,  8vo. 
Milne- Edwards,  H.    Legons  sur  la  Physiologic  ct  1'  Anatomic  compare  de  1'Homme 

et  des  Animaux.    Paris,  Masson  1S57-G4,  8vo. 


EMBRYOLOGY. 

Itafhke,  IT.    Untersuchungen  Uber  die  Bildung  und  Entwickelung  des  Flusskreb- 

ses,  Leipzig,  Voss.  1829,  Fol.  mit  5  Taf. 
.    Zur  Morphologic,  Reisebemerkungen  aus  Taurien.    Riga,  1837,  4to,  mit  5 

Taf. 
Herold,  J.  M.    Exercitationes  de  animalium  vertebris  carentium  in  ovo  formatione 

I.    De  generatione  Aranearum  in  ovo.  —  Untersuchungen  Uber  die  Bildungsge- 

schichte  der  Wirbellosen  Thiere  im  Ei.    1.  Th.  Von  tier  Erzeugung  der  Spinnen 

im  Ei.  Marburg,  Krieger,  1824,  fol.  mit  4  Taf. 
• .    Disquisitiones  de  animalium  vertebris  carentium  in  ovo  formatione.    De 

generatione  Insectorum  in  ovo.    Fasc.  I,  II,  Frankfurt  a  Main,  1835-38,  fol. 
Kolliker,  A.    Observationes  de  prima  Insectorum  genesi,  adjecta  articulatorum 

evolutionis  cum  vertebratorum  comparatione.    Dissert,  inaug.  Turici,  Meyer  et 

Zeller,  1842,  4to,  c.  tab.  3. 
Zaddach,  G.    Untersuchung  iiber  die  Entwickelung  und  den  Bau  der  Gliederthiere. 

Heft  1.  Die  Entwickelung  des  Phryganiden-Eies.  Berlin,  Reimer.  1854*  4to,  c. 

tab.  5. 
Leuckart,  E.    Die  Fortpflanzung  und  Entwickelung  der  Pupiparen  nach  Beobach- 

tungen  an  Melophagus  ovinus.  (Abhandl.  d.  naturf.  Gesellsch.  zti  Halle  IV,  1858» 

S.  145-226.) 
Huxley,  T.    On  the  agamic  Reproduction  and  Morphology  of  Aphis  (Transact. 

Linnean  Soc.  of  London,  XXII,  p.  193-236.) 
Lubbock,  J.    On  the  Ova  and  Pseudova  of  Insects  (Philosophical  Transactions 

of  the  Royal  Soc.  1859,  p.  341-369. 

Claparede,  E.    Recherches  sur  P  evolution  des  Araignees.    4to.  Utrecht,  1802. 
Weismann,  A.    Ueber  die  Entstehung  des  vollendeten  Insekts  in  Larveund  Puppe. 

Ein  Beitrag  zur  Metamorphose  der  Insekten,  Frankfurt  a  Main,  1863,  4to. 
.    Die  Entwickelung  der  Dipteren  im  Ei,  nach  Beobachtungen  an  Chii-ono- 

mus,  Musca  vomitoria  und  Pulex  canis  (Zeitschrift  fur  Wissenschal'tliche  Zo- 

ologie  XIII,  p.  107-204.) 
.    Die  nachembryonale  Entwickelung  der  Musciden  nach  Beobachtungen  an 

Musca  vomitoria  und  Sarcophaga  carnaria.   (The  same,  XIV,  p.  187-336.) 


FOSSIL  INSECTS. 

Giebel,  C.  Fauna  der  Vorwelt  mit  steter  Beriicksichtigung  der  lebenden  Thiere. 
2.  Bd.  Gliederthiere.  1.  Abtheilting.  Die  Insekten  und  Spinnen  der  Vorwelt  mit 
steter  Beriicksichtigung  der  lebenden  Insekten  und  Spinnen.  Leipzig,  1856,  8vo. 

Berendt,  C.  G.  Die  im  "Bernstein,  befindlichen  organischen  Reste  der  Vorwelt,  ge- 
sammelt  und  in  Verbindung  mit  Mehreren  herausgegeben.  1.  Band.  2,  Abth. 
Die  im  Bernstein  befindlichen  Crustacean,  Myriapoden,  Arachniden  und  apteren 
der  Vorwelt,  bearbeitet  von  C.L.Koch  und  C.  G.  Berendt.— 1.  Band.  Die  im 
Bernstein  befindlichen  Hemipteren,  Orthopteren,  und  Neuropteren  der  Vorwelt, 
bearbeitet  von  E.  F.  Germar,  F.  J.  Pictet,  und  H.  Hagen.  Berlin,  1854-56,  fol. 

Heer,  O.  Die  Insecten-fauna  der  Tertiaergebilde  von  CEningen  und  Radoboj.  Leip- 
zig, 1849,  4to,  3  vols. 

Scudder,  S.  H.  An  inquiry  into  the  Zoological  Relations  of  the  first  discovered 
Traces  of  fossil  Neuropterous  Insects  in  North  America.  From  the  Memoirs  of 
the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  Vol.  1, 18C7,  with  a  plate. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL   JOURNAL.  103 


PERIODICAL  WORKS  (now  in  course  of  publication). 

Edwards,  W.  H.    Butterflies  of  North  America.    Colored  plates.    Commenced  1868. 

Annales  de  la  Societe  entomologique  de  France,  Paris.    Commenced  1832. 

Transactions  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  London.    Commenced  1834. 

Z/'  Insectologie  Agricole,  Monthly  Journal,  Paris.    Commenced  1867. 

Zeitung.    Entomologische  Verein,  Stettin.    Commenced  1840. 

Limited  entomologica.    Entomologische  Verein,  Berlin.    Commenced  1846. 

Zeitschrift.    Entomologische  Verein,  Berlin.    Commenced  1857. 

Annales  de  la  Societe  entomologiqne  Beige,  Brussels.    Commenced  1857. 

Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia.    Commenced  1819. 

Journal  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia.    Commenced  1817. 

Transactions  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society.  New  Series.  Commenced 
1818. 

Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History.    Commenced  1834. 

Journal  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History.    Commenced  1834. 

Annals  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History  of  New  York.    Commenced  1824. 

Proceedings  and  Transactions  of  the  American  Entomological  Society,  Philadel- 
phia. Commenced  1861. 

Proceedings  and  Communications  of  the  Essex  Institute,  Salem.    Commenced  1848. 

American  Naturalist,  Salem.    Commenced  March,  1867. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL  JOURNAL.  Every  collector  should  keep  a 
daily  journal  of  his  captures  and  observations,  noting  down 
every  fact  and  hint  that  falls  under  his  notice.  In  this  book, 
commenced  as  soon  as  the  season  opens  in  early  spring,  can 
be  placed  on  record  the  earliest  appearance,  the  time  of  great- 
est abundance,  and  the  disappearance  of  every  insect  in  any  of 
its  stages.  Also  the  descriptions  of  larva* ,  with  sketches,  and 
observations  upon  their  habits ;  though  drawings  had  better 
be  kept  upon  separate  pieces  of  paper  for  easier  reference. 
The  insects,  when  captured  and  unnamed  should  be  numbered 
to  agree  with  corresponding  numbers  in  the  note-book.  At 
the  close  of  the  season  one  will  be  surprised  to  see  how  much 
material  of  this  kind  has  accumulated.  He  can  then  make  a 
calendar  of  appearances  of  perfect  insects  and  larvae,  so  as 
to  have  the  work  of  the  next  season  portioned  out  to  him ; 
he  will  thus  know  when  and  where  to  look  for  any  particular 
insect  or  caterpillar. 

/ 

THE  NUMBER  OF  SPECIES  OF  INSECTS.  Oswald  Heer  estimates 
that  the  Insects  comprise  four-fifths  of  the  whole  animal  king- 
dom. While  there  are  about  55,000  species  of  animals  known, 
excluding  the  Insects,  the  number  of  this  last  single  class 
amounts  to  upwards  of  190,000  known  species,  according  to 


104  THE    CLASS   OF    INSECTS. 

Gerstaecker's  estimate.  He  reckons  that  there  are  at  least 
25,000  species  of  Hymenoptera,  from  22,000  to  24,000  Lepidop- 
tera,  about  24,000  Diptera,  and  90,000  Coleoptera  ;  the  number 
of  the  other  suborders  cannot  be  easily  estimated.  Besides 
these  there  are  about  4,600  Arachnida,  and  800  Myriopods. 

GROUPING  OF  INSECTS  INTO  ORDERS  AND  SUBORDERS.  Be- 
fore beginning  an  account  of  the  Six-footed  Insects,  we 
present  the  following  tabular  view  of  the  Classification  of  In- 
sects. The  idea  that  the  Myriopods,  Spiders,  and  Six-footed 
Insects  formed  orders  and  not  classes  was  first  proposed  by  R. 
Leuckart  in  1848,  and  afterwards  supported  by  Agassiz  and 
Dana.  The  arrangements  proposed  by  these  and  other  authors 
are  put  in  tabular  form  on  page  106. 

THE  CLASS  OF  INSECTS. 

Order  L  —  Segments  grouped  into  three  distinct  re- "] 

gions ;  eyes  compound  and  simple ;  two  pairs  of       HEXAPODA 
wings;*  three  pairs  of  thoracic  legs;  one  pair  of  J> (Six-footed  In- 
jointed  abdominal  appendages.    A  more  or  less  I         sects). 
complete  metamorphosis, J 

Order  II.  —  Segments  grouped  into  two  regions,  a") 
false  cephalothorax  f  and  an  abdomen ;  no  antennae ;  I     A 
eyes  simple  -"wingless ;  four  pairs  of  thoracic  legs ;  }>      /A  .  *x,Iy' 
three  pairs  of  jointed  abdominal  appendages  (spin-  | 
nerets)  often  present.    No  metamorphosis,  .        .  J 

Order  III.  —  Body  cylindrical,  worm-like.  Segments  *| 

not  grouped  into  regions.     Head  free ;  eyes  sim-         MYRI  PODA 
pie;  antennae  present;  wingless;  numerous  ab-   ^ 
dominal  legs  present;    yelk-sac  present  for  a 
short  period  after  hatching.    No  metamorphosis.  J 

THE  ORDER  OF  SIX-FOOTED  INSECTS  J  (Hexapoda). 

Metabola.    The  body  usually  cylindrical ;  prothorax  "| 

small ;  mouth-parts  more  generally  haustellate   |  HYMENOPTERA. 

(formed  for  sucking)  ;  metamorphosis  complete ;   ^  LEPIDOPTEKA. 

pupa  inactive;    larva  usually  cylindrical,  very      DIPTERA. 

unlike  the  adult,  .        .         .        .         .        .  j 

Heterometabola.    The  body  usually  flattened ;  pro-  ^  COLEOPTFRA 

thorax  large  and  squarish;  mouth-parts  usually      HFMIPTFRA  ' 

adapted  for  biting;  metamorphosis  in  a  large          J' 

number  incomplete;  pupa  often  inactive;  larva 

flattened,  often  resembling  the  adult,  .        . 

*  The  number  of  wingless  forms  is  comparatively  few.  The  Diptera  have  but 
one  pair. 

fThe  so-called  "  cephalothorax"  of  Spiders  is  not  like  that  region  in  the  Crabs, 
the  head  being  much  freer  from  the  thorax. 

J  Leuckart's  classification  is  an  advance  on  others  in  his  considering  the  Hexa- 
poda,  Arachuida,  and  Myriapoda  as  orders  instead  of  classes,  but  he  says  nothing 


GROUPING   OF   INSECTS. 


105 


The  following  diagram  shows,  in  a  rude  way,  the  relative 
rank  and  affinities  of  the  seven  suborders,  and  of  the  two 
series  of  Six-footed  Insects. 


Neuroptera. 

Through  Lepisma,  and  Podura  which  are  wingless  Neuropter- 
ous  insects,  the  lower  series  is  connected  with  the  Myriopods, 
the  minute  degraded  myriopod,  Pauropus  of  Lubbock,  per- 
haps forming  the  connecting  link ;  and  through  the  wingless 
flies,  Braula,  Chionea,  and  Nycteribia,  the  Diptera,  belonging 
to  the  higher  series,  assume  the  form  of  the  Spiders,  the  head 
being  small,  and  sunken  into  the  thorax,  while  the  legs  are 
long  and  slender.  The  first  and  highest  series  culminates  in 
Apis,  the  Honey-bee ;  and  the  second,  or  lower,  in  Citindela, 
the  Tiger-beetle. 

regarding  the  rank  and  value  of  the  minor  groups.  Professor  Agassiz  extended 
Leuckait's  views  in  considering  the  seven  grand  divisions  of  the  order  of  Hexapods 
as  suborders.  In  1863  (How  to  Observe  and  Collect  Insects,  Maine  Scientific  Sur- 
vey, and  Synthetic  Types  of  Insects,  Boston  Journal  of  Natural  History),  we 
proposed  a  new  classification  of  these  suborders,  by  which  they  are  thrown  into 
two  main  groups  headed  by  the  Hymenoptera  and  Coleoptera  respectively.  These 
two  groups,  as  represented  in  the  diagram,  are  nearly  equivalent  in  value,  and 
stand  in  a  somewhat  parallel  relation.  There  is  nothing  like  a  linear  series  in  the 
animal  kingdom,  but  it  is  like  a  tree.  The  higher  series  of  suborders  form  more 
of  a  linear  series  than  the  lower  series,  so  that  in  the  diagram  the  Neuroptera, 
Orthoptera,  Hemiptera,  and  Coleoptera  form  a  more  broken  series  than  the  Hy- 
menoptera, Lepidoptera,  and  Diptera.  A  Bee,  Butterfly,  and  House-fly  are  much 
more  closely  allied  to  each  other  than  a  Beetle,  a  Squash-bug,  a  Grasshopper, 
and  a  Dragon-fly  are  among  themselves.  The  Neuroptera  are  the  most  indepen- 
dent, and  stand  at  the  bottom  of  and  between  the  two  series,  though  by  the  Orthop- 
tera they  are  very  intimately  linked  with  the  Hemiptera  and  Coleoptera. 


106 


THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 


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HYMENOPTERA.  107 


HYMENOPTERA. 

THE  Bees,  Wasps,  Saw-flies,  Ants,  and  other  members  of  this 
suborder  differ  from  all  other  insects  in  having,  in  the  higher  and 
more  typical  forms,  the  basal  joint  of  the  abdomen  thrown  for- 
ward upon  and  intimately  united  with  the  thorax.  The  head 
is  large,  writh  large  compound  eyes,  and  three  ocelli.  The 
mouth-parts  are  well  developed  both  for  biting,  and  feeding  on 
the  sweets  of  plants,  the  ligula  especially,  used  in  lapping 
nectar,  being  greatly  developed.  The  other  regions  of  the 
body  are  more  distinct  than  in  other  insects ;  the  wings  are 
small  but  powerful,  with  comparatively  few  and  somewhat 
irregular  veins,  adapted  for  powerful  and  long-sustained  flights  ; 
and  the  genital  appendages  retracted,  except  in  the  Ichneu- 
mon parasites  and  Saw-flies,  within  the  body,  are  in  the  female 
modified  into  a  sting. 

The  transformations  of  this  suborder  are  the  most  complete 
of  all  insects  ;  the  larvae  in  their  general  form  are  more  unlike 
the  adult  insects  than  in  any  other  suborder,  while  the  pupae, 
on  the  other  hand,  most  clearly  approximate  to  the  imago. 
The  larvae  are  short,  cylindrical,  footless  (excepting  the  young 
of  the  Saw-flies,  the  lowest  family,  which  are  provided  with 
abdominal  legs  like  Lepidopterous  larvae),  worm-like  grubs, 
wiiich  are  helpless,  and  have  to  be  fed  by  the  prevision  of  the 
parent.  The  pupa  has  the  limbs  free,  and  is  generally  contained 
in  a  thin  silken  cocoon ;  that  of  the  Saw-flies,  however,  being 
thick. 

The  Hymenoptera  exhibit,  according  to  Professor  Dana,  the 
normal  size  of  the  insect-type.  "This  archetypic  size  is  be- 

NOTE  to  page  106.— Ray  divided  the  Hexapods  into  Coleoptera  and  Aneloptera, 
the  latter  division  embracing  all  the  other  suborders  except  the  Coleoptera.  His 
Ametamorphota  Hexapoda  contained  the  wingless  hexapoda;  while  the  Ametamor- 
phota poly  poda  comprise  the  Myriopods,  and  the  A.  octopoda  the  Arachnids.  Lin- 
naeus' Aptera  (with  numerous  feet)  are  equivalent  to  the  Myriopods,  and  his  Aptera 
(with  8-14  feet)  to  the  Ai-achnids.  In  Fabricius'  system  the  Eleutherata  are  equiva- 
lent to  the  Coleoptera ;  the  Ulonata  to  the  Orthoptera ;  the  Synistata  to  the  Neurop- 
tera ;  the  Piezata  to  the  Hymenoptera ;  the  Odonata  to  the  Libellulidae ;  the  Glossata 
to  the  Lepidoptera ;  the  Rhyngota  to  the  Hemiptera;  the  Antliata  to  the  Diptera. 
The  Mitosata  are  the  Myriopods,  and  the  Unogata,  the  Arachnids.  In  Latreille's 
system  the  Suctoria,  or  FleasJ  are  now  referred  to  the  Diptera;  the  Parasita  or 
Lice,  to  the  Hemiptera,  and  the  Thysanura  to  the  Neuroptera. 


108  HYMENOPTERA. 

tween  eight  and  twelve  lines  (or  twelfths  of  an  inch)  in  length, 
and  two  and  a  half  and  three  lines  in  breadth."  This  size  is 
probably  a  smaller  average  than  in  any  other  suborder  ;  thus  the 
Hymenoptera  while  being  the  most  cephalized,  consequently 
comprise  the  most  compactly  moulded  insectean  forms. 

Besides  these  structural  characters,  as  animals,  endowed 
with  instincts  and  a  kind  of  reason  differing,  perhaps,  only  in 
degree  from  that  of  man,  these  insects  outrank  all  other  Articu- 
lates. In  the  unusual  differentiation  of  the  individual  into  males 
and  females,  and,  generally  sterile  workers,  with  a  farther  dimor- 
phism of  these  three  sexual  forms,  such  as  Huber  has  noticed 
in  the  Humble-bee,  and  a  consequent  subdivision  of  labor 
among  them  ;  in  dwelling  in  large  colonies,  thus  involving  new 
and  intricate  relations  with  other  insects  (such  as  Aphides, 
ant-hill-inhabiting  beetles,  and  the  peculiar  bee-parasites) ; 
their  wonderful  instincts,  their  living  principally  on  the  sweets 
and  pollen  of  flowers,  and  not  being  essentially  carnivorous 
(i.e.  seizing  their  prey  like  the  Tiger-beetle)  in  their  habits,  as 
are  a  large  proportion  of  the  other  suborders,  with  the  exception 
of  Lepidoptera ;  and  in  their  relation  to  man  as  a  domestic  an- 
imal, subservient  to  his  wants, — the  Bees,  and  Hymenoptera 
in  general,  possess  a  combination  of  characters  which  are  not 
found  existing  in  any  other  suborder  of  insects,  and  which 
rank  them  first  and  highest  in  the  insect  series. 

The  body-wall  of  the  Hymenoptera  is  unusually  dense  and 
hard,  smooth  and  highly  polished,  and  either  naked,  or  covered 
with  hair  as  in  a  large  proportion  of  the  bees.  The  head  is 
large,  not  much  smaller  than  the  thorax,  and  its  front  is  Arerti- 
cal.  The  antennae  are  short,  filiform,  often  geniculate,  very 
rarely  pectinated.  The  mandibles  are  large,  stout,  toothed,  and 
the  maxillae  are  well  developed  into  their  three  subdivisions, 
the  palpi  being  usually  six-jointed ;  the  labial  palpi  are  usually 
four-jointed,  and  the  prolongation  of  the  under  lip,  or  ligula, 
is  highly  developed,  being  furnished  with  a  secondary  pair 
of  palpi,  the  paraglossae,  while  in  the  pollen-gathering  species 
the  ligula  is  of  great  length,  and  thus  answers  much  the  same 
purpose  as  the  spiral  tongue  (maxillae)  of  the  Lepidoptera. 

Reaumur  states  that  the  Bee  does  not  suck  up  the  liquid 
sweets,  but  laps  them  up  with  its  long  slender  hairy  tongue. 


HYMENOPTERA.  109 

"Even  in  the  drop  of  honey  the  bee  bends  the  end  of  its 
tongue  about,  and  lengthens  and  shortens  it  successively,  and, 
indeed,  withdraws  it  from  moment  to  moment."  The  liquid 
passes  along  the  upper  surface  of  the  pilose  tongue,  which  is 
withdrawn  between  its  sheaths,  the  palpi  and  maxillae,  and  thus 
"  conveys  and  deposits  the  liquid  with  which  it  is  charged 
within  a  sort  of  channel,  formed  by  the  upper  surface  of  the 
tongue  and  the  sheaths  which  fold  over  it,  by  which  the  liquid 
is  conveyed  to  the  mouth."  (Shuckard.) 

The  thorax  forms  a  rounded  compact  oval  mass,  with  the 
prothorax  and  metathorax  very  small,  the  mesothorax  being 
large,  and  also  the  propodeum,  to  which  the  pedicel  of  the  ab- 
domen is  attached.  The  pleurites  are  large  and  bulging, 
while  the  sternum  is  minute.  The  coxae  and  trochantines  are 
large,  and  quite  free  from  the  thorax ;  and  the  trochanters 
are  small,  while  the  rather  slender  legs  <are  subject  to  great 
modifications,  as  they  are  devoted  to  so  many  different  uses 
by  these  insects ;  thus,  in  the  Sand-wasps  they  are  strongly 
bristled  for  the  purpose  of  digging,  and  in  the  Bees,  the 
basal  joint  of  the  tarsi  is  much  enlarged  for  carrying  pollen. 

"The  manner  in  which  the  bee  conveys  either  the  pollen,  or 
other  material  it  purposes  carrying  home,  to  the  posterior 
legs,  or  venter,  which  is  to  bear  it,  is  very  curious.  The 
rapidity  of  the  motion  of  its  legs  is  then  very  great,;  so  great, 
indeed,  as  to  make  it  very  difficult  to  follow  them j  but  it 
seems  first  to  collect  its  material  gradually  with  its  mandibles, 
from  which  the  anterior  tarsi  gather  it,  and  that  on  each  side 
passes  successively  the  grains  of  which  it  consists  to  the  inter- 
mediate legs,  by  multiplicated  scrapings  and  twistings  of  the 
limbs ;  this,  then,  passes  it  on  by  similar  manoeuvres,  and  de- 
posits it,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  bee,  upon  the  pos- 
terior tibiae  and  tarsi,  or  upon  the  under  side  of  the  abdomen. 
The  evidence  of  this  process  is  speedily  manifested  by  the  pos- 
terior legs  gradually  exhibiting  an  increasing  pellet  of  pollen. 
Thus,  for  this  purpose,  all  the  legs  of  the  bees  are  more  or  less 
covered  with  hair.  It  is  the  mandibles  which  are  chiefly  used 
in  their  boring  or  excavating  operations,  applying  their  hands, 
or  anterior  tarsi,  only  to  clear  their  way  ;  but  by  the  construc- 
tive, or  artisan  bees,  they  are  used  both  in  their  building  and 


110  HYMENOPTERA . 

mining  operations,  and  are  worked  like  trowels  to  collect  moist 
clay,  and  to  apply  it  to  the  masonry  of  their  habitations." 
(Shuckard.) 

The  four  wings  are  present,  except  in  rare  instances.  They 
are  small ;  the  hinder  pair  long,  narrow,  ovate,  lanceolate. 
The  costal  edge  of  the  fore-wing  (Fig.  29),  is  generally 
straight,  becoming  a  little  curved  towards  the  apex,  which 
is  obtusely  subrectangular ;  the  outer  edge  is  bent  at  right 
angles,  while  the  inner  edge  of  the  wing  is  long  and  straight. 
The  veins  are  often  difficult  to  trace,  as  in  the  outer  half  of  the 
wing  they  break  up  into  a  system  of  net-veins,  which  are  few 
in  number,  yet  the  continuations  of  the  subcostal,  median,  and 
submedian  veins  can  be  distinguished  after  careful  study. 

In  some  low  Ichneumonidce,  the  Proctotrupidce,  and 
Clialcididm,  the  veins  show  a  tendency  to  become  obsolete, 
only  the  simple  subcostal  vein  remaining ;  and  in  Pteratomus, 
the  veins  are  entirely  obliterated,  and  the  linear  feather-like 
wings  are  in  one  pair  fissured,  reminding  us  of  the  Plume- 
moths,  Pterophorus. 

The  abdomen  is  composed  in  the  larva  state  of  ten  segments, 
but  in  the  adult  stinging  Hymenoptera,  of  six  complete  seg- 
ments in  the  females,  and  seven  in  the  males ;  while  in  the 
lower  families  the  number  varies,  having  in  the  Tenthredi- 
nidce,  eight  tergites  on  the  upper  side  and  six  sternites  on  the 
lower  side.  The  remaining  segments  are,  during  the  transfor- 
mations of  the  insect,  aborted  and  withdrawn  within  the  body. 
The  ovipositor  and  corresponding  parts  in  the  male  have 
been  described  on  pp.  14-18. 

The  nervous  system  consists  in  the  larvae  of  eleven  ganglia, 
in  the  adult  five  or  six  of  these  remain  as  abdominal  ganglia, 
while  the  remainder,  excluding  the  cephalic  ganglia,  are  placed 
in  two  groups  in  the  thorax.  The  cerebral  ganglia  are  well 
developed,  evincing  the  high  intellectual  qualities  necessary  in 
presiding  over  organs  with  such  different  uses  as  the  simple 
and  compound  eyes,  the  antennae,  and  lingua  and  palpi,  and 
mandibles,  especially  in  those  sociable  species  which  build 
complete  nests. 

The  digestive  system,  in  those  bees  which  sip  up  their  food, 
consists,  besides  the  external  mouth-parts,  of  a  "long  cesoph- 


HYMENOPTERA .  Ill 

agus  which  dilates  into  a  thin-walled  sucking  stomach,"  which 
in  the  Api arias  and  Vespidce  may  be  simply  a  lateral  fold, 
or,  as  in  many  Crabroniclce,  "attached  solely  by  a  short  and 
narrow  peduncle."  In  Formica,  Cynips,  Leucospis,  and  Xypliid- 
ria  there  is  a  globular  uncurved  callous  gizzard,  which  is  en- 
veloped by  the  base  of  the  stomach,  according  to  Siebold,  who 
also  states  that  "those  Hymenoptera  which  are  engaged  during 
a  long  and  active  life  in  labors  for  the  raising  and  support  of 
their  young,  have  a  pretty  long  and  flexuous  stomach  and  in- 
testine, and  the  first  has,  usually,  many  constrictions  ; "  while 
the  Cynipidce,  Ichneumonidce,  and  Tenthredinidce, 
which  take  no  care  of  their  young,  have  only  a  short  small 
stomach  and  intestine.  The  salivary  glands  consist  of  two 
rather  short  ramified  tufts,  often  contained  entirely  in  the  head. 

The  tracheae  consist,  as  in  other  insects,  of  two  main  branches, 
from  which  numerous  transverse  anastomosing  branches  are 
given  off,  with  numerous  vesicular  dilatations.  Two  such  vesi- 
cles of  immense  volume  are  situated  at  the  base  of  the  abdo- 
men, wThich  according  to  Hunter  and  Newport  "serve  chiefly 
to  enable  the  insect  to  alter  its  specific  gravity  at  pleasure  dur- 
ing flight,  and  thus  diminish  the  muscular  exertion  required 
during  these  movements." 

The  urinary  vessels  are  very  numerous  in  the  Hymenoptera ; 
they  are  usually  short  and  surround  the  pylorus  in  numbers  of 
from  twenty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty. 

The  two  poison  glands  (Fig.  54,  h,g)  are  composed  of  long 
ramose  tubes,  resembling  the  salivary  glands  in  their  minute 
structure.  The  poison  is  poured  from  these  into  a  pyriform 
sac  lodged  near  the  base  of  the  sting,  which  is  provided  with  a 
peculiar  muscular  apparatus  for  its  sudden  extension  and  with- 
drawal. The  poison,  in  the  Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps,  consists, 
according  to  Will,  of  "formic  acid,  and  a  whitish,  fatty,  sharp 
residuum,  the  former  being  the  poisonous  substance."  (Bur- 
nett.) 

The  wax-secreting  apparatus  consists  of  special  dermal 
glands,  as  Milne-Edwards  supposed.  Glaus  has  shown  (see 
G-egeiibaur's  Verg.  Anatomic)  that  these  minute  glands  arc 
mostly  unicellular,  the  external  opening  being  through  a  fine 
chitinous  tube  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  integument.  In  the 


112  HYMEXOPTERA. 

wax-producing  insects  these  glands  are  developed  in  great 
numbers  over  certain  portions  of  the  body.  In  the  Aphides, 
whose  bodies  are  covered  with  a  powder  consisting  of  fine  waxy 
threads,  these  glands  are  collected  in  groups.  Modifications  of 
them  appear  in  the  Coccidae.  In  the  wax-producing  Hyrnen- 
optera  the  apparatus  is  somewhat  Complicated.  The  bees 
secrete  wax  in  thin,  transparent,  membranous  plates  on  the 
under  side  of  the  abdominal  segments.  Polygonal  areas  arc 
formed  by  the  openings  of  an  extraordinarily  large  number  oT 
fine  pore-canals,  in  which,  surrounded  by  very  numerous  tra- 
cheal  branches,  the  cylindrical  gland-cells  are  densely  piled 
upon  each  other.  These  form  the  wax  organs,  over  which  a 
fatty  layer  spreads.  In  those  bees  which  do  not  produce  wax, 
the  glands  of  the  wax  organs  are  slightly  developed.  Wax 
organs  also  occur  in  the  Humble  bees. 

The  honey  is  elaborated  by  an  unknown  chemical  process, 
from  the  food  contained  in  the  proventriculus,  or  crop,  and 
which  is  regurgitated  into  the  honey-cells. 

The  ovaries  consist  of  many-chambered,  four,  six,  or  a  hun- 
dred, short  tubes.  "The  receptacula  seminis  is  nearly  always 
simple,  round  or  ovoid,  and  necked,  and  is  prolonged  into  a 
usually  short  seminal  duct."  The  glandula  appendicularis  con- 
sists of  a  bifurcate  tube  which  opens  into  the  ductus  seminalis, 
and  only  rarely  into  the  capsula  seminaUs  itself. 

In  the  Tenthredinidce,  " this  apparatus  is  formed  on  a 
different  type  ;  the  seminal  vesicle  is  a  simple  diverticulum  of 
the  vagina,  and  more  or  less  distinct  from  it,  besides  it  is  defi- 
cient in  the  accessory  gland.  The  copulatory  pouch  is  absent  in 
all  the  Hymenoptera,  as  are  also  the  sebaceous  glands  with  those 
females  which  have  a  sting  and  a  poison  gland,"  while  in  other 
insects  the  sebaceous  glands  are  present,  and  it  would  be  nat- 
urally inferred,  therefore,  that  the  two  are  homologous,  but 
modified  for  diverse  functions. 

The  two  testes  of  the  male  are  "composed  of  long  follicles, 
fasciculate  and  surrounded,  together  with  a  portion  of  the 
torose  deferent  canal,  by  a  common  envelope ;  but  more  com- 
monly the  two  testes  are  contained  in  a  capsule  situated  on  the 
median  line  of  the  body."  (Siebold.) 

The  eggs  are  usually  long,  cylindrical,  and  slightly  curved  in 


HYMENOPTERA.  113 

the  Bees  ;  in  the  Wasps  they  are  more  globular,  and  affixed  by 
their  smaller  somewhat  pedicelled  end  to  the  side,  near  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cell  in  which  they  are  laid.  The  eggs  of  the  lower 
families  tend  to  assume  a  spherical  form.  The  eggs  of  dif- 
erent  species  of  Bombus  present  no  appreciable  differences. 

The  larvae  of  the  Bees  and  Wasps,  especially  the  social 
species,  which  live  surrounded  by  their  food,  are  of  a  very 
persistent  form,  the  various  genera  differing  but  slightly,  while 
the  species  can  scarcely  be  separated.  Such  we  have  found  to 
be  the  case  in  the  Bees  and  Wasps  (  Vespidce)  and  Fossorial 
Wasps.  The  sexes  of  the  species  with  a  very  thin  tegument, 
such  as  Apis,  Bombus,  and  Vespa,  can  be  quite  easily  distin- 
guished, as  the  rudiments  of  the  genital  armor  can  be  seen 
through. 

The  Hymenoptera  are  mostly  confined  to  the  warmer  and 
temperate  regions  of  the  earth ;  as  we  approach  the  poles,  the 
Bees  disappear,  with  the  exception  of  Bombus,  and  perhaps 
its  parasite  Apathus ;  a  species  of  Vespa  is  found  on  the  Lab- 
rador coast,  which  has  a  climate  like  that  of  Greenland.  No 
fossorial  species  of  Wasps  are  known  to  us  to  occur  in  the  arc- 
tic regions,  while  a  few  species  of  Ants,  and  several  Chalcidi- 
dce  and  Ichneumonidce  are  not  uncommon  in  Northern 
Labrador  and  Greenland.  Our  alpine  summits,  particularly 
that  of  Mt.  Washington,  reproduces  the  features  of  Northern 
Labrador  and  Greenland  as  regards  its  HymenopterouB  fauna. 
The  tropics  are,  however,  the  home  of  the  Hymenoptera,  and 
especially  of  the  Bees. 

There  are  estimated  to  be  about  twenty-five  thousand  living 
species  of  this  suborder,  and  this  is  probably  a  much  smaller 
number  than  are  yet  to  be  discovered. 

In  geological  history,  the  Hymenoptera  do  not  date  far  back 
compared  with  the  Neuroptera  and  Orthoptera,  and  even  the 
Coleoptera.  Indeed  they  were  among  the  last  to  appear  upon 
the  earth's  surface.  The  lower  forms,  so  far  as  the  scanty 
records  show,  appeared  first  in  the  Jura  formation ;  the  Ants 
appear  in  the  Tertiary  period,  especially  in  amber. 

As  we  have  noticed  before,  the  Hymenoptera  are  more  purely 
terrestrial  than  any  other  insects.  None  are  known  to  be 
aquatic  in  the  early  stages,  and  only  two  genera  have  been  found 
8 


114  HYMENOPTERA. 

swimming  in  the  adult  state  on  the  surface  of  pools,  and  they 
are  the  low,  minute,  degraded  Proctotrupids,  Prestivichia 
natans  and  Polynema  natans  described  by  Mr.  Lubbock.  The 
Hymenoptera  do  not  imitate  or  mimic  the  forms  of  other  in- 
sects, but,  on  the  contrary,  their  forms  are  extensively  copied  in 
the  Lepidoptera,  and  especially  the  Diptera.  A  partial  excep- 
tion to  this  law  is  seen  in  the  antennae  of  the  Australian  genus 
Thaumatosoma,  where  they  are  long  and  slender,  and  knobbed 
as  in  the  butterfly,  and  also  in  Tetralonia  mirabilis  of  Smith, 
from  Brazil.  ;? 

The  Hymenoptera,  also,  show  their  superiority  to  all  other  in- 
sects in  the  form  of  their  degraded  wingless  species,  such  as 
Pezomaclms,  the  workers  of  Formica  and  the  female  of  Mutilla. 
In  these  forms  we  have  no  striking  resemblances  to  lower  orders 
and  suborders,  but  .a  strong  adherence  to  their  own  Hymenop- 
terous  characters.  Again  ;  in  the  degradational  winged  forms, 
we  rarely  find  the  antennae  pectinated  ;  a  common  occurrence 
in  the  lower  suborders.  In  a  low  species  of  the  Apiarice, 
Lamprocolletes  dadocerus,  from  Australia,  —  that  land  of  anom- 
alies,— the  antennae  are  pectinated.  This,  Mr.  F.  Smith,  the 
best  living  authority  on  this  suborder,  says,  "is  certainly  the 
most  remarkable  bee  that  I  have  seen,  and  the  only  in- 
stance, to  my  knowledge,  of  -a  bee  having  pectinated  antennae  ; 
such  an  occurrence,  indeed,  in  the  Aculeate  Hymenoptera  is 
only  known  in  two  or  three  instances,  as  in  Psammotlierma  flab- 
ellata  amongst  the  Mutillidce,  and  again  in  Ctenocerus  Klugii 
in  the  Pompilidce;  there  is  also  a  modification  of  it  in  one  or 
two  other  species  of  Pompilidce ."  Among  the  Tenthre- 
dinidce,  the  male  Lophyrus  has  well-pectinated  antennae,  as 
also  has  Cladomacra  macropus  of  Smith,  from  New  Guinea 
and  Celebes. 

The  wings  of  perhaps  the  most  degraded  Hymenoptera,  the 
Proctotrupidce,  are  rarely  fissured ;  when  this  occurs,  as  in 
Pteratomus  Putnamii,  they  somewhat  resemble  those  of  Ptero- 
phorus,  the  lowest  moth.  It  'is  extremely  rare  that  the  com- 
pound eyes  are  replaced  by  stemmata,  or  simple  eyes ;  in  but 
one  instance,  the  genus  Anthophorabia,  are  the  eyes  in  the 
male  sex  reduced  to  a  simple  ocellus.  This  species  lives  in  the 
darkness  of  the  cells  of  Anthophora. 


115 

By  reason  of  the  permanence  of  the  type,  due  to  the  high 
rank  of  these  insects,  the  generic  and  specific  characters  are 
founded  on  very  slight  differences,  so  that  these  insects,  and 
particularly  the  two  higher  families,  the  Wasps  (  Vespidce)  and 
Bees  (Apioarioe)  are  the  most  difficult  insects  to  study.  The 
easiest  characters  for  the  recognition  of  the  genera,  lie  in  the 
venation  of  the  wings  ;  though  in  the  fossorial  families  the  legs 
vary  greatly.  The  best  specific  characters  lie  in  the  sculptur- 
ing and  style  of  coloration,  but  the  spots  and  markings  are  apt 
to  vary  greatly.  The  great  differences  between  the  sexes  are 
liable  to  mislead  the  student,  and  hence  large  collections  are 
indispensable  for  their  proper  study.  Bees  act  as  "marriage 
priests"  in  the  fertilization  of  plants,  conveying  pollen  from 
flower  to  flower,  and  thus  insuring  the  formation  of  the  fruit. 
It  is  said  that  many  plants  could  not  be  fertilized  without 
the  interposition  of  Bees. 

Their  interesting  habits  deserve  long  and  patient  study ;  it 
is  for  their  observations  on  the  insects  of  this  suborder  that  the 
names  of  Reaumur,  the  two  Hubers,  and  Latreille  will  be  ever 
held  in  special  remembrance. 

Most  Hymenoptera  love  the  sun,  and  they  may  be  caught 
while  flying  about  flowers.  The  nests  of  bees,  wasps,  and  ants 
should  be  sought  for  and  the  entire  colony  captured,  together 
with  the  parasites.  The  hairy  species  should  be  pinned  while  in 
the  net,  and  the  naked  ones  can  be  put  in  the  collecting-bot- 
tle. The  larger  species  may  be  pinned,  like  other  insects, 
through  the  thorax ;  but  the  minute  Chalcids,  etc.,  should  be 
gummed,  like  small  Coleoptera,  upon  cards. 

The  nests  of  bees  and  of  wasps  and  ants  and  the  young  in 
various  stages  of  growth  should  be  collected,  and  in  such  num- 
bers as  to  show  their  different  stages  of  construction,  to  serve 
as  illustrations  of  insect  architecture. 

APIARI^E  Latreille  (Apidce  Leach) .  This  and  those  families 
succeeding  which  are  provided  with  a  true  sting,  were  called 
by  Latreille  Hymenoptera  Aculeata-  The  male  antennae  are 
mostly  thirteen-jointed,  while  in  the  female  they  are  twelve- 
jointed.  The  females  (and  the  workers,  when  they  exist) 
feed  the  larvae,  which  mostly  live  in  nests  or  cells. 


116  HYMENOPTERA. 

In  the  social  Bees,  besides  the  normal  male  and  female  forms, 
there  are  asexual  females,  whose  inner  genital  organs  are  partly 
aborted,  though  externally  only  differing  in  their  smaller  size 
from  the  true  females.  The  male  antennae  are  longer,  tapering 
more  towards  the  tips,  and  the  eyes  of  the  male  approach  each 
other  closer  over  the  vertex  than  in  the  opposite  sex,  though 
these  are  characters  which  apply  to  other  Hymenoptera.  The 
mouth-parts  are  in  the  higher  genera  greatly  elongated,  the 
labium  being  long,  with  the  lingua  of  great  length,  and  the 
lobes  of  the  maxillae  long  and  knife-shaped  ;  but  these  parts,  as 
well  as  the  form  of  the  jaws,  are  subject  to  great  modifications 
in  the  different  genera :  the  labial  palpi  are  four-jointed,  and 
the  maxillary  palpi  are  from  one  to  six-jointed.  The  hind 
tibia  and  basal  joint  of  the  tarsi  are,  in  the  pollen-gathering 
species,  very  broad ;  the  tibia  is  in  Apis  and  Boinbus  hollowed 
on  the  outside,  and  stiff  bristles  project  over  the  cavity  from 
each  side  of  the  joint,  forming  the  honey-basket  (corbiculum) , 
on  which  the  "clodden  masses  of  honey  and  pollen"  are  con- 
veyed to  their  nests.  In  the  parasitic  genera,  such  as  Apatlius, 
the  tibia  is,  on  the  contrary,  convex,  rather  than  concave, 
though  of  the  usual  width ;  while  in  Nomada,  also  parasitic, 
the  legs  are  narrow,  the  tibia  not  being  dilated. 

In  Andrena  and  its  allies,  Halictus  and  Colletes,  the  mouth- 
parts,  especially  the  tongue,  are  much  shortened,  thus  afford- 
ing a  passage  into  the  Vespidce.  In  these  genera  the  tongue 
is  folded  back  but  once  between  the  horny  encasement  of  the 
maxillae,  but  in  the  higher  Apiarice  the  part  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  lingua  and  maxilla  is  twice  bent  back,  and  thus 
protected  by  the  horny  lobes  of  the  maxillae.  The  fore- wings 
have  two  or  three  subcostal  (cubital)  cells. 

There  are  two  thousand  species  of  this  family.  The  differ- 
ences between  the  larvae  of  the  various  genera  of  this  family 
are  very  slight,  those  of  the  parasitic  species  are,  however, 
readily  distinguished  from  their  hosts. 

The  higher  Apiarice,  comprising  the  subfamily  Apinw,  have 
the  ligula  long,  cylindrical,  while  the  labial  palpi  have  two 
very  long,  slender,  compressed  basal  joints,  and  two  short 
terminal  joints. 

The  genus  Apis  has  no  terminal  spurs  on  the  hind  tibiae, 


APIAKUE.  117 

while  the  fore-wings  have  three  subcostal  (cubital)  cells,  the 
middle  of  which  is  elongated  and  acutely  wedge-shaped.  The 
eyes  in  the  male  are  united  above  ;  the  mouth-parts  are  nearly 
aborted,  and  the  hind  legs  are  smooth.  In  the  female  there 
are  two  paraglossae  on  the  ligula,  and  the  maxillary  palpi 
are  one-jointed.  The  worker  only  differs  externally  from  the 
female  in  the  shorter  abdomen. 

The  larva  of  the  Hojiey-bee  closely  resembles  that  of  Bom- 
bus,  but  the  body  is  shorter,  broader,  and  more  flattened,  while 
the  head  is  less  prominent,  and  the  lateral  tubercles  along  the 
body  are,  perhaps,  less  prominent  than  in  the  young  Humble- 
bee,  otherwise  the  two  genera  are,  in  the  larval  state,  much 
alike.  In  its  natural  position,  the  larva  lies  at  the  bottom  of 
the  cell  doubled  upon  itself,  .ho 

Though  the  larvae  are  said  usually  to  feed  upon  pollen, 
Mr.  Desborough  states  that  honey  alone  is  the  food  of  the 
grub,  as  he  reared  729  larvae  with  no  other  food  than  honey. 
But  as  with  the  wild  bees  they  may  extract  honey  from  the 
pollen  provided  for  them.  He  says  the  matured  bees  may  be 
observed  feeding  at  night  on  the  bee-bread  (pollen).  Lang- 
stroth  (The  Hive  and  Honey-bee),  however,  states  that  "pol- 
len is  indispensable  to  the  nourishment  of  the  young.  It  is 
very  rich  in  the  nitrogenous  substances  which  are  not  contained 
in  the  honey." 

The  Honey-bee,  Apis  melliftca^  is  now  distributed  over  the 
civilized  world.  It  was  introduced  into  this  country  during 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  into  South  America  in  1845  (Ger- 
stsecker).  The  Italian,  or  Ligurian,  bee  is  considered  by  F. 
Smith  as  being  a  climatic  variety. 

The  cultivation  of  the  Honey-bee  is  rapidly  increasing  in  this 
country,  but  the  German  Bee-masters  have  made  the  most  pro- 
gress in  theoretical  and  practical  Bee-culture.  Convenient 
hives  are  now  constructed  by  which  all  the  operations  of  the 
bees  can  be  observed  at  leisure.  Gerstaecker  thus  sums  up 
the  habits  of  the  Honey-bee :  A  fertilized  queen  which,  with  a 
few  workers,  has  wintered  over,  lays  its  eggs  in  the  spring  first 
in  the  worker,  and  afterwards,  at  a  later  period,  in  the  drone- 
cells  (both  arranged  in  two  perpendicular  rows  of  cells).  Early 
in  summer,  the  workers  construct  the  larger  flask-shaped  queen- 


118  H  YMENOPTERA . 

cells,  which  are  placed  on  the  edge  of  the  comb,  and  in  these 
the  queen-larvae  are  fed  with  rich  and  choice  nourishment. 
As  soon  as  the  first  of  the  new  brood  of  queens  is  excluded 
from  its  cell,  which  it  indicates  by  a  peculiar  buzzing  noise,  the 
old  queen  deserts  the  nest,  carrying  away  with  her  a  part  of  the 
swarm,  and  thus  forms  a  new  colony.  The  recently  excluded 
queen  then  takes  its  marriage  flight  high  in  the .  air  with  a 
drone,  and  on  its  return  undertakes  the  management  of  the 
hive,  and  the  duty  of  laying  eggs.  When  another  queen  is 
disclosed,  the  same  process  of  forming  a  new  colony  goes  on. 
When  the  supply  of  young  queens  is  exhausted,  the  workers 
fall  upon  the  drones  and  destroy  them  without  mercy.  The 
first  brood  of  workers  live  about  six  wreeks  in  summer,  and 
then  give  way  to  a  new  brood.  Mr.  J.  G.  Desborough  states 
that  the  maximum  period  of  the  life  of  a  worker  is  eight  months. 
The  queens  are  known  to  live  five  years,  and  during  their  whole 
life  lay  more  than  a  million  eggs  (V.  Berlepsch).  Langstroth 
states  that  "during  the  height  of  the  breeding  season,  she 
will  often,  under  favorable  circumstances,  lay  from  2,000  to 
3,000  eggs  a  day."  According  to  Von  Siebold's  discovery 
only  the  queens'  and  workers'  eggs  are  fertilized  by  sperm- 
cells  stored  in  the  receptaculum  seminis,  and  these  she  can 
fertilize  at  will,  retaining  the  power  for  four  or  five  years, 
as  the  muscles  guarding  the  duct  leading  from  this  sperm-bag 
are  subject  to  her  will.  Drone  eggs  are  laid  by  unfertilized 
queen-bees,  and  in  some  cases  even  by  worker-bees.  This  last 
fact  has  been  confirmed  by  the  more  recent  observations  of 
Mr.  Tegetmeier,  of  London. 

Principal  Leitch,  according  to  Tegetmeier,  has  suggested  the 
theory  that  a  worker  egg  may  develop  a  queen,  if  transferred 
into  a  queen-cell.  "It  is  well  known  that  bees,  deprived  of 
their  queen,  select  several  worker-eggs,  or  very  young  larvae, 
for  the  purpose  of  rearing  queens.  The  cells  in  which  these 
eggs  are  situated  are  lengthened  out  and  the  end  turned  down- 
ward." He  suggests  that  the  development  into  a  queen  was 
caused  by  the  increased  temperature  of  the  queen-cell,  above 
that  of  the  worker-cells. 

But  Messrs.  F.  Smith  and  Woodbury  (Proceedings  of  the 
Entomological  Society  of  London,  January  2,  1862)  support  F. 


APIARI^.  119 

Huberts  theory,  that  the  change  is  due  to  "the  quality  as  well 
as  quantity  of  food  with  which  the  royal  larva  is  supplied," 
though  Dr.  Leitch  objects,  that  it  has  been  by  no  means  con- 
clusively proved  "  that  the  so-called  royal  jelly  differs  in  any 
respect  from  the  ordinary  food  supplied  to  the  worker  larva ; " 
and  Mr.  Woodbury  cites  the  experiments  of  Dzierzon,  as 
quoted  by  Kleine,  "that  as  Huber,  by  introducing  some  royal 
jelly  in  cells  containing  worker-brood,  obtained  queens,  it  may 
be  possible  to  induce  bees  to  construct  royal  cells,  when  the 
Apiarian  prefers  to  have  them,  by  inserting  a  small  portion  of 
royal  jelly  in  cells  containing  worker-larvae."  Kleine  takes  "  an 
unsealed  royal  cell — which  usually  contains  an  excess  of 
royal  jelly — and  removes  from  it  a  portion  of  the  jelly,  on 
the  point  of  a  knife  or  pen,  and  by  placing  it  on  the  inner 
margin  of  any  worker  cell,  feels  confident  that  the  larvae  in 
them  will  be  reared  as  queens." 

Before  these  points  are  settled  we  must  study  the  habits  of 
the  Wild  Bees,  and  of  the  other  social  Hymenoptera  and  White 
Ants,  together  with  the  social  Aphides  more  carefully.  Mr.  F. 
W.  Putnam  pertinently  states,  "at  present  I  cannot  believe 
that  the  peculiarity  of  food,  or  the  structure  of  the  cells,  pro- 
duces a  difference  of  development  in  Humble-bees,  for  the  lar- 
vae, as  has  been  previously  stated,  were  seen  to  make  their  own 
cells  from  the  pollen  paste.  Is  it  not  more  natural  to  believe, 
as  has  been  suggested  to  me  by  Professor  J.  Wyman,  that  the 
difference  in  the  development  of  the  eggs  is  owing  to  their  be- 
ing laid  at  various  times  after  impregnation?  Thus,  if  I  am 
right  in  supposing  that  the  queens  are  impregnated  by  the 
males  late  in  the  summer,  the  eggs,  laid  soon  after,  produce 
the  large  queen  larvae  ;  *  the  next-set  of  eggs,  laid  in  the  spring, 
produce  the  workers,  or  undeveloped  females,  while  from  those 
deposited  still  later,  male  bees  are  principally  developed." 
(Proceedings  of  the  Essex  Institute,  Salem,  vol.  iv,  1864,  p. 
103.) 

Referring  to  Mr.  Putnam's  statement  that  there  are  both  small 
and  large  queens  (besides  the  workers) ,  Dr.  Gerstaecker  infers, 

*  Dr.  Gerstaecker,  on  the  other  hand,  states  that  "  from  the  brood-cells  of  a  nest 
of  Bombus  muscorum,  found  by  him  on  the  18th  of  September,  there  were  devel- 
oped at  the  end  of  the  same  month  only  workers." 


120  HYMEXOPTERA. 

"from  the  examination  of  numerous  individuals  found  flying  in 
the  spring  after  hibernation,  that  these  could  not  be  considered 
as  true  queens,  since  their  ovaries  were  only  moderately  devel- 
oped, though  larger  than  those  of  the  workers,  while  in  the 
true  queen,  captured  in  the  summer,  the  ovaries  were  perfectly 
developed.  This  corresponds  almost  entirely  to  what  we  find 
in  the  wasps,  whose  spring  females  have  only  moderately  de- 
veloped ovaries." 

How  the  Honey-bee  builds  its  cells,  and  whether  they  are  ex- 
actly hexagonal,  are  questions  that  have  interested  the  best 
observers  from  Maraldi  who  wrote  in  1712,  and  Reaumur, 
whose  Memoires  appeared  in  1740,  down  to  the  present  date. 
Their  solution  involves  not  only  the  closest  observation  of  the 
insect  while  at  work,  but  also  the  shrewdest  judgment  to  ex- 
plain the  facts  observed  and  deduce  a  legitimate  theory.  Does 
the  bee  intelligently  plan  her  work  out  beforehand,  or  does  she 
follow  the  guidance  of  what  is  called  instinct?  Does  she 
construct  hexagonal  cells  which  are  mathematically  exact, 
or  does  she  vary  the  proportions  of  each  cell,  so  that  it  is  per- 
fect only  in  its  general  ideal  form?  Again,  in  making  the  cell, 
is  the  bee  actually  capable  of  making  such  a  cell  alone,  or  is  it 
due  to  the  resultant  action  of  several  bees?  Professor  J.  Wy- 
man  is  of  the  latter  opinion,  as  he  thinks  "that  if  left  alone  to 
build  a  single  cell,  this  would  most  probably  be  round.  In  the 
cells  of  Melipona,  as  Huber's  plate  shows,  they  are  only  hex- 
agonal when  in  contact  with  the  adjoining,  cells."  (Proceed- 
ings of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  x,  p.  278, 
1866.) 

A  similar  view  is  that  proposed  in  1862  by  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Haughton,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Natural  History  Society 
of  Dublin,  where  he  says,  according  to  Mr.  F.  Smith,  that  the 
hexagonal  form  of  the  cell  "  may  be  accounted  for  simply  by  the 
mechanical  pressure  of  the  insects  against  each  other  during 
the  formation  of  the  cell.  In  consequence  of  the  instinct  that 
compels  them  to  work  with  reference  to  a  plane,  and  of  the 
cylindrical  form  of  the  insect's  body,  the  cells  must  be  hex- 
agonal." 

Mr.  G.  R.  Waterhouse  (Transactions  of  the  Entomological 
Society  of  London.  Third  series,  vol.  ii,  p.  129,  1864)  has 


APIARI^E.  121 

proposed  what  has  been  called  the  "circular  theory,"  or  what 
the  author  himself  terms  "the  principle  of  working  in  seg- 
ments of  circles."  He  contends  "  that  the  hexagonal  form  of  the 
cells  of  certain  bees  and  wasps  may,  and  does,  arise  out  of  this 
mode  of  action  when  under  certain  conditions  ;  that  those  condi- 
tions are,  that  the  cells  are  so  commenced  that  their  natural  cir- 
cumferences, as  the  work  proceeds,  are  either  simply  brought 
into  contact  with  each  other,  or  that  the  cells  are  so  placed  that 
the  (we  will  say  theoretical)  circumferences  must  intersect. 
Contact  with  adjoining  Cells,  then,  is  an  essential  condition  to 
bring  about  the  hexagonal  form  as  I  have  before  pointed  out 
(See  Proceedings  of  the  Entomological  Society,  1858,  p.  17)  ; 
but  for  this  result  it  is  not  necessary  that  a  hexagonal  cell 
should  be  completely  surrounded  by  other  cells." 

Is  not  this  theory,  after  all,  too  mechanical  ?  Is  not  our  bee 
more  of  a  free  agent  ?  Does  it  not  have  a  mind  to  design  its 
work  ?  Mr.  F.  Smith,  who  has  devoted  years  to  the  study  of 
Hymenoptera,  especially  the  higher  forms  of  this  suborder,  the 
Bees  and  Wasps,  replies  to  both  theories  of  Waterhouse  and 
Haughton,  by  bringing  in  the  case  of  the  Wasps  which  also 
build  hexagonal  cells,  showing  that  a  solitary  wasp  will  build 
its  cells  in  very  regular  hexagons.  Thus  the  nest  of  the  soli- 
tary Wasp,  Icaria  guttatipennis,  "consists  of  a  double  row,  the 
number  of  cells  being  ten ;  I  now  direct  your  attention  to  the 
fact  that  all  the  cells  are  perfectly  hexagonal,  the  exterior 
planes  being  as  beautifully  finished  as  those  in  contact  with 
the  inner  planes  of  the  opposing  cells.  I  have  placed  a  draw- 
ing of  this  nest  (Plate  5,  Fig.  7)  in  the  box  on  the  table,  and  I 
particularly  wish  you  to  observe,  that  the  first  cell  is  carried 
up  in  a  perfectly  hexagonal  form  above  the  adjoining  cells  ;  a 
proof  that,  if  Wasps  never  build  perfect  isolated  hexagonal  cells, 
they  certainly  possess  the  capability  of  doing  so.  The  exterior 
of  all  the  cells,  as  I  before  observed,  is  hexagonal,  not  cylindri- 
cal, until  fresh  cells  are  added  on  the  outer  side,  as  was  ob- 
served to  be  the  case  in  combs  of  the  Hive-bee,  by  Mr. 
Tegetmeier."  (Proceedings  of  the  Entomological  Society  of 
London.  Third  series,  ii,  1864,  p.  135.) 

An  examination  of  the  cells  of  three  species  of  Polistes  (the 
female  of  which  begins  alone  in  the  spring  to  build  her  nest, 


122  HYMENOPTERA. 

the  cells  of  which  are  afterwards  greatly  increased  in  number 
after  the  first  brood  of  females  appear) ,  convinced  us  that 
the  Wasp  begins  with  the  circular  cup-shaped  form  of  cell,  and 
when  about  depositing  an  egg  in  it,  changes  her  mode  of  ope- 
rating, builds  up  the  edges  into  a  hexagonal  form,  and  carries 
up  the  rim  of  each  cell  independently  to  its  required  height. 
She  thus  apparently  changes  her  plan  at  a  certain  stage  of  the 
work,  and  is  so  far  a  free  agent. 

Mr.  Smith  also  exhibited  a  portion  of  the  nest  of  another 
wasp,  Tatua  Morio  (Plate  5,  Fig.  9),  that  proved  to  his  mind 
the  primary  intention  of  the  wasp  instinctively  to  build  cells 
with  exactly  six  sides.  The  figure  represents  part  of  one  of 
the  flat  floors,  on  which  the  foundations  of  the  cells  are  laid  in 
regular  hexagons,  instead  of  beginning  in  hemispherical  cups. 

Mr.  Smith  (p.  141)  concludes,  "that  all  hexagonal  cells  are 
not  constructed  upon  a  circular  principle,  and  that  the  primary 
idea  of  all  social  bees  and  wasps  is  not  to  produce  cylindrical 
cells  with  hemispherical  bases." 

In  this  connection  the  following  extract  from  Mr.  Smith's 
remarks  is  of  interest :  "It  may  not  be  known  that  in  order  to 
expedite  the  building  of  honey -combs,  it  is  a  common  practice 
with  bee-keepers  in  Germany  to  furnish  hives  with  artificial 
foundations  for  the  cells ;  these  consist  of  sheets  of  wax,  upon 
which  is  impressed  a  series  of  pyramidal  hollows ;  in  fact,  the 
counterpart  of  a  comb  built  by  the  bees  themselves,  entirely 
deprived  of  the  cell-walls  ;  and  it  is  from  such  a  piece  of  comb 
that  the  casts  for  the  artificial  foundations  are  obtained.  A 
piece  of  casting  of  this  description  I  lay  before  you,  and  I  par- 
ticularly call  your  attention  (addressing  the  members  of  the 
Entomological  Society  of  London)  to  the  commencement  of  the 
outer  cells ;  you  will  see,  in  some  instances,  a  single  plane  of 
the  hexagonal  cell  commenced,  in  others  two  or  three  are  in 
progress  ;  here  you  have  a  ground-plan  supplied,  or,  I  may  say, 
the  foundations  of  the  habitations  ready  prepared,  upon  which 
the  laborers  are  to  raise  the  walls,  and  you  may  see  how  admi- 
rably they  have  done  it.  Instinct  enables  the  bee  to  construct 
hexagonal  cells  without  teaching,  and,  we  are  told,  in  one  un- 
deviating  manner.  Surely  the  example  before  us  exhibits  an 
amount  of  intelligence  on  the  part  of  the  bees  in  availing  them- 


APIARI^E.  123 

selves  of  such  adventitious  aid.  Must  we  not  henceforth, 
when  speaking  of  the  marvels  of  the  hive  or  the  vespiary,  erase 
from  our  vocabulary  such  terms  as  blind  instinct ;  and  must  we 
not  cease  to  stigmatize  the  bee  as  a  mere  machine  ? " 

At  the  meeting  of  the  same  society  held  Feb.  1,  1864,  Mr. 
F.  Smith  exhibited  a  collection  of  Wasps'  nests,  —  one  of  Vespa 
rufa,  the  rest  of  V.  vulgaris;  they  were  in  various  stages  of 
formation,  the  earliest  consisting  of  only  a  single  cup  contain- 
ing the  first  egg,  others  consisting  of  three  or  four  cups,  whilst 
others  again  were  more  complete.  The  whole  had  been  arti- 
ficially obtained  by  Mr.  Stone,  who  tempted  the  wasps  to  build 
by  excavating  holes  in  banks  and  furnishing  them  with  foot- 
stalks;  in  fact,  Mr.  Stone  appeared  to  possess  the  power  of 
inducing  wasps  to  build  nests  of  almost  any  shape  he 
pleased. 

But  to  return  to  the  cell  of  the  Bee.  It  should  first  be 
proved  that  the  cells  are  not  exactly  and  mathematically  per- 
fect hexagons,  though  sufficiently  so  for  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  used.  In  the  Proceedings  of  the  American  Academy 
of  Arts  and  Sciences,  vol.  vii,  1866,  Professor  Wyman  has,  by 
a  most  careful  as  well  as  novel  and  ingenious  mode  of  investiga- 
tion, proved  that  the  cells  are  all  more  or  less  imperfect,  and 
that  a  hexagonal  cell  mathematically  exact,  does  not  exist  in 
nature,  but  only  in  theory. 

The  form  of  the  cell  is  liable  to  marked  variations,  chief 
among  which  the  following  may  be  mentioned,  in  the  author's 
own  words : 

"1.  The  diameters  of  workers'  cells  may  so  vary,  that  ten 
of  them  may  have  an  aggregate  deviation  from  the  normal 
quantity  equal  to  the  diameter  of  a  cell.  The  average  varia- 
tion is  a  little  less  than  one  half  that  amount,  namely,  nearly 
0.10  inch,  in  the  same  number  of  cells. 

U2.  The  width  of  the  sides  varies,  and  this  generally  in- 
volves a  variation  of  the  angles  which  adjoining  sides  make 
with  each  other,  since  the  sides  vary  not  only  in  length  but  in 
direction. 

"3.  The  variation  in  the  diameters  does  not  depend ^upon 
accidental  distortion,  but  upon  the  manner  in  which  the  cell 
was  built. 


124 


HYMENOPTERA. 


"4.  The  relative  size  of  the  rhombic  faces  of  the  pyramidal 
base  is  liable  to  frequent  variation,  and  this  where  the  cells  are 
not  transitional  from  one  kind  to  another. 

"5.  When  a  fourth  side  exists  in  the  basal  pyramid,  it  may 
be  in  consequence  of  irregularity  in  the  size  of  the  cells,  or  of 
incorrect  alignment  of  them  on  the  two  sides  of  the  comb." 

Sometimes  one  of  the  faces  is  lost,  and  a  new  one  formed, 

so  that  all  the  basal  portion  of  the  cell  becomes  reversed,  as 

ABC       will  be  seen  by  refer- 

ence to  Figs.  73  and 
74  ;    the    first   repre- 
73.  senting  the  cells  when 

the  base  is  viewed,  and  the  second  when  looked  at  perpendic- 
ularly to  one  of  the  sides.  In  both  figures  A  indicates  the 
ordinary  form  of  the  cell.  The  whole  ABC 
series  of  Fig.  74  shows  the  gradual 
introduction  of  the  new  face,  which 
is  seen  on  the  lower  border,  and  the 
elimination  of  one  of  the  original  faces, 
which  is  seen  on  the  upper  border.  At 
B,  which  is  intermediate  between  the 
two  extremes,  the  four  faces  consist  of  two  equal  rhombs,  — 
one  of  which  is  the  outgoing  and  the  other  the  incoming  one, 
A  fl  c  and  two  equal  hexagons.  B,  Fig. 

74,  represents  the  sides  of  the  same 
cell,  which,  instead  of  forming  three 
trapeziums,  as  at  A,  a,  6,  c,  now 
form  two  pentagons,  a'  and  c',  and  a 
parallelogram,  &'.  At  C,  Figs.  73 
and  74,  the  forms  are  in  all  respects 
the  reverse  of  those  of  A.  A  and  C 
are  symmetrical  with  each  other,  and 
B  is  S3'mmetrical  in  itself.  No  pre- 
cise number  of  cells  is  necessary 
for  the  purpose  of  making  this  transition,  for  it  may  take 
place  in  two  or  three,  or  extend  through  a  long  series,  as  in 


a     T>     C 

Fig.  74. 


Fig.  75. 


"6.  Ordinarily,  the  error  of  alignment  does  not  amount  to 
more  than  one  or  two  diameters  of  a  cell.     But  occasionally 


APIARIJE.  125 

the  rows  of  cells  on  one  side  of  the  comb  may  deviate  from 

their  true  direction  with  regard  to  those  on  the  other,  to  the 

extent  of  30°." 

uThus,  if  a  piece  of  normal  comb  be  held  in  the  position  in 

which  it  was  built,  two  of  the  opposite  angles  of  the  hexagon, 

Fig.  75,  A,  a,  will  be  in  the 

same  vertical  line,  and  two 

of  the  sides  will  be  parallel 

to  this.     The  same  is  true 

of  the  opposite  side  of  the 

comb ;  and  thus  all  the  cor-   *  T     f    T     r~/ 

responding  parts  of  the  cells 

on  the  two  sides  will  be  par- 
allel.    In  the  deviation  we 

are  now  noticing,  the  change 

is  like  that  represented  in  A, 

where  the  cell  a  is  in  its 

true  position,  while  the  cell 

6,  which  is  from  the  oppo- 
site side,  and  is  in  contact 

with  <x,  varies  from  it   by 

about  30°.     If  we  look  at 

these  two  cells  in  the  direc- 
tion of  their  sides  as  at  B, 

the  prism  a  will  have   one  Fig.  76. 

of  its  angles  towards  the  eye,  and  b  one  of  its  sides. 

In  consequence  of  this  deviation  and  the  continual  crossing 

of  the  rows  on  opposite  sides,  the  pyramidal  base  is  not  made, 

and  the  cell  is  shortened. 

"  7.  In  curved  or  bent  combs  the 
cells  on  the  concave  side  tend  to  be- 
come narrower,  while  those  on  the 
other  tend  to  become  broader  to- 
wards their  mouths.  In  Fig.  76 
(this  and  Figs.  77  and  78  are  made 
77>  from  impressions  obtained  directly 

from  the  comb  and  transferred  to  wood ;   they  represent  the 

form  of  the  cells  exactly),  as  in  the  central  line  of  cells,  there 

are   a  variety  of  hexagons,    each  resulting  from  the  union 


126 


HYMENOPTERA. 


of  two  cells,  the  base  being  double  while  the  mouth  is 
single.  That  on  the  line  a,  6,  has  three  sides  at  one  end, 
united  by  two  long  sides  with  one  at  the  other,  and  thus  two 
of  the  opposite  sides  are  not  parallel ;  at  c,  cZ,  two  sides  at 

b 


'  ff 


c        d  e        f 

Fig.  78. 

either  end  are  united  by  two  long  sides,  these  last  being  par- 
allel ;  and  at  e,  /,  the  mouth  of  the  compound  cell  has  seven 
sides.  Each  has  a  partition  at  its  base,  separating  the  two 
originally  distinct  cells,  and  each  was  lined  with  a  cocoon, 
showing  that  it  had  been  used  for  rearing  young.  At  g,  not 
only  has  the  partition  between  the  combining  cells  disappeared, 
but  also  three  of  the  sides  of  each  cell." 

The  bees  do  not  appear  to  have  any  systematic  way  of  mak- 
ing a  transition  from  worker  to  drone  cells,  which  are  one-fifth 
larger  than  the  former.  More  commonly,  they  effect  it  by  a 
gradual  alteration  of  the  diameters,  thus  enlarging  a  worker 
into  a  drone,  or  narrowing  a  drone  into  a  worker  cell.  This 
alteration  is  usually  made  in  from  four  to  six  rows.  In  one  case 


APIARI^E.  127 

Professor  Wyman  noticed  the  transition  made  with  only  one 
cell,  as  in  Fig.  78,  but  not  without  destroying  the  regularity  of 
the  two  adjoining  rows. 

"In  consequence  of  the  gradual  narrowing  or  widening  of 
the  transition  cells,  the  comb  tends  to  become  more  or  less  tri- 
angular and  the  cells  to  become  disturbed.  The  bees  counter- 
act this  tendency  by  the  occasional  intercalation  of  an  additional 
row,  of  which  two  instances  are  given  in  Fig.  78,  at  a  and  6, 
where  three  rows  of  worker  cells  are  continuous  with  two  of 
drone  cells,  c,  d  and  e,  /;  or,  reversing  the  statement,  and 
supposing  the  transition,  as  in  the  building  of  the  comb,  is 
from  worker  to  drone-cells,  a  row  of  the  latter  is  from  time  to 
time  omitted  as  the  rows  a  and  6;  in  this  way,  the  regularity  of 
the  comb  is  preserved." 

Honey-cells  are  formed  either  by  enlarging  the  ordinary 
brood-cells,  or  adding  them  to  others  often  larger,  or  by  con- 
structing a  new  comb,  devoted  entirely  to  the  storing  of  honey. 
"While  the  cells  of  this  last  are  built  unequivocally  in  accord- 
ance with  the  hexagonal  type,  they  exhibit  a  range  of  variation 
from  it  which  almost  defies  description." 

No  Ichneumon-flies  are  known  to  attack  the  larva  of  the 
Honey-bee,  nor  in  fact,  with  few  exceptions,  any  of  the  wild 
bees,  owing,  probably,  to  the  difficulty  of  their  gaining  access 
to  them,  since  Anomalon  vesparum  has  been  reared  from  the 
cells  of  wasps  which  are  more  exposed  than  those  of  bees. 
But  the  Honey,  as  well  as  the  wild  bees,  are  afflicted  by  a 
peculiar  assemblage  of  insect-parasites,  some  of  which  have 
the  most  remarkable  habits.  The  most  formidable  pest  of  the 
Hive-bee  is  the  Bee  Fly,  Phora  incrassata,  which  in  Europe 
sometimes  produces  the  well-known  disease  called  "foul- 
brood."  The  Bee-louse,  Braula  cceca,  is,  in  Europe,  sometimes 
troublesome  to  the  adult  bee,  while  Trichodes  apiarius,  a  beetle, 
devours  the  larvae.  The  larvae  of  Meloe  and  Stylops  are  known 
in  Europe  to  infest  the  Honey-bee,  and  among  the  low  intesti- 
nal worms  Assmus  enumerates  Gordius  subUfurcus  which  in- 
fests the  drones  of  the  Honey-bee  as  well  as  other  insects. 
Professor  Siebold  has  also  described  Mermis  albicans,  which 
is  a  similar  kind  of  hair-worm,  from  two  to  five  inches  long, 
and  whitish  in  color.  This  worm  is  also  found,  strangely 


128  HYMEXOPTERA. 

enough,  only  in  the  drones,  though  it  is  the  workers  which 
frequent  watery  places  (where  the  worm  deposits  its  eggs)  to 
appease  their  thirst.  The  Wax-moths,  G-alleria  cereana  and 
Achroia  alvearia,  do  much  harm  by  consuming  the  wax  and 
thus  breaking  down  the  cells,  and  by  filling  the  hive  with 
their  webs.* 

The  genus  Apis  is  indigenous  in  South  America,  though  the 
Honey-bee  has  been  extensively  introduced  into  the  West  In- 
dies. Our  Honey-bee  is  replaced  in  the  tropics  by  the  stingless, 
minute  bees,  which  store  up  honey  and  live  in  far  more  numer- 
ous colonies.  The  cells  of  Melipona  are  hexagonal,  nearly 
approaching  in  regularity  those  of  the  Hive-bee,  while  the 
honey-cells  are  irregular,  much  larger  cavities,  which  hold  about 
one-half  as  much  honey  as  a  cell  of  the  Humble-bee.  From  a 
paper  on  the  Brazilian  Honey-bees,  read  by  Mr.  F.  Smith  be- 
fore the  Entomological  Society  of  London,  March,  1863,  he 
states  that  the  Meliponas  are  small  insects,  having  wings  shorter 
than  the  abdomen,  the  latter  being  very  convex  and  oblong ; 
their  mandibles  never  being  dentate  ;  while  the  Trigonas  have 
the  wings  more  ample,  and  longer  than  the  abdomen,  which  is 
short,  somewhat  triangular,  while  the  mandibles  are  serrated, 
denticulate,  or  sometimes  edentate.  The  Meliponas  are  re- 
stricted to  the  new  world,  while  Trigona  extends  into  Africa, 
India,  and  Australasia. 

"  All  these  bees  are  honey  gatherers,  but  the  honey  collected 
by  the  different  species  varies  greatly  in  quality :  from  the 
nests  of  some  it  is  excellent ;  from  others,  worthless.  The 
honey  of  the  species  ' Mombuca*  is  said  to  be  black  and  sour, 
the  quality  being  dependent  on  species  of  flowers  from  which 
the  honey  is  collected.  This  great  difference  in  the  honey  of 
the  various  species  is  apparently  confirmatory  of  the  fact  that 
each  species  confines  itself  to  particular  flowers,  never  visiting 
any  other  kind.  The  different  relative  length  of  the  tongue  in 

*  EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  2.  Parasites  of  the  Honey-bee.  Fig.  1,  Phora  incras- 
sata;  Fig.  2,  pupa;  Fig.  3,  larva.  Fig.  4,  Braula  caeca;  Fig.  5,  larva.  Fig.  6,  Tri- 
chodcs  npiarius :  «,  larva;  5,  pupa.  Fig.  7,  Meloe  angusticollis ;  Fig.  8,  freshly  hatched 
larva;  Fig.  9,  second  stage  of  larva;  Fig.  10,  first  stage  of  semi-pupa;  Fig.  11, 
pupa.  Fig.  12,  Stylops  Chttdreni  in  the  body  of  a  wild  bee,  Andrena ;  Fig.  13,  top 
view  of  the  same  removed  from  its  host;  Fig.  14,  male  of  the  same;  a,  side  view. 
Fig.  15,  Mucor  mellitophorus,  a  parasitic  fungus.  Fig.  16,  unknown  larva  found  in 
nest  of  Humble-bee.  Descriptions  of  the  insect  parasites  will  be  given  beyond. 


Plate  2. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  13. 


PARASITES    OF    THE    HONEY    BEE. 


API  ART  M.  129 

the  species  is  also  confirmatory  of  the  same  supposition ;  in- 
deed, the  great  diversity  in  this  respect  observable  in  these 
bees,  appears  to  me  to  be  analogous  to  a  similar  diversity  in  the 
length  of  the  bills  of  humming-birds,  which,  it  is  well  known, 
are  always  adapted  for  reaching  the  nectaries  of  the  particular 
flowers  which  they  usually  frequent." 

In  regard  to  the  immense  numbers  of  individuals  in  a  col- 
ony, Mr.  Stretch,  who  collected  them  at  Panama,  "found  a 
nest  several  feet  in  length  in  the  hollow  of  a  tree,  containing 
thousands  of  individuals,  their  numbers  being,  as  he  informs 
me,  apparently  countless. 

"Gardner,  in  his  travels,  gives  a  list  of  such  species  (of 
Melipona)  as  he  met  in  the  provinces  of  Piauhy  and  Goyaz, 
where  he  found  them  numerous  ;  in  every  house,  he  says,  'you 
find  the  honey  of  these  bees  ; '  many  species,  he  tells  us,  build  in 
the  hollow  trunks  of  trees,  others  in.  banks  ;  some  suspend 
their  nests  from  branches  of  trees,  whilst  one  species  constructs 
its  nest  of  clay,  it  being  of  large  size ;  the  honey  of  this  spe- 
cies, he  says,  is  very  good."  (Smith.) 

In  a  nest  of  Trigona  carbonaria  from  Eastern  Australia, 
Smith,  of  the  British  Museum,  found  from  400  to  500  dead 
workers  crammed  in  the  spaces  between  the  combs,  but  he 
did  not  find  a  female  among  them.  The  combs  are  arranged 
precisely  similar  to  those  of  the  common  wasp.  The  number  of 
honey-pots,  which  are  placed  at  the  foot  of  the  nest,  amounted 
to  250. 

Smith  inclines  to  the  opinion  that  the  hive  of  Trigona  con- 
tains several  prolific  females  ;  ' '  the  accounts  given  of  the  mul- 
titudes inhabiting  some  nests  is  too  great,  I  think,  to  render  it 
possible  that  one  female  could  produce  them  all.  Mr.  Stretch 
described  'a  hive  that  be  saw,  occupying  the  interior  of  a  decay- 
ing tree,  that  measured  six  feet  in  length,  and  the  multitude  of 
bees  he  compared  to  a  black  cloud.  M.  Guerin  found  six  fe- 
males in  a  nest  of  Melipona  fulvipes" 

Hill  states,  in  Gosse's  Naturalist's  Sojourn  in  Jamaica, 
"that  the  wax  of  these  bees  [Trigona]  is  very  unctuous  and 
dark  colored,  but  susceptible  of  being  whitened  by  bleaching. 
The  honey  is  stored  in  clusters  of  cups,  about  the  size  of 
pigeon's  eggs,  at  the  bottom  of  the  hive,  and  always  from  the 


130  HYMENOPTERA. 

brood-cells.  The  brood-cells  are  hexagonal ;  they  are  not 
deep,  and  the  young  ones,  when  ready  to  burst  their  casement, 
just  fill  the  whole  cavity.  The  mother  bee  is  lighter  in  color 
than  the  other  bees,  and  elongated  at  the  abdomen  to  double 
their  length."  Smith  also  states  that  the  female  of  this  genus 
has  the  abdomen  greatly  distended,  reminding  one  of  the 
gravid  female  of  the  White  Ant.  (Smith,  Proc.  Ent.  Soc., 
London,  Dec.  7,  1863.) 

In  North  America,  our  nearest  airy,  as  regards  its  habits,  of 
the  true  Honey-bee,  is  the  Humble-bee  (Bombus),  of  which 
over  forty  species  are  known  to  inhabit  North  America. 

The  economy  of  the  Humble-bee  is  thus  :  the  queen  awakens 
in  early  spring  from  her  winter's  sleep  beneath  the  leaves  or 
moss,  or  in  deserted  nests,  and  selects  a  nesting-place  generally 
in  an  abandoned  nest  of  a  field-mouse,  or  beneath  a  stump  or 
sod,  and  "immediately,"  according  to  Mr.  F.  W.  Putnam, 
"collects  a  small  amount  of  pollen  mixed  with  honey,  and  in 
this  deposits  from  seven  to  fourteen  eggs,  gradually  adding  to 
the  pollen  mass  until  the  first  brood  is  hatched.  She  does  not 
wait,  however,  for  one  brood  to  be  hatched  before  laying  the 
eggs  of  another  ;  but,  as  soon  as  food  enough  has  been  collected, 
she  lays  the  eggs  for  a  second.  The  eggs  [Plate  4,  Fig.  2] 
are  laid,  in  contact  with  each  other,  in  one  cavity  of  the  mass 
of  pollen,  with  a  part  of  which  they  are  slightly  covered.  They 
are  very  soon  developed ;  in  fact,  the  lines  are  nowhere  dis- 
tinctly drawn  between  the  egg  and  the  larva,  the  larva  and 
pupa,  and  again  between  the  latter  and  the  imago ;  a  perfect 
series,  showing  this  gradual  transformation  of  the  young  to  the 
imago,  can  be  found  in  almost  every  nest. 

"As  soon  as  the  larvae  are  capable  of  motion  and  commence 
feeding,  they  eat  the  pollen  by  which  they  are  surrounded,  and, 
gradually  separating,  push  their  way  in  various  directions. 
Eating  as  they  move,  and  increasing  in  size  quite  rapidly,  they 
soon  make  large  cavities  in  the  pollen  mass.  When  they  have 
attained  their  full  size,  they  spin  a  silken  wall  about  them, 
which  is  strengthened  by  the  old  bees  covering  it  with  a  thin 
layer  of  wax,  which  soon  becomes  hard  and  tough,  thus  form- 
ing a  cell.  [Plate  4,  Figs.  1,  2.]  The  larvae  now  gradually 
attain  the  pupa  stage,  and  remain  inactive  until  their  full  devel- 


Plate  3. 


PARASITES  OF    WILD  BEES. 


APIARI^E.  131 

opment.     They  then  cut  their  way  out,  and  are  ready  to  assume 
their  duties  as  workers,  small  females,  males  or  queens. 

"It  is  apparent  that  the  irregular  disposition  of  the  cells  is 
due  to  their  being  constructed  so  peculiarly  by  the  larvae. 
After  the  first  brood,  composed  of  workers,  has  come  forth, 
the  queen  bee  devotes  her  time  principally  to  her  duties  at 
home,  the  workers  supplying  the  colony  with  honey  and  pollen. 
As  the  queen  continues  prolific,  more  workers  are  added,  and 
the  nest  is  rapidly  enlarged. 

"About  the  middle  of  summer  eggs  are  deposited  which 
produce  both  small  females  and  males."  .  .  .  "All  eggs  laid 
after  the  last  of  July  produce  the  large  females,  or  queens ; 
and,  the  males  being  still  in  the  nest,  it  is  presumed  that  the 
queens  are  impregnated  at  this  time,  as,  on  the  approach  of 
cold  weather,  all  except  the  queens,  of  which  there  are  several  in 
each  nest,  die."  (Putnam,  Com.  Essex  Inst.,  vol.  iv,  p.  98, 1864.) 

Besides  Apathus,  the  larvae  of  various  moths  consume  the 
honey  and  waxen  cells ;  the  two-winged  flies,  Volucella  and 
Conops,  and  the  larvae  of  what  is  either  an  Anthomyia  or 
Tachina-like  fly ;  several  species  of  Anthrax,  the  Coleopterous 
Anobium  paniceum  of  Europe,  Meloe,  Stylops,  and  Anthero- 
phagus  ochraceus  are  parasitic  on  Humble-bees.* 
'  The  habits  of  the  genus  Apathus  are  not  clearly  known,  but 
they  are  supposed  to  prey,  in  the  larva  state,  upon  the  larvae  of 
Bombus,  being  found  in  their  nests  ;  their  habits,  so- far  as 
known,  ally  them  with  Nomada.  The  species  are  distinguished 
by  the  tibiae  being  convex,  instead  of  concave,  as  in  Bombus, 
while  the  mandibles  of  the  females  are  acute,  triangular,  biden- 
tate,  being  spatulate  and  three-toothed  in  Bombus,  and  they 
have  no  pollenigerous  organs.  There  are  males  an^7  females 
only,  as  in  all  the  remaining  genera  of  the  family.  Apathus 
Ashtonii  (Plains,  Fig.  1)  is  found  in  the  Northern  States. 

*  EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  3.  — Parasites  of  the  Humble  and  Leaf-cutter  Bees. 
Fig.  1,  Apathus  Ashtonii.  Fig.  2,  Neplwpteryx  Edmandsii;  a,  larva;  6,  pupa.  Fig. 
3,  3 a,  Microgaster  nephoptericis,  an  Ichneumon  parasite  of  Nephopteryx.  Fig.  4, 
Antherophagus  ochraceus.  Fig.  5,  Anthomyia ?  larva;  a,  side  view.  Fig.  6,  Re- 
cently hatched  larva  of  Stylops  Childrenii;  a,  side  view.  Fig.  7,  larva;  a,  pupa  of 
Anthophorabia  megachilis,  a  Chalcid  parasite  on  Megachile.  Fig.  8,  Fteratomus 
Putnamii,  an  exceedingly  minute  Proctotrupirl  fly,  supposed  to  be  parasitic  on  An- 
thorphorabia  megachilis ;  a,  a  hind  wing.  Fig.  9,  a  Mite  found  in  the  nests  of 
Humble-bees. 


132  HYMENOPTERA. 

Xylocopa,  the  Carpenter-bee,  is  "the  largest  and  most  bulky 
of  all  known  bees,"  but  less  hirsute  than  Bombus,  while  the 
basal  joint  of  the  labial  palpi  is  almost -four  times  as  long  as 
the  second  ;  and  the  maxillary  palpi  are  six-jointed,  the  mouth- 
parts  being  very  highly  organized.  The  larva  of  X.  Virginica 
(Plate  4,  Fig.  3,  adult ;  Fig.  4,  larva ;  Fig.  5,  nest)  is  slenderer 
than  that  of  Bombus,  the  body  tapering  more  rapidly  towards 
each  end. 

The  power  of  boring  the  most  symmetrical  tunnels  in  solid 
wood  reaches  its  perfection  in  the  large  Virginian  Carpenter- 
bee  (Xylocopa  Virginica).  We  have  received  from  Mr.  James 
Angus,  of  West  Farms,  N.  Y.,  a  piece  of  trellis  for  a  grape- 
vine, made  of  pine  wood,  containing  the  cells  and  young  in 
various  stages  of  growth,  together  with  the  larvae  and  chrysa- 
lids  of  Anthrax  sinuosa  (Plate  4,  Fig.  6,  larva ;  Fig.  7,  pupa), 
a  species  of  fly  parasitic  on  the  larva  of  the  bee,  and  which 
buries  its  head  in  its  soft  bod}r  and  feeds  on  its  juices. 

Mr.  Angus  thus  writes  us  regarding  its  habits,  under  date  of 
J.ily  19  :  "I  asked  an  intelligent  and  observing  carpenter  yes- 
terday, if  he  knew  how  long  it  took  the  Xylocopa  to  bore  her 
tunnel.  He  said  he  thought  she  bored  about  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  a  day.  I  don't  think  myself  she  bores  more  than  one- 
half  inch,  if  she  does  that.  If  I  mistake  not,  it  takes  her 
about  two  da}rs  to  make  her  own  length  at  the  first  start ;  but 
this  being  across  the  grain  of  the  wood  may  not  be  so  easily 
done  as  the  remainder,  which  runs  parallel  with  it.  She  always 
follows  the  grain  of  the  wood,  with  the  exception  of  the  en- 
trance, which  is  about  her  own  length.  The  tunnels  run  from 
one  to  one  and  a  half  feet  in  length.  They  generally  run  in 
opposite  directions  from  the  opening,  and  sometimes  other  gal- 
leries are  run  above  the  first,  using  the  same  opening.  I 
think  they  only  make  new  tunnels  when  old  one%  are  not  to  be 
found,  and  that  the  same  tunnels  are  used  for  many  years. 
Some  of  the  old  tunnels  are  very  wide!  I  have  found  parts  of 
them  about  an  inch  in  diameter.  I  think  this  is  caused  by 
rasping  off  the  sides  to  procure  the  necessary  material  for  con- 
structing, their  cells.  The  partitions  are  composed  of  wood- 
raspings,  and  some  sticky  fluid,  probably  saliva,  to  make  it 
adhere. 


"APIAROS.  133 

"The  tunnels  are  sometimes  taken  possession  of  by  other 
bees  and  wasps.  I  think  when  this  is  the  case,  the  Xylocopa 
prefers  making  a  new  cell  to  cleaning  out  the  mud  and  rubbish 
of  the  other  species.  I  frequently  find  these  bees  remaining 
for  a  long  time  on  the  wing  close  to  the  opening,  and  bobbing 
their  heads  against  the  side,  as  if  fanning  air  into  the  opening. 
I  have  seen  them  thus  employed  for  twenty  minutes.  Whether 
one  bee,  or  more,  makes  the  tunnel,  that  is,  whether  they  take 
turns  in  boring,  I  cannot  say  at  present.  In  opening  the  cells, 
more  than  one  are  generally  found,  even  at  this  season.  About 
two  weeks  ago,  I  found  as  many  as  seven,  I  think,  in  one."  * 

The  hole  is  divided  by  partitions  into  cells  about  seven-tenths 
of  an  inch  long.  These  partitions  are  constructed  of  the 
dust  or  chippings  made  by  the  bee  in  eating  out  her  cells,  for 
our  active  little  carpenter  is  provided  with  strong  cutting  jaws, 
moved  by  powerful  muscles,  and  on  her  legs  are  stiff  brushes 
of  hair  for  cleaning  out  the  tunnel  as  she  descends  into  the 
heart  of  the  solid  wood.  She  must  throw  out  the  chips  she 
bites  off  from  the  sides  of  the  burrow  with  her  hind  legs,  pass- 
ing the  load  of  chips  backwards  out  of  the  cell  with  her  fore- 
limbs,  which  she  uses  as  hands. 

The  partitions  are  built  most  elaborately  of  a  single  flattened 
band  of  chips,  which  is  rolled  up  into  a  coil  four  layers  deep. 
One  side,  forming  the  bottom  of  the  cell,  is  concave,  being 

*  "  Since  writing  the  above  I  have  opened  one  of  the  new  holes  of  Xylocopa 
which  was  commenced  between  three  and  four  weeks  ago,  in  a  pine  slat  used  in 
the  staging  of  the  greenhouse.  The  dimensions  were  as  follows :  Opening  fully 
3-8  wide ;  depth  7-16 ;  whole  length  of  tunnel  6  and  5-16  inches.  The  tunnel  branched 
both  ways  from  the  hole.  One  end,  from  opening,  was  2  and  5-8,  containing  three 
cells,  two  with  larva  and  pollen,  the  third  empty.  The  other  side  of  the  opening,  or 
the  rest  of  the  tunnel,  was  empty,  with  the  exception  of  the  old  bee  (only  one)  at 
work.  I  think  this  was  the  work  of  one  bee,  and,  as  near  as  I  can  judge,  about 
twenty-five  days'  work.  Width  of  tunnel  inside  at  widest  9-16  inch. 

For  some  days  this  bee  has  been  discharging  a  great  quantity  of  saw-dust  and 
pollen,  which  I  had  collected  by  placing  a  vessel  under  it.  It  would  seem  that  she 
had  cells  constructed  also  in  the  opposite  side  of  the  hole,  and  that  she  removed 
them  to  enlarge  the  tunnel.  Among  the  stuff  thrown  out,  I  find  a  partition  of  a  cell 
nearly  entire. 

I  have  just  found  a  Xylocopa  bobbing  at  one  of  the  holes,  and  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain the  depth  of  the  tunnel,  and  to  see  whether  there  were  any  others  in  them,  I 
sounded  with  a  pliable  rod,  and  found  others  in  one  side,  at  a  depth  of  five  and  one 
half  inches;  the  other  side  was  four  inches  deep,  without  bees.  The  morning  was 
cool,  so  that  the  object  in  bobbing  could  not  be  to  introduce  fresh  currents  of  air, 
but  must  have  had  some  relation  to  those  inside.  The  legs  on  such  occasions  are, 
as  1  have  noticed,  loaded  with  pollen.-'— American  Naturalist,  vol.  1,  p.  370. 


134  HYMENOPTERA. 

beaten  down  and  smoothed  off  by  the  bee.     The  other  side  of 
the  partition,  forming  the  top  of  the  cell,  is  flat  and  rough. 

At  the  time  of  opening  the  burrow,  July  8th,  the  cells  con- 
tained nearly  full-grown  larvae,  with  some  half  developed. 
They  were  feeding  on  the  masses  of  pollen,  which  were  as  large 
as  a  thick  kidney-bean,  and  occupied  nearly  half  the  cell.  Sa- 
pyga  repanda  is  parasitic  in  the  cells  of  Xylocopa  violacea  of 
Southern  Europe. 

The  habits  and  structure  of  the  little  Ceratina  ally  it  closely 
with  Xylocopa,  as  it  hollows  out  the  stems  of  plants,  and  builds 
in  them  its  cylindrical  cells.  This  bee  is  oblong  in  form,  with 
tridentate  mandibles,  and  a  short  labrum.  The  maxillary  palpi 
are  six-jointed,  and  the  labial  palpi  are  two-jointed.  Ceratina 
dupla  Say  is  a  common  small  bright-green  smooth-bodied  species, 
which,  in  the  middle  of  May,  according  to  Dr.  Harris'  MS.  notes, 
tunnels  out  the  stems  of  the  elder  or  blackberry,  syringa,  or  any 
other  pithy  shrub,  excavating  them  often  to  a  depth  of  six  or 
seven  inches,  and  also,  according  to  Mr.  Haldeman  (Harris 
MS.),  bores  in  Cocorus.  She  makes  the  walls  just  wide  enough 
to  admit  her  body,  and  of  a  depth  capable  of  holding  three  or 
four,  often  five  or  six  cells  (Plate  4,  Fig.  11).  The  finely  built 
cells,  with  their  delicate  silken  walls,  are  cylindrical  and  nearly 
square  at  each  end,  though  the  free  end  of  the  last  cell  is 
rounded  off.  They  are  four  and  a  half  tenths  of  an  inch  long, 
and  a  little  over  one-third  as  broad.  The  bee  places  them  at 
nearly  equal  distances  apart,  the  slight  interval  between  them 
being  filled  in  with  dirt. 

Dr.  T.  W.  Harris*  states  that,  "May  15,  1832,  one  female 
laid  its  eggs  in  the  hollow  of  an  aster-stalk.  Three  perfect  in- 
sects were  disclosed  from  it  July  28th."  The  observations  of  Mr. 
Angus,  who  saw  some  bees  making  their  cells,  May  18th,  also 
confirms  this  account.  The  history  of  our  little  upholsterer  is 
thus  cleared  up.  Late  in  the  spring  she  builds  her  cells,  fills 
them  with  pollen,  and  lays  one  or  more  eggs  upon  each  one. 
Thus  in  about  two  months  the  insect  completes  its  transforma- 
tions ;  within  this  period  passing  through  the  egg,  the  larval 
and  chrysalid  states,  and  then,  as  a  bee,  living  through  the  win- 
ter. Its  life  thus  spans  one  year. 

*  According  to  a  note  in  MSS.  deposited  in  the  Library  of  the  Boston  Society  of 
Natural  History. 


APIARI^.  135 

The  larva  (Plate  4,  Fig.  10)  is  longer  than  that  of  Mega- 
chile,  and  compared  with  that  of  Xylocopa,  the  different  seg- 
ments are  much  more  convex,  giving  a  serrate  outline  to  the 
back  of  the  worm.  The  pupa,  or  chrysalis,  we  have  found  in 
the  cells  the  last  of  July.  It  is  white,  and  three-tenths  of  an 
inch  long.  It  differs  from  that  of  the  Leaf-cutter  bee  in  having 
four  spines  on  the  end  of  the  body,  and  in  having  a  much 
longer  tongue  and  maxillae,  both  being  almost  twice  as  long. 

In  none  of  the  wild  bees  are  the  cells  constructed  with  more 
nicety  than  those  of  our  little  Ceratina.  She  bores  out  with 
her  jaws  a  long  deep  well  just  the  size  of  her  body,  and  then 
stretches  a  thin  delicate  cloth  of  silk,  drawn  tight  as  a  drum- 
head, across  each  end  of  her  chambers,  which  she  then  fills  with 
a  mixture  of  pollen  and  honey. 

Her  young  are  not,  in  this  supposed  retreat,  entirely  free 
from  danger.  The  most  invidious  foes  enter  and  attack 
them.  Three  species  of  Ichneumon-flies,  two  of  which  belong 
to  the  Chalcid  family,  lay  their  eggs  within  the  body  of  the 
larva,  and  emerge  from  the  dried  larva  and  pupa  skins  of  the 
bee,  often  in  great  numbers.  The  smallest  parasite,  belonging 
to  the  genus  Anthophorabia  (so  called  from  being  first  known 
as  a  parasite  on  another  bee,  Anthophora),  is  a  minute  species 
found  also  abundantly  in  the  tight  cells  of  the  Leaf-cutter  bee. 

The  species  of  Anthiclium,  according  to  Smith,  are  gaily 
marked  with  yellow  bands  and  spots  ;  the  ligula  is  almost  twice 
as  long  as  the  labial  palpi,  and  acutely  pointed  ;  the  paraglossae 
are  short,  the  maxillary  palpi  are  two-jointed,  and  there  are  two 
subcostal  cells.  The  males  are  longer  than  the  females,  with  an 
elongated  and  stoutly  toothed  abdominal  tip.  The  female  lines 
her  nest,  situated  in  any  hole  convenient  for  its  purpose,  with 
down  from  woolly-stemmed  plants.  They  pass  the  winter  in 
the  larva  state,  and  the  bees  do  not  appear  until  mid-summer. 
The  species  mostly  occur  in  the  old  world. 

In  Anthophora,  which  approaches  nearer  to  Bombus  in  its 
plump  and  hairy  body  than  the  two  preceding  genera,  the  lig- 
ula is  twice  as  long  as  the  labial  maxillae,  ending  in  a  bristle- 
like  point ;  the  basal  joint  of  the  hind  tarsus  is  thickly  hirsute, 
while  the  middle  tarsus  of  the  males  is  generally  elongated. 
The  species  are  gregarious,  their  numerous  cells,  while  indepen. 


136  HYMENOPTERA. 

dent,  are  crowded  together  in  grassy  banks.  Species  of 
Melecta  are  parasitic  on  them,  ovipositing  in  their  cells.  The 
larvae  are  infected  by  the  Chalcid  flies,  Anthophorabia  and 
Monodontomerus,  and  by  a  peculiar  species  of  Mite,  Hete- 
ropus  ventricosus,  described  by  Newport.  Say  has  described 
Antliopliora  abrupta  and  A.  taurea  from  Indiana. 

In  Eucera  the  antennae  are  very  long,  while  the  body  is  still 
plump  and  hairy :  our  more  common  form  in  the  Middle  States 
is  Eucera  maculata  St.  Fargeau.  The  species  are  likewise 
gregarious,  and,  according  to  Smith,  their  habits  are  precisely 
the  same  as  those  of  Anthophora. 

In  Megachile,  the  Leaf-cutter  Bee,  the  head  is  broad,  the 
body  stout,  oblong,  the  ligula  is  about  one-half  longer  than 
the  labial  palpi,  being  quite  stout,  while  the  paraglossse  are 
short  and  pointed ;  the  maxillae  are  long  and  sabre-shaped, 
while  their  palpi  are  short  and  two-jointed.  There  are  two 
subcostal  cells  in  the  fore  wing.  It  is  a  thick-bodied  bee,  with 
a  large  square  head,  stout  scissor-like  jaws,  and  with  a  thick 
mass  of  dense  hairs  on  the  under  side  of  the  tail  for  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  pollen,  since  it  is  not  provided  with  a  pollen 
basket  as  in  the  Honey  and  Humble-bees.  The  larva  is  broader 
and  flatter  than  that  of  Bombus,  the  raised  pleural  region  is  a 
little  more  prominent,  and  the  raised,  thickened  tergal  portion 
of  each  ring  is  more  prominent  than  in  Bombus. 
—  The  Megachile  lays  its  eggs  in  burrows  in  the  stems  of  the 
elder  (Plate  4,  Fig.  9),  which  we  have  received  from  Mr. 
James  Angus ;  we  have  also  found  them  in  the  hollows  of  the 
locust  tree.  Mr.  F.  W.  Putnam  thus  speaks  of  the  economy 
of  M.  centuncularis,  our  most  common  species.  "My  attention 
was  first  called,  on  the  26th  of  June,  to  a  female  busily  en- 
gaged in  bringing  pieces  of  leaf  to  her  cells,  which  she  was  build- 
ing under  a  board,  on  the  roof  of  the  piazza,  directly  under 
my  window.  Nearly  the  'whole  morning  was  occupied  by  the 
bee  in  bringing  pieces  of  leaf  from  a  rose-bush  growing  about 
ten  yards  from  her  cells,  returning  at  intervals  of  a  half  minute 
to  a  minute  with  the  pieces  which  she  carried  in  such  a  manner 
as  not  to  impede  her  walking  when  she  alighted  near  her  hole. 
[We  give  a  figure  of  the  Leaf-cutter  bee  in  the  act  of  cutting 
out  a  circular  piece  of  a  rose-leaf  (Plate  4,  Fig.  8).  She 


API  ART  JE.  137 

alights  upon  the  leaf,  and  in  a  few  seconds  swiftly  runs  her 
scissors-like  jaws  around  through  the  leaf,  bearing  off  the 
piece  in  her  hind  legs.]  About  noon  she  had  probably  com- 
pleted the  cell,  upon  which  she  had  been  engaged,  as,  during 
the  afternoon,  she  was  occupied  in  bringing  pollen,  preparatory 
to  laying  her  single  egg  in  the  cell.  For  about  twenty  days 
the  bee  continued  at  work,  building  new  cells  and  supplying 
them  with  pollen.  .  .  .  On  the  28th  of  July,  upon  removing 
the  board,  it  was  found  that  the  bee  had  made  thirty  cells, 
arranged  in  nine  rows  of  unequal  length,  some  being  slightly 
curved  to  adapt  them  to  the  space  under  the  board.  The 
longest  row  contained  six  cells,  and  was  two  and  three-quarters 
inches  in  length ;  the  whole  leaf-structure  being  equal  to  a 
length  of  fifteen  inches.  Upon  making  an  estimate  of  the 
pieces  of  leaf  in  this  structure,  it  was  ascertained  that  there 
must  have  been  at  least  a  thousand  pieces  used.  In  addition 
to  the  labor  of  making  the  cells,  this  bee,  unassisted  in  all  her 
duties,  had  to  collect  the  requisite  amount  of  pollen  (and 
honey?)  for  each  cell,  and  lay  her  eggs  therein,  when  com- 
pleted. Upon  carefully  cutting  out  a  portion  of  one  of  the 
cells,  a  full-grown  larva  was  seen  engaged  in  spinning  a  slight 
silken  cocoon  about  the  walls  of  its  prison,  which  were  quite 
hard  and  smooth  on  the  inside,  probably  owing  to  the  move- 
ments of  the  larva,  and  the  consequent  pressing  of  the  sticky 
particles  to  the  walls.  In  a  short  time  the  opening  made  was 
closed  over  by  a  very  thin  silken  web.  The  cells,  measured  on 
the  inside  of  the  hard  walls,  were  .35  of  an  inch  in  length,  and 
.15  in  diameter.  The  natural  attitude  of  the  larva  is  some- 
what curved  in  its  cell,  but  if  straightened,  it  just  equals  the 
inside  length  of  the  cell.  On  the  31st  of  July,  two  female 
bees  came  out,  having  cut  their  way  through  the  sides  of  their 
cells."  In  three  other  cells  "several  hundred  minute  Ichneu- 
mons [Anthophorabia  megachilis]  were  seen,  which  came  forth 
as  soon  as  the  cells  were  opened."  (Com.  Essex  Inst.,  vol.  iv, 
p.  105,  1864.) 

Megachile  integer  Say  MS.,  according  to  Dr.  Harris  (MS. 
notes),  forms  its  nest  of  leaves  the  first  of  August.  This  spe- 
cies is  twice  as  large,  but  closely  resembles  Megachile  brevis  of 
Say.  The  front  of  the  head  is  covered  with  dense  ochreous 


138  HYMENOPTERA. 

hairs,  becoming  shorter  and  black  on  the  vertex.  The  nest, 
preserved  in  the  Harris  collection,  now  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  Histo^,  is  made  of  rose-leaves,  and 
is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  that  of  M.  centuncularis. 

Osmia,  the  Mason  Bee,  is  another  genus  of  Carpenter  or 
Upholsterer  bees.  The  species  are  generally  bluish,  with 
greenish  reflections,  with  smooth  shiny  bodies,  and  the  species 
are  of  smaller  size  than  in  Megachile.  The  tongue  in  this 
genus  is  three  times  as  long  as  the  labium,  tapering  from  the 
base  to  the  acute  apex,  and  clothed  with  short  hair. 

Mr.  F.  Smith  states  that  the  larva  of  the  English  species 
hatch  in  eight  days  after  the  eggs  are  laid,  feeds  ten  to  twelve 
days,  when  it  becomes  full-grown,  then  spins  a  thin  silken 
covering,  and  remains  in  an  inactive  state  until  the  following 
spring,  when  it  completes  its  transformations. 

The  habits  of  the  little  Mason-bees  are  quite  varied.  They 
construct  their  cells  in  the  stems  of  plants  and  in  rotten  posts 
and  trees,  or,  like  Andrena,  they  burrow  in  sunny  banks.  An 
European  species  selects  snail-shells  for  its  nest,  wherein  it 
builds  its  earthen  cells,  while  other  species  nidificate  under 
stones.  Curtis  found  two  hundred  and  thirty  cocoons  of  a 
British  species  (Osmia paretina) ,  placed  on  the  under  side  of 
a  flat  stone,  of  which  one-third  were  empty.  Of  the  remainder, 
the  most  appeared  between  March  and  June,  males  appearing 
first ;  thirty-five  more  bees  were  developed  the  following  spring. 
Thus  there  were  three  successive  broods  for  three  succeeding 
years,  so  that  these  bees  lived  three  years  before  arriving  at 
maturity. 

Mr.  G.  R.  Waterhouse,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Entomo- 
logical Society  of  London,  for  1864  (3d  series,  vol.  2,  p.  121), 
states  that  the  cells  of  Osmia  leucomelana  "are  formed  of  mud, 
and  each  cell  is  built  separately.  The  female  bee,  having  de- 
posited a  small  pellet  of  mud  in  a  sheltered  spot  between  some 
tufts  of  grass,  immediately  commences  to  excavate  a  small 
cavity  in  its  upper  surface,  scraping  the  mud  away  from  the 
centre  towards  the  margin  by  means  of  her  jaws.  A  small 
shallow  mud-cup  is  thus  produced.  It  is  rough  and  uneven  on 
the  outer  surface,  but  beautifully  smooth  on  the  inner.  On 
witnessing  thus  much  of  the  work  performed,  I  was  struck  with 


APIARIJC.  139 

three  points.  First,  the  rapidity  with  which  the  insect  worked  ; 
secondly,  the  tenacity  with  which  she  kept  her  original  position 
whilst  excavating ;  and  thirdly,  her  constantly  going  over 
work  which  had  apparently  been  completed.  .  .  .  The  lid  is 
excavated  and  rendered  concave  on  its  outer  or  upper  surface, 
and  is  convex  and  rough  on  its  inner  surface ;  and,  in  fact,  is  a 
simple  repetition  of  the  first-formed  portion  of  the  cell,  a  part 
of  a  hollow  sphere." 

The  largest  species  of  Osmia  known  to  us  is  a  very  dark-blue 
species  which  seems  to  be  undescribed.  We  will  call  it  the 
wood-boring  Osmia  (Osmia  lignivora).  It  is  larger  than 
the  Osmia  lignaria  of  Say,  being  just  half  an  inch  long.  The 
head  is  much  shorter,  and  less  square  than  in  Say's  spe- 
cies. The  front  of  the  head  below  the  antennae  is  clothed  with 
dark  hairs,  but  above  and  on  the  thorax  with  yellowish  ochreous 
hairs.  The  body  is  deep  blackish  blue,  with  greenish  reflec- 
tions. We  are  indebted  to  a  lady  for  specimens  of  the  bees 
with  their  cells,  which  had  been  excavated  in  the  interior  of  a 
maple  tree  several  inches  from  the  bark.  The  bee  had  industri- 
ously tunnelled  out  this  elaborate  burrow  (Plate  4,  Fig.  12), 
and,  in  this  respect,  resembles  the  habits  of  the  Carpenter-bee 
(Xylocopa)  more  closely  than  any  other  species  of  its  genus. 

The  tunnel  was  over  three  inches  long,  and  about  three- 
tenths  of  an  inch  wide.  It  contracted  a  little  in  width  between 
the  cell,  showing  that  the  bee  worked  intelligently,  and  wasted 
no  more  of  her  energies  than  was  absolutely  necessary.  The 
burrow  contained  five  cells,  each  half  an  inch  long,  being 
rather  short  and  broad,  with  the  hinder  end  rounded,  while  the 
opposite  end,  next  to  the  one  adjoining,  is  cut  off  squarely. 
The  cell  is  somewhat  jug-shaped,  owing 'to  a  slight  constriction 
just  behind  the  mouth.  The  material  of  which  the  cell  is  com- 
posed is  stout,  silken,  parchment-like,  and  very  smooth  within. 
The  interstices  between  the  cells  are  filled  with  rather  coarse 
drippings  made  by  the  bee. 

The  bee  cut  its  way  out  of  the  cells  in  March,  and  lived  for 
a  month  afterwards  on  a  diet  of  honey  and  water.  It  eagerly 
lapped  up  the  drops  of  water  supplied  by  its  keeper,  to  whom 
it  soon  grew  accustomed,  and  whom  it  seemed  to  recognize. 

The  female  of  Osmia  lignaria  Say  MS.,  according  to  Dr. 


140  HYMENOPTERA. 

Harris'  MS.  notes,  was  found  in  the  perfect  state  in  cocoons 
within  earthen  cells  under  stones,  April  15th.  The  cell  she  con- 
structs is  half  an  inch  long,  oval,  cylindrical,  and  contracted 
slightly  into  a  sort  of  neck  just  before  the  opening  for  the  exit 
of  the  bee.  From  Mr.  James  Angus  I  have  received  the  pellets 
of  pollen,  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  in  which  it  deposits  its  eggs  ; 
the  larvae  were  about  one-third  grown  in  August. 

This  species  is  larger  than  Osmia  simillima  of  Smith,  while 
the  male  antennae  are  much  paler,  being  fuscous.  The  front 
of  the  head  is  covered  with  long  dense  yellow  ochreous  hairs. 
The  vertex  is  not  of  so  dark  a  green  as  in  0.  simillima,  and 
is  covered  with  coarse  punctures.  The  thorax  is  heavily  clothed 
with  yellow  ochreous,  thick  hairs.  The  abdomen  is  yellowish, 
and  much  more  hairy.  The  legs  are  stout,  fuscous,  with  yel- 
lowish hairs.  Length,  .35  inch. 

Our  smallest  and  most  abundant  species  is  the  little  green 
Osmia  simillima  of  Smith.  It  builds  its  little  oval,  somewhat 
urn-shaped  cells,  against  the  roof  of  the  large  deserted  galls  of 
the  oak-gall  fly  (Diplolepis  confluentus),  placing  them,  in  this 
instance,  eleven  in  number,  in  two  irregular  rows,  from  which 
the  mature  bees  issue  through  a  hole  in  the  gall  (Plate  4,*  Fig. 
14.  From  specimens  communicated  by  Mr.  F.  G.  Sanborn). 
The  earthen  cells,  containing  the  tough  dense  cocoons,  were 
arranged  irregularly  so  as  to  fit  the  concave  vault  of  the  larger 
gall,  which  was  about  two  inches  in  diameter.  On  emerging 
from  the  cell  the  Osmia  cuts  out  with  its  powerful  jaws  an 
ovate  lid,  nearly  as  large  as  one  side  of  the  cell.  Both  sexes 
may  be  found  in  April  and  May  in  the  flowers  of  the  willow 

*  EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  4.— Fig.  1,  a  cell  of  the  Humble-bee;  natural  size, 
with  the  pollen  mass  upon  the  top.  Fig.  2,  end  view  of  the  same  mass,  showing 
the  three  eggs  laid  in  three  divisions  of  the  cavity.  Fig.  3,  Xylocopa  Virginica,  the 
Carpenter  Bee.  Fig.  4,  the  larva  of  Xylocopa  Virginica ;  natural  size.  Fig.  5, 
the  nest  containing  the  cells  of  the  same,  with  the  partitions  and  pollen  masses, 
on  which  the  young  larva  is  seen  in  the  act  of  feeding;  natural  size.  Fig.  6, 
young  larva  of  Anthrax  simtosa;  side  view.  Fig.  7,  pupa  of  Anthrax  sinnosa, 
side  view;  natural  size.  Fig.  8,  the  Leaf-cutter  Bee  (Megachile),  on  a  rose  leaf, 
in  the  act  of  cutting  oxit  a  circular  piece.  Fig.  9,  cells  of  Megachile,  in  the  elder; 
natural  size.  Fig.  10,  larva  of  Ceratina  dupla,  the  little  green  Upholsterer  Bee ; 
enlarged.  Fig.  11,  cells  of  the  same  in  the  stem  of  the  elder;  natural  size.  Fig. 
12,  cells  of  Osmia  lignivora,  new  species,  the  wood-devouring  Mason-bee,  exca- 
vated in  the  maple ;  natural  size.  Fig.  13,  cells  of  Osmia  simillima,  the  common 
green  Mason-bee,  built  in  the  deserted  gall  of  the  Oak-gall  Fly.  Fig.  14,  a  single 
earthen  cell  of  the  same;  natural  size.  Fig.  15,  pollen  mass,  or  bee-bread  of 
Osmia  lignaria ;  natural  size.  It  is  made  up  of  distinct  pellets  of  pollen,  which 
are  probably  stuck  together  with  saliva. 


Plate  4. 


ARCHITECTURE    OF    BEES. 


APIARIJE.  141 

and  fruit  trees  which  blossom  later.  The  antennae  are  black, 
and  the  green  body  is  covered  with  fine  white  hairs,  becoming 
yellowish  above. 

In  the  Harris  collection  are  the  cells  and  specimens  of  Osmia 
padjica  Say,  the  peaceful  Osmia,  which,  according  to  the  man- 
uscript notes  of  Dr.  Harris,  is  found  in  the  perfect  state  in 
earthen  cells  (Plate  5,  Fig.  2)  beneath  stones.  The  cell  is  oval 
cylindrical,  a  little  contracted  as  usual  with  those  of  all  the  spe- 
cies of  the  genus,  thus  forming  an  urn-shaped  cell.  It  is  half 
an  inch  long^  and  nearly  three-tenths  of  an  inch  wide,  while  the 
cocoon,  which  is  rather  thin,  is  three-tenths  of  an  inch  long. 

The  following  genera,  called  Cuckoo  Bees,  are  parasitic  on 
other  bees,  laying  their  eggs  in  the  cells,  or  nests,  of  their  host. 
In  Codioxys  the  body  is  stout,  and  the  bee  closely  mimics  its 
host,  Megachile.  The  ligula  is  very  long,  being  almost  three 
times  the  length  of  the  labium,  and  the  paraglossse  are  wholly 
wanting ;  the  maxillary  palpi  are  short,  three-jointed,  and  the 
abdominal  tip  of  the  male  is  variously  toothed.  Codioxys  octo- 
dentata  Say,  is  abundant  late  in  the  summer  about  flowers.  An 
allied  genus,  Melecta,  is  parasitic  on  Anthophora,  and  Epeolus  is 
parasitic  on  Colletes. 

The  species  of  Nomada  are  very  numerous  ;  in  all,  the  tongue 
is  long  and  acute,  with  paraglossse  about  one-fourth  as  long 
as  the  tongue  ;  the  maxillary  pair  of  palpi  are  six-jointed ; 
and  there  are  three  subcostal  cells.  The  species  in  their  slen- 
der, smooth,  gaily  colored  body  resemble  the  wasps.  These 
Cuckoo-bees  lay  their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  Andrena  and  Ha- 
lictus,  and,  according  to  English  authors,  Panurgus  and  Eucera, 
where  they  may  be  found  in  all  stages  of  development  corre- 
sponding to  those  of  their  hosts.  The  females  do  not  sting 
severely.  The  species  emit  sweet,  balmy,  or  balsamical  odors. 
Shuckard  states  that  these  bees  should  be  killed  with  burning 
sulphur  to  preserve  their  bright  colors. 

The  larvae  differ  greatty  from  those  of  their  hosts,  Andrena, 
the  head  being  much  smaller,  the  body  being  smoother  and 
rounder,  and  belonging  to  a  more  degraded,  lower  type.  The 
whole  body  is  more  attenuated  towards  both  extremities. 
The  pupa  differs  from  those  of  any  other  genus  of  this  family 
known  to  us,  except  Andrena,  by  having  three  conspicuous 


142  HYMENOPTERA. 

spines  on  the  upper  and  posterior  edge  of  the  orbitf  which  are 
also  found  in  the  pupa  of  Stigmus,  a  Crabronid  genus,  and  which 
evidently  aid  in  locomotion.  Thus  the  same  law  of  degrada- 
tion obtains  in  these  highly  organized  bee-parasites  as  in  the 
lower  parasitic  species,  though  in  a  much  less  marked  degree. 

From  specimens  found  in  the  nests  of  Andrena  and  Halictus, 
collected  at  Salem  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Emerton,  and  now  in  the  Mu- 
seum of  the  Essex  Institute,  we  have  been  enabled  in  great 
part  to  clear  up  the  history  of  this  bee.  We  have  found  in  the 
nests  of  Andrena  vicina  both  sexes  of  Nomada  imbricata  Smith, 
and  several  females  of  Nomada  pulchella  of  Smith ;  and  in  the 
cells  of  Halictus  parallelus  Say,  specimens  of  Nomada  imbri- 
cata. Both  full-grown  larvae  and  pupae  of  different  ages,  up 
to  the  adult  Nomada,  ready  to  take  leave  of  its  host,  were 
found  in  the  cells  of  the  Andrena  vicina.  It  seems,  there- 
fore, that  the  newly  hatched  young  of  Nomada  must  feed 
on  the  pollen  mass  destined  for  the  Andrena.  But  there 
seems  to  be  enough  for  both  genera  to  feed  upon,  as  the  young 
of  both  host  and  parasite  were  found  living  harmoniously  to- 
gether, and  the  hosts  and  their  parasites  are  disclosed  both  at 
the  same  time.  Does  not  this  mild  sort  of  parasitism  in  No- 
mada throw  much  light  on  the  probable  habits  of  Apathus,  the 
Humble-bee  parasite  ?  It  is  more  than  probable  that  the  Apa- 
thus larvae  simply  eat  the  food  of  the  Bombus  larvae,  and  do 
not  attack  the  larvae  of  their  hosts.  Both  Nomada  and  Apathus 
in  their  adult  stages  live  harmoniously  with  their  hosts,  and 
are  seen  gathering  food  from  the  same  flowers,  and  flying  about 
the  same  nest. 

In  the  second  subfamily,  Andrenetce,  the  ligula,  or  tongue,  is 
for  the  most  part  short  and  broad,  and  the  maxillary  palpi 
have  four  joints  of  equal  size. 

In  Sphecodes  the  body  is  smooth  and  wasp-like,  and  in  its 
habit  of  running  and  flying  in  dry  sandy  places,  it  resembles 
Sphex,  whence  its  generic  name.  The  abdomen  is  generally 
light  red,  farther  aiding  in  the  resemblance  to  the  Sphegidce. 
The  ligula  is  short,  lancet-shaped,  fringed  with  setae  ;  the  para- 
glossae  are  not  so  long  as  the  tongue,  while  the  labial  palpi  are 
shorter  than  the  paraglossae,  and  the  maxillae  are  broad,  lan- 
ceolate, with  six-jointed  palpi.  The  antennae  of  the  males  are 


APIARI^E.  143 

short  and  sometimes  moniliform.  Spliecodes  dichroa  Harris  is 
our  most  common  species.  Mr.  F.  Smith,  from  direct  observa- 
tion, states  that  this  genus  builds  cells,  though  earlier  authors 
have  stated  that  it  is  parasitic  on  Halictus  and  Andrena. 

Prosopis  is  generally  yellow  on  the  face,  and  is  "less  pubes- 
cent than  any  of  the  bees."  The  tongue  is  broad,  subemar- 
ginate,  the  paraglossae  reach  a  little  beyond  the  tongue ;  the 
labial  palpi  are  as  long  as  the  tongue,  while  there  are  two  sub- 
costal cells  in  the  fore  wings.  Smith  states  that  the  genus  is 
not  parasitical  as  formerly  supposed,  as  he  has  "repeatedly 
bred  them"  from  cells  laid  in  a  regular  order  in  the  hollow  of 
bramble  stems.  Mr.  S.  Saunders  has  also  raised  them  in  Alba- 
nia where  "they  construct  their  cells  in  bramble  sticks  (which 
they  bore  in  the  same  manner  as  Colletes)  with  a  thin  transpa- 
rent membrane,  calculated  for  holding  semi-liquid  honey,  which 
they  store  up  for  their  young.  The  species  are  much  attacked 
by  Stylops."  Like  Spliecodes  and  Ceratina,  this  genus,  accord- 
ing to  Smith,  is  unprovided  with  pollenigerous  organs.  We 
have  several  species  in  this  country  of  which  P.  affinis  Smith, 
and  P.  elliptica  Kirby,  are  found  northward.  The  habits  of 
our  species  are  not  known. 

Augochlora  comprises  beautiful  shining  metallic  green  spe- 
cies, very  commonly  met  with.  The  thorax  is  globose,  and 
the  anterior  wings  have  one  marginal  and  three  submarginal 
cells  ;  the  first  submarginal  cell  as  long  as  the  second  and  third 
united.  Augochlora  purus  Smith  is  a  small,  green,  rather 
common  species.  Mr.  J.  H.  Emerton  has  found  its  nests  in  Sa- 
lem, near  those  of  Andrena.  The  mouth  of  the  hole  opened 
under  a  stone,  and  was  built  up  so  as  to  form  a  tube  of  sand 
(Plate  5,  Fig.  1).  The  burrow  on  the  28th  of  June  was  four 
inches  deep. 

Andrena  is  a  genus  of  great  extent,  and  the  species  are  often 
difficult  to  distinguish.  The  lanceolate  tongue  is  moderately 
long,  and  the  paraglossne  are  half  as  long  as  the  tongue  itself, 
while  the  six-jointed  maxillaiy  palpi  are  longer  than  the  maxillae 
themselves.  The  wings  have  three  subcostal  cells,  with  the 
rudiments  of  a  fourth  one ;  the  second  is  squarish,  and  the 
third  receives  a  recurrent  nervure  near  the  middle.  The  pos- 
terior legs  "have  a  long  curled  lock  upon  the  trochanter  be- 


144  HYMEXOPTERA. 

neath,  and  the  anterior  upper  surface  of  the  femora  is  clothed 
with  long  loose  hair,  which  equally  surrounds  the  whole  of  the 
tibiae."  (Shuckard.)  The  abdomen  is  banded  more  or  less 
conspicuously  with  reddish. 

The  larva  (Fig.  80)  is  stout  and  thick,  with  a  head  of  moder- 
ate size,  and  the  mouth-parts  are  a  little  shorter  than  usual,  the 
maxillae  and  labium  especially.     The  segments  of 
the  body  are  much   more  convex  (angularly  so) 
than  usual,  giving   a   tuberculate  outline  to  the 
body.     It  is  stouter  than  that   of  Halictus,    the 
wings  are  less  convex  than  in  that  genus  ;  while  the 
maxillae  are  much  stouter  and  blunter.     The  pupa 
is  distinguished  from  the  other  genera  by  much  the 
same  characters  as   the  imago,  except  that  there 
Fig.  79.       are  two  tubercles  on  the  vertex  near  the   ocelli. 
From  a  comparison  of  all  its  stages,  this  genus  stands  inter- 
mediate between  those  placed  above,  and  Halictus,  which,  in 
all  its  characters,  is  a  more  degraded  form.     The  males  often 
differ  widely  from  the  other  sex,  in  their  broad  heads  and  widely 
spreading  bidentate  mandibles. 

Mr.  Emerton  has  observed  the  habits  of  our  most  common 
species,  Andrena  vicina  Smith,  which  builds  its  nest  in  grassy 
fields.  The  burrow  is  sunken  perpendicularly,  with  short  pas- 
sages leading  to  the  cells,  which  are  slightly  inclined  downwards 
and  outwards  from  the  main  gallery.  The  walls  of  the  gallery 
are  rough,  but  the  cells  are  lined  with  a  mucus-like  secretion, 
which,  on  hardening,  looks  like  the  glazing  of  earthen-ware.  In 
Fig.  80  Mr.  Emerton  gives  us  a  profile  view  of  natural  size  of 
the  nest  showing  the  main  burrow  and  the  cells  leading  from  it ; 
the  oldest  cell,  containing  the  pupa  (a)  is  situated  nearest  the 
surface,  while  those  containing  larvae  (b)  lie  between  the  pupa 
and  the  cell  (e)  containing  the  pollen  mass  and  egg  resting 
upon  it.  The  most  recent  cell  (/)  is  the  deepest  down,  and 
contains  a  freshly  deposited  pollen  mass.  At  c  is  the  begin- 
ning of  a  cell ;  g  is  the  level  of  the  ground.  The  bees  were 
seen  at  work  on  the  4th  of  May,  at  Salem,  Mass., digging  their 
holes,  one  of  which  was  already  six  inches  deep ;  and  by  the 
15th,  hundreds  of  holes  were  observed.  On  the  28th  of  May, 
in  unearthing  six  holes,  eight  cells  were  found  to  contain  pol- 


APIAKI^E. 


145 


len,  and  two  of  them  a  small  larva.  On  the  29th  of  June  six 
full-grown  larvae  were  exhumed,  and  one  about  half-grown. 
About  the  first  of  August  the 
larva  transforms  to  a  pupa,  and 
during  the  last  week  of  this  month 
the  mature  bees  appear. 

In  Halictus,  which  is  a  genus 
of  great  extent,  the  head  is  trans- 
verse, and  flattish;  the  mouth- 
parts  are  of  moderate  length,  the 
tongue  being  very  acute,  with 
acute  paraglossae  half  the  length 
of  the  tongue,  while  the  labial 
palpi  are  not  quite  so  long  as 
the  paraglossae.  There  are  three 
subcostal  cells  in  the  wings,  with 
the  rudiments  of  a  fourth  often 
present,  and  the  second  cell  is 
squarish.  The  abdomen  is  ob- 
long ovate,  with  a  longitudinal 
linear  furrow  on  the  tip  in  the 
female.  In  the  males  the  body 
is  longer  and  the  antennae  more 
filiform  and  slender  than  usual  in 
this  family. 

The  larvae  are  longer,  and  with 
more  acutely  convex  segments 
than  in  Andrena.  The  pupae 
differ  much  as  the  adult  bees  from  /I 
Andrena,  especially  in  the  shorter 
mouth-parts. 

Halictus  parallelus  Say  excavates  cells  almost  exactly  like 
those  of  Andrena ;  but  since  the  bee  is  smaller,  the  holes  are 
smaller,  though  as  deep.  Mr.  Emerton  found  one  nest,  in  a 
path,  a  foot  in  depth.  Another  nest,  discovered  September  9th, 
was  about  six  inches  deep.  The  cells  are  in  form  like  those  of 
Andrena,  and  like  them  are  glazed  within.  The  egg  is  rather 
slender  and  much  curved ;  in  form  it  is  long,  cylindrical,  ob- 
tuse at  one  end,  and  much  smaller  at  the  other.  The  larva 
10 


Fig.  80. 


146  HYMENOPTERA. 

(Figs.  79,  81)  is  longer  and  slenderer,  and  quite  different  from 
the  rather  broad  and  flattened  larva  of  Andrena.     The  body  is 
rather  thick  behind,  but  in  front  tapers  slowly 
towards  the  head,  which  is  of  moderate  size.     Its 
body  is  somewhat  tuberculated,  the  tubercles  aid- 
ing the  grub  in  moving  about  its  cell.     Its  length 
is  .40  of  an  inch.     On  the  pupa  are  four  quite  dis- 
tinct conical  tubercles  forming  a  transverse  line 
Fig.  si.        just  jn  front  of  the  ocelli ;    and  there   are   also 
two  larger,  longer  tubercles,  on  the   outer   side   of  each  of 
which  an  ocellus  is  situated.     Figure  82  represents  the  pupa 
seen  from  beneath. 

Search  was  made  for  the  nests  on  July  16th,  when 
the  ground  was  very  hard  for  six  inches  in  depth, 
below  which  the  soil  was  soft  and  fine,  and  over 
twenty  cells  were  dug  out.  "The  upper  cells 
contained  nearly  mature  pupae,  and  the  lower  ones 
larvae  of  various  sizes,  the  smallest  being  hardly 
distinguishable  by  the  naked  eye.  Each  of  these 
small  larvae  was  in  a  cell  by  itself,  and  situated 
upon  a  lump  of  pollen,  which  was  of  the  size  and  shape  of  a 
pea,  and  was  found  to  lessen  in  size  as  the  larva  grew  larger. 
These  young  were  probably  the  offspring  of  several  females, 
as  four  mature  bees  were  found  in  the  hole."  (Emerton.) 
The  larva  of  an  English  species  hatches  in  ten  days  after  the 
eggs  are  laid. 

Another  brood  of  bees  appeared  the  middle  of  September, 
as  on  the  ninth  of  that  month  (1864)  Mr.  Emerton  found  sev- 
eral holes  of  the  same  species  >of  bee  made  in  a  hard  gravel 
road  near  the  turnpike.  When  opened,  they  were  found  to 
contain  several  bees  with  their  young.  September  2,  1867,  the 
same  kind  of  bee  was  found  in  holes,  and  just  ready  to  leave 
the  cell. 

Like  Bombus,  the  females  are  supposed  to  hybernate,  the 
males  not  appearing  until  late  in  the  season.  Like  Andrena, 
these  bees  suffer  from  the  attacks  of  Stylops,  and  according  to 
Shuckard,  an  Ichneumon  preys  upon  them,  while  certain  spe- 
cies of  Cerceris,  Philanthus,  and  Crabro  carry  them  off  to  store 
their  nests  with. 


VESPARI^E.  147 

In  Colletes  the  females,  as  Shuckard  observes,  resemble  the 
workers  of  the  Honey-bee,  while  there  is  considerable  disparity 
between  the  sexes,  the  males  being  much  smaller,  the  tongue 
and  maxillae  very  short;  and  the  four-jointed  labial  palpi 
much  shorter  than  the  paraglossae.  There  are  three  subcostal 
cells,  with  the  rudiments  of  a  fourth.  These  bees  form  large  colo- 
nies, burrowing  in  the  earth  eight  or  ten  inches  deep,  lining  their 
cells  ' '  at  the  farther  end  with  a  very  thin  transparent  mem- 
branaceous  coating,  resembling  goldbeaters'  skin."  They  thus 
furnish  six  or  eight  cartridge-like  cells,  covering  each*  with  a 
cap,  "like  the  parchment  on  a  drum-head."  Smith,  from  whom 
we  have  been  quoting,  states  that  Miltogramma  punctata,  which 
is  a  Tachina-like  fly,  and  the  Cuckoo-bee,  Epeolus  variegatus, 
have,  in  Europe,  been  reared  from  their  cocoons. 

VESPARI^E  Latreille,  Wasps.  In  this  family,  which  comprises 
about  900  species,  the  body  is  more  attenuated,  more  cylindri- 
cal, with  a  harder  and  smoother  tegument  than  in  the  Ap  iarice . 
In  the  species  with  densely  populated  colonies,  such  as  Vespa, 
and  Polistes,  there  are  workers  which  are  often  very  numerous, 
while  in  Eumenes  and  Odynerus,  etc.,  there  are  only  males  and 
females.  The  antennae  are  elbowed,  the  mandibles  are  large, 
stout ;  the  maxillae  and  labium  of  varying  length ;  the  maxil- 
lary palpi  are  six-jointed ;  while  on  the  labial  palpi,  which  are 
four-jointed,  there  are  well-developed  paraglossae.  The  pro- 
thorax  is  prolonged  on  each  side  to  the  insertion  of  the  wings 
which  are  long  and  narrow,  and  once  folded  longitudinally 
when  at  rest ;  the  fore  pair  have  two  or  three  subcostal  cells  ; 
the  hind  shanks  and  tibiae  are  smooth.  The  eggs,  when  first 
laid,  are  globular,  soon  becoming  oval. 

The  larvae  of  this  family  are  soft,  fleshy,  with  larger  heads  in 
proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  body,  than  in  the  Apiariw; 
the  antennal  tubercle,  or  rudimentary  antennae,  are  more  dis- 
tinct, and  the  mandibles  are  larger.  The  surface  of  the  body 
is  smoother  in  Vespa  and  Polistes,  but  more  tuberculated  in  the 
solitary  genera,  Odynerus  and  allies,  while  the  end  of  the  body 
is  more  acute. 

As  in  the  Apiarice  the  higher  genera  are  social,  building 
papery  nests,  while  the  lower  are  solitary  and  build  cells  of  mud 
or  sand  in  protected  places. 


148  HYMENOPTERA. 

In  Vespa,  the  Paper  Wasp,  the  ligula  is  squarish,  with  the 
paraglossse  nearly  as  long  as  the  tongue,  the  outer  maxillary 
lobes  rounded  oval,  half  as  long  as  the  palpi,  and  the  labial 
maxillae  are  scarcely  longer  than  the  tongue.  The  abdomen 
is  broad  at  base,  acutely  conical.  The  nests  are  either  with  or 
without  a  papery  covering,  supported  by  a  short  pedicel. 

Such  females  as  have  hybernated,  begin  to  make  their 
cells  in  the  early  part  of  summer.  Smith  states  that  the  soli- 
tary female  wasp  "  begins  by  making  three  saucer-shaped  re- 
ceptacles, in  each  of  which  she  deposits  an  egg ;  she  then 
proceeds  to  form  other  similar -shaped  receptacles,  until  the 
eggs  first  deposited  are  hatched  and  the  young  grabs  require  a 
share  of  her  attention.  From  the  circular  bases  she  now  be- 
gins to  raise  her  hexagonal  cells,  not  building  them  up  at  once, 
but  from  time  to  time  raising  them  as  the  young  grubs  ^grow. 
(Proc.  Ent.  Soc.,  London,  1858,  p.  35.) 

Waterhouse  states  that  the  cells  formed  by  the  solitary  fe- 
male early  in  the  season  appear  u  to  be  built  entirely  of  glisten- 
ing, whitish,  silk-like  threads  which  I  have  little  doubt  are  a 
secretion  from  the  insect,  all  the  threads  being  firmly  attached 
together  as  if  they  had  originally  been  of  a  glutinous  nature." 
The  cells  formed  later  in  the  season  by  the  workers,  differ 
in  consisting  of  masticated  rotten  wood.  "Almost  simultane- 
ously with  the  commencement  of  the  cells,  it  appears  that  the 
nest-covering  is  commenced.  At  first  it  has  the  appearance  of 
a  miniature  umbrella,  serving  to  shelter  the  rudimentary  cells." 
Plate  5,  Fig.  3,  shows  a  group  of  cells  surrounded  by  one 
layer  of  paper,  and  the  beginning  of  another.  As  the  nest 

grows  larger  the  cells  are  ar- 
ranged in  galleries,  supported  by 
pedicels,  and  the  number  of 
layers  in  the  outside  covering 
greatly  increases  in  number. 

While  our  common  and  largest 
species,  Vespa  maculata  Linn. 
(Fig.  83),  and  the  yellow  wasp, 
Y.  arenariaFabr.,  build  papery 
nests  consisting  of  several  galleries,  with  the  mouth  of  the  cells 
directed  downwards,  the  East  Indian  species,  V.  orientals, 


VESPARI^.  '     149 

builds  its  cells  of  clay,  and,  according  to  Waterhouse,  "the 
work  is  exceedingly  beautiful  and  true."  Another  species, 
according  to  Smith,  makes  its  nest  of  sandy  loam,  the  exterior 
being  so  hard  that  a  saw  used  in  opening  one  of  its  sides  was 
blunted. 

The  larva  of  Vespa  arenaria  is  long  and  cylindrical,  not 
so  much  curved  as  in  Polistes.  Its  position  in  its  cell  corre- 
sponds to  its  form,  as  the  cell  is  longer  and  narrower  than  that 
of  Polistes.  Each  segment  of  the  body  is  posteriorly  some- 
what thickened,  as  is  the  lateral  (pleural)  ridge  of  the  body. 
The  tip  of  the  abdomen  is  rather  blunt,  the  last  sternite  be- 
ing large  and  transverse.  The  pupa  is  provided  with  a  single 
tubercle  on  the  vertex,  where  there  are  two  in  the  Crabron- 
idce  and  Sphegidce. 

By  the  time  the  nest  of  V.  arenaria  is  large  enough  to 
contain  ten  full-grown  larvae,  and  has  about  fourteen  cells  in 
all,  being  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  the  occupants  of  the  two 
or  three  central  cells  will  have  changed  to  pupae,  and  one  wasp 
will  have  been  excluded. 

In  a  nest  of  the  same  species  two  inches  in  diameter,  there 
were  a  second  brood  of  larvae.  The  outer  row  of  cells  were 
occupied  by  pupae,  while  the  central  ones,  emptied  of  the  first 
brood,  were  filled  with  a  second  brood  of  larvae.  Evidently  as 
soon  as  an  imago  leaves  its  cell,  the  female  deposits  an  egg 
therein,  as  very  minute  larvae  were  found  occupying  cells  next 
to  those  containing  large  full-grown  larvae. 

In  comparing  a  number  of  pupae  from  a  large  nest,  they 
will  be  found  to  be  in  all  stages  of  perfection,  from  the 
larva  which  has  ceased  feeding,  and  is  preparing  to  transform, 
to  the  imago,  still  veiled  by  its  thin  subimago  pellicle.  It  is  dif- 
ficult to  draw  lines  between  these  stages.  Also  when  com- 
parecl  closely  side  by  side,  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible  to  find 
any  two  pupae  just  alike,  the  development  proceeding  very  un- 
equally. Thus  the  limbs  may  be  more  perfect  than  the  antennae, 
or  certain  parts  may  be  less  perfect  in  some  than  in  others,  while 
the  limbs  may  be  more  highly  colored  like  the  imago. 

Like  the  bees,  Vespa  suffers  from  numerous  parasites,  includ- 
ing Rhipiphorous  paradoxus,  which  is  a  beetle  allied  to  Stylops, 
and  Lebia  (Dromius)  linearis.  The  larva  of  Volucella  is  said 


150     '  HYMENOPTERA. 

to  feed  on  the  Vespa-larvae,  and  Mr.  Stone  says  that  Anthomyia 
incana  is  also  parasitic  in  Wasps'  nests,  while  two  species 
of  Ichneumons,  one  of  which  is  Anomalon  vesparum,  also  in- 
fest the  larvae.  No  parasites  have  been  as  yet  detected  in  this 
country. 

The  Hornet,  V.  crabro  Linn.,  has,  according  to  Mr.  Angus, 
become  domesticated  about  New  York.  This  and  the  smaller 
wasps  are  sometimes  injurious  by  eating  into  ripe  fruit,  but  the 
injury  is  more  than  counterblanced  by  the  number  of  flies  and 
other  insects  they  feed  their  young  with. 

Indeed,  as  Saussure  states,  the  species  of  Vespa  are  more 
omnivorous  in  their  tastes  than  any  other  w^asps.  They  live  by 
rapine  and  pillage,  and  have  obtained  a  worse  repute  than  other 
insects  more  injurious.  In  spring  and  early  summer  they  feed  on 
the  sweets  of  flowers  ;  but  later  in  the  season  attack  strawber- 
ries, plums,  grapes,  and  other  fruits,  and  often  enter  houses  and 
there  help  themselves  to  the  dishes  on  the  table.  They  will  eat 
raw  meat,  'and  then  aid  the  butcher  by  devouring  the  flies  that 
lay  their  eggs  on  his  meats.  They  will  sometimes  destroy  Honey- 
bees, attacking  them  on  their  return  from  the  fields  laden  with 
pollen ;  they  throw  themselves  upon  their  luckless  victims,  and 
tear  the  abdomen  from  the  rest  of  the  body,  and  suck  their 
blood,  devouring  only  the  abdomen.  They  fall  upon  flies  and 
butterflies,  and,  biting  off  their  wings,  feet,  and  head,  devour 
the  trunk.  In  attacking  insects  they  use  only  their  powerful 
jaws,  and  not  the  sting,  differing  in  this  respect  from  the 
fossorial  wasps. 

Saussure  states  that  though  wasps  do  not  generally  lay  up 
food,  yet  at  certain  periods  they  do  fill  the  cells  with  honey. 

The  females  feed  their  young  with  food  chewed  up  and  re- 
duced to  a  pulp.  Saussure  questions  whether  the  larvae  of  one 
sex  are  not  fed  on  animal  and  the  other  on  vegetable  food, 
since  Huber  had  shown  "what  a  great  influence  the  kind  of 
food  exerts  on  the  sex  of  Bees."  But  it  is  now  known  that  the 
sexes  of  some,  and  probably  all  insects  are  determined  before 
the  larvae  is  hatched.  I  have  seen  the  rudiments  of  the  ovi- 
positor in  the  half-grown  larvae  of  the  Humble-bee,  and  it  is 
most  probable  that  those  rudiments  began  to  develop  during 
embryonic  life.  It  is  far  more  probable  that  the  sexual  differ- 
ences are  determined  at  the  time  of  conception. 


151 

Westwood  states  that  the  larvae,  which  live  head-downward 
from  the  reversed  position  of  the  comb,  retain  their  position  in 
the  cell,  while  young,  by  a  glutinous  secretion,  and  afterwards 
' '  by  the  swollen  front  of  the  body  which  fills  the  open  part  of 
the  cell."  "The  female  cells  are  mostly  placed  apart  from 
those  of  the  males  and  neuters,  those  of  the  males  being  often 
mixed,  but  in  a  small  number,  in  the  neuter  combs.  The  egg 
state  lasts  eight  days,  the  larva  state  thirteen  or  fourteen,  and 
that  of  the  pupa  about  ten.  After  the  imago  has  been  produced, 
one  of  the  old  workers  cleans  out  the  cell,  and  fits  it  for  the 
reception  of  a  fresh  inhabitant.  The  upper  tier  of  cells,  being 
first  built,  serves  for  the  habitation  of  the  workers  ;  the  females, 
being  produced  at  the  end  of  the  summer,  occupy  the  lowest 
tiers."  When  about  to  transform  the  larvae  spin  a  thin  cover- 
ing, thus  closing  over  the  cell. 

In  Polistes  the  paraglossae  are  slender,  and  a  little  longer 
than  the  long,  or  as  in  one  instance  noticed  by  us  in  P.  Cana- 
densis,  barrel-shaped  ligula,  which  is  split  at  the  end';  the  palpi 
are  stouter,  while  the  whole  body  is  much  longer  than  in  Vespa  ; 
the  abdomen  is  subpedunculate,  and  the  thorax  is  rather  ob- 
long than  spherical,  as  in  Vespa. 

The  larva  differs  from  that  of  Vespa  in  its  much  larger  head, 
and  shorter,  more  ovoid  form  of  the  body,  which  is  dilated  in 
front  so  as  to  retain  the  insect  in  its  cell,  while  the  tip  is 
more  acute ;  the  antennal  tubercles  are  closer  together ;  the 
clypeus  is  more  regularly  triangular  and  more  distinct,  while 
the  labrum  is  much  larger  and  excessively  swollen,  as  are  the 
mouth-parts  generally.  The  mandibles  are  bidentate,  where  in 
Vespa  they  are  tridentate.  The  pupa  differs  from  that  of  Vespa, 
besides  the  usual  generic  characters,  in  having  the  tubercle  on 
the  head  smaller. 

The  nests  of  Polistes  (Plate  5,  Fig.  4,  nest  of  P.  annularis 
Fabr.,  from  Saussure)  are  not  covered  in  by  a  papery  wall  as  in 
Vespa,  but  may  be  found  attached  to  bushes,  with  the  mouth 
of  the  cells  pointed  downwards.  While  at  Burks ville  Junction, 
Va.,  in  the  last  week  of  April,  I  had  an  opportunity  of  watch- 
ing three  species  beginning  their  cells  on  the  same  clump  of 
bushes.  They  all  worked  in  the  same  method,  and  the  cells 
only  differed  slightly  in  size.  The  cells  were  formed  mostly  of 


152  HYMENOPTERA. 

crude  silk,  and  the  threads  could  be  seen  crossing  each  other,  the 
same  structure  being  observed  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  each 
cell. 

In  the  three-celled  nest  of  Polistes  (Plate  5,  Fig.  5,  5  a) 
first  noticed  April  29th,  there  were  but  two  eggs  deposited,  the 
third  cell  being  without  an  egg,  and  a  little  smaller,  and 
the  rim  not  so  high  as  in  the  other  two.  The  outer  edge  did 
not  seem  to  be  perfectly  circular,  though  stated  by  Water- 
house  to  be  so  in  the  incipient  cells,  for  in  some  cases  we  de- 
tected two  slight  angles,  thus  making  three  sides,  which, 
however,  would  be  easily  overlooked  on  casual  observation ; 
as  there  are  only  two  sides  within,  the  cell,  from  being  at  its 
earliest  inception  hemispherical,  or  "saucer-shaped,"  becomes 
five,  and  subsequently  six-sided,  and  thus  from  being  cir- 
cular, it  is  converted  by  the  wasps  into  a  hexagonal  cell.  In 
some  cells,  perhaps  a  majority,  both  in  this  and  the  other  spe- 
cies, the  newly  made  rim  of  the  small  cells  is  thinner  than  the 
parts  below,  and  slightly  bent  inwards  ;  thus  being  quite  the  re- 
verse of  the  thickened  rim  of  the  cells  of  the  Hive  Bee.  It 
would  seem  that  the  wasp  plasters  on  more  silk,  especially  on 
the  angles,  building  them  out,  and  making  them  more  promi- 
nent, in  order  to  complete,  when  other  cells  are  added,  their 
hexagonal  form.  The  three  cells  are  of  much  the  same  size 
and  height  when  the  third  egg  is  laid,  as  we  observed  in  another 
nest,  that  of  Polistes  Canadensis  (Linn.)-,  built  at  the  Defences 
of  Washington,  near  Munson's  Hill,  June  9th. 

Again,  when  one  or  two  more  cells  have  been  added  to  the 
nest,  and  there  are  four  or  five  in  all  (Plate  5,  Fig.  6  ;  6  a,  top 
view,  in  which  there  are  four  cells),  two  of  them  are  nearly 
twice  as  large  as  the  others,  while  the  fifth  has  been  just  begun, 
and  is  eggless.  The  form  of  the  two  which  run  up  much  higher 
than  the  others  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  smaller  and  shorter 
ones,  L  e.  they  are  on  one  side  nearly  semicircular,  and  on  the 
other,  partly  hexagonal,  and  the  angular  sides  show  a  tendency 
to  be  even  more  circular  than  when  the  others  are  built  around 
them,  for  the  little  architect  seems  to  bring  out  the  angles 
more  prominently  when  carrying  up  the  walls  of  the  other  cells. 
Thus  she  builds,  as  if  by  design,  one  and  the  same  cell  both 
by  the  "circular"  and  "hexagonal"  methods,  afterwards  adopt- 


VESPARI^.  153 

ing  only  the  latter,  and  if  she  devotes  her  attentions  specially 
to  plastering  the  corners  alone,  with  the  design  of  making  the 
cell  six-sided,  then  we  must  allow,  contrary  to  Mr.  Water- 
house's  views,  that  the  wasp  builds  the  hexagon  by  choice,  and 
not  as  the  mere  result  of  her  blindly  "working  in  segments  of 
circles  ;"  for  if  our  point  be  proved,  and  the  most  careful  obser- 
vation of  the  wasp  while  at  work  is  needed  to  prove  it,  then  it 
may  be  shown  that  the  wasp  is  a  free  agent,  and  can  abandon 
one  method  of  working  at  a  certain  stage  of  her  work,  and 
adopt  a  different  mode  of  operating. 

The  eggs  are  oval,  pointed  at  the  end,  ancl  glued  to  the  in- 
side of  the  cell.  They  are  situated  midway  from  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  incipient  cell,  and  placed  on  the  innermost  sides, 
so  that  in  a  group  of  several  cells  the  eggs  are  close  together, 
only  separated  by  the  thin  cellular  walls.  In  a  completed  cell 
the  egg  is  placed  very  near  the  bottom. 

For  several  days  a  Polistes  Canadensis  was  engaged  in  build- 
ing its  nest  in  my  tent  in  camp  near  Washington.  When  first 
noticed  on  June  9th,  there  were  three  cells,  two  of  which  con- 
tained eggs;  and  it  was  not  for  two  days,  the  llth,  that  the 
third  cell  was  completed,  and  a  third  egg  deposited  in  it.  The 
wasp  paid  especial  attention  to  strengthening  the  pedicel,  going 
over  it  repeatedly  for  an  hour  or  two  with  its  tongue,  as  if  lay- 
ing on  more  silken  matter,  and  then  proved  the  work  by  its 
swiftly  vibrating  antennae.  It  would  often  fly  out  of  the  tent, 
and  on  its  return  anxiously  examine  each  cell,  thrusting  its  head 
deep  down  into  each  one.  It  gradually  became  accustomed  to 
my  presence,  but  eventually  abandoned  the  nest,  without  adding 
more  cells.  The  others,  while  at  work  on  the  bushes,  abscond- 
ed at  my  approach,  and  seemed  very  wary  and  distrustful,  as 
if  desirous  of  concealing  their  abodes.  Mr.  Smith  has  found 
Trigonalys  bipustulatus  to  be  a  parasite  on  Polistes  lanio  Fabr. 
(P.  Canadensis  Linn.),  from  St.  Salvador,  S.  A. 

Saussure  arranges  the  higher  Vespidse  into  two  parallel  series. 
Vespa  is  offset  by  Chartergus  and  Nectarina ;  lower  down  we 
find  Tatua  and  Synoeca,  while  Polistes  is  offset  by  Polybia. 
These  five  genera  are  tropical,  and  in  their  habits,  the  general 
appearance  of  their  nests,  and  in  the  number  of  individuals 
represent  Vespa  and  Polistes  of  the  temperate  zone.  The 


154  HYMENOPTERA. 

genus  Nectar ina  is  a  short  plump  wasp,  somewhat  like  Odyne- 
rus  in  shape ;  its  distinguishing  mark  is  the  concealment  of 
the  postscutellum  by  the  scutellum.  Nectarina  mellifica  Say, 
of  Mexico,  builds  a  large  nest  externally  like  that  of  a  wasp, 
but  it  is  more  irregular,  and  the  papery  covering  consists  of 
but  one  layer.  The  interior  of  the  nest  is  very  different,  the 
galleries  of  cells,  instead  of  being  parallel,  being  arranged  in 
concentric  spheres. 

Chartergus  has  the  tip  of  the  clypeus  slighted  excavated,  and 
an  oval  sessile  abdomen.  C.  chartarius  Olivier  makes  an  ex- 
ceedingly thick  tough  nest,  attached  by  a  broad  base  to  the 
bough  of  a  tree,  about  twice  as  long  as  thick,  and  ending  in  a 
cone,  pierced  in  the  centre  by  the  entrance  which  passes 
through  the  middle  to  the  basal  gallery ;  the  other  galleries  are 
formed  by  a  continuation  of  the  sides  of  the  nest,  and  arrayed 
in  a  conical  plane. 

In  Tatua,  the  abdomen  is  pedicelled,  but  the  petiole  is  not 
enlarged,  and  the  abdomen  itself  is  very  regularly  conical.  T. 
morio  Cuvier,  from  Cayenne,  forms  a  nest  like  that  of  Charter- 
gus ;  but  the  galleries  form  a  flat  floor,  and  each  gallery  has  an 
entrance  from  the  outside  of  the  nest,  where  in  the  latter  there  is 
one  common  entrance.  Plate  5,  Fig.  9,  shows  how  the  bases 
of  the  cells  are  laid  out  on  the  edge  of  a  gallery.  In  Synceca 
the  peculiarly  shaped  abdomen  is  cordate  and  compressed.  The 
curious  nest  of  S.  cyanea  Fabr.  is  formed  of  a  single  layer  of 
cells  fixed  against  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  and  covered  in  with  a 
dense  covering  made  from  the  bark  of  dead  trees.  Some  nests 
of  Synoeca  are  three  feet  long.  In  the  very  extensive  genus 
Polybia,  which  resembles  Polistes  in  its  general  shape,  the  abdo- 
men is  pedicelled,  and  the  mandibles  are  four-toothed.  The  nests 
are  somewhat  like  those  of  Chartergus,  but  much  smaller.  Sev- 
eral species  occur  in  Mexico,  and  in  Brazil  the  number  of 
species  is  very  great.  In  Apo'ica  the  abdomen  is  very  long, 
and  the  third  segment  is  as  long  as  the  second.  Plate  5,  Fig. 
11,  represents  the  nest  of  Apoica  pallida  Olivier,  from  Cayenne. 
It  is  unprotected,  with  a  conical  base,  and  with  a  single  row 
of  cells. 

In  Icaria  we  have  an  approach  to  Polistes  in  the  slender 
series  of  cells  composing  the  nest,  forming  two  or  three  rows 


VESPARLE.  155 

only.  Plate  5,  Fig.  7,  represents  the  nest  of  I.  guttatipennis 
Saussure,  from  Senegal ;  8,  ground  plan  of  a  similar  nest.  These 
wasps  are  mostly  distinguished  from  Polybia  by  the  petiole 
ending  in  a  globular  mass.  Plate  5,  Fig.  10,  represents 
the  elegant  nest  of  Mischocyttarus  laUatus  Fabr.,  from  Cay- 
enne and  Brazil,  which  consists  of  a  few  cells  supported  by  a 
long  pedicel.  The  wasp  itself  much  resembles  Polistes,  but 
the  petiole  is  very  much  longer. 

The  remaining  genera  noticed  here  are  solitary,  building 
separate  cells,  and  with  only  males  and  females.  There  are 
three  subcostal  cells  in  the  fore  wings,  and  the  maxillae  and 
labium  are  much  elongated. 

In  Eumenes  the  abdomen  has  a  long  pedicel,  being  sessile  in 
Odynerus.  While  authors  place  Eumenes  higher  than  Ody- 
nerus,  we  would  consider  the  latter  as  a  higher,  more  cepha- 
lized  form,  since  the  abdomen  is  less  elongated,  and  the  head 
is  larger. 

In  Odynerus  the  ligula  is  long,  deeply  forked  at  the 
slender  extremity,  while  the  slender  paraglossse  are  shorter, 
ending  in  a  two-toothed  claw-like  tip  ;  the  maxillse  are  slender, 
and  the  palpi  have  an  elongated  basal  joint ;  the  clypeus  is 
nearly  circular,  toothed  on  the  front  edge.  The  larva  differs 
from  those  of  the  higher  Vesparice,,  in  its  more  elongated  head, 
the  square  clypeus,  the  unusually  deep  fissure  of  the  bilobate  la- 
brum,  and  in  the  larger  tubercles  of  the  body,  as  the  larva  is 
more  active,  turning  and  twisting  in  its.  cell,  while  feeding  on 
its  living  food  ;  and  in  this  respect  it  is  more  closely  allied  to 
the  young  Crabronidce .  In  the  pupa  of  0.  albopJialeratus, 
the  tip  is  more  incurved  than  in  the  pupa  of  Vespa,  so  that  the 
hind  legs  (tarsi)  reach  to  the  tip,  and  the  abdomen  is  rounded 
ovate,  while  in  Vespa  it  is  oblong. 

The  cells  (Plate  4,  Figs.  13,  14)  of  Odynerus  alboplialeratus 
Sauss.  have  been  detected  like  those  of  Osmia  in  a  deserted  gall 
of  Diplolepis  confluens,  where  several  were  found  in  a  row, 
arranged  around  one  side  of  the  gall,  side  by  side,  with  the  holes 
pointing  towards  the  centre  of  the  gall.  The  cells  are  half  an 
inch  long,  and  one-half  as  wide,  being,  formed  of  small  pellets 
of  mud,  giving  a  corrugated,  granulated  appearance  to  the 
outside,  while  the  inside  is  lined  with  silk. 


156  HYMENOPTERA . 

We  have  received  from  Mr.  Angus  deserted  cells  of  Cera- 
tina  in  a  syringa  stem,  in  which  we  detected  a  pupa  of  an 
Odjmerus,  perhaps  0.  leucomelas ;  the  cell  was  a  little  shorter 
than  that  of  the  Ceratina  it  had  occupied.  The  cocoon  of 
the  Odyiierus  was  of  silk,  and  almost  undistinguishable  from 
the  old  cocoon  of  Ceratina.  The  wasp  had  dispensed  with  the 
necessity  of  making  a  mud  cell.  If  future  research  shows  that 
either  this  or  any  other  species  makes  a  mud  cell  or  not  at 
will,  it  shows  the  intelligence  of  these  little  "free-agents;" 
and  that  a  blind  adherence  to  fixed  mechanical  laws  does  not 
obtain  in  these  insects. 

The  larvae  of  Odynerus  and  Eumenes  are  carnivorous.  I 
found  several  cells  of  O.  alboplialeratus,  June  22d,  in  the 
deserted  nest  of  a  Clisiocampa,  which  were  stored  with  micro- 
lepidopterous  larvae  and  pupae,  still  alive,  having  been  para- 
lyzed by  the  .sting  of  the  wasp.  The  larvae  of  the  wasp  was 
short  and  thick,  being,  when  contracted,  not  more  than  twice 
as  long  as  broad  ;  the  rings  of  the  body  are  moderate!}"  convex, 
and  the  pleural  region  is  faintly  marked.  Prof.  A.  E.  Verrill 
has  discovered  the  cells  of  an  Odynerus  at  New  Haven,  forming 
a  sandy  mass  (Plate  5,  Fig.  12)  attached  to  the  stem  of  a 
plant. 

In  Eumenes  the  lingua  is  very  long,  being  narrower  and 
more  deeply  divided  than  in  Odynerus ;  the  second  subcostal 
space  of  the  wings  is  long  and  narrow,  while  in  Odyxferus  it  is 
triangular.  The  genus  is  easily  recognized  by  the  very  long 
pedicel  of  the  abdomen.  Eumenes  fraterna  Say  constructs  a 
thin  cell  (Plate  5,*  Fig.  15)  of  pellets  of  mud,  and  as  large 

*  EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  5.  Fig.  1.  Mouth  of  the  tunnel  of  Augochlora  pnrus ; 
from  Emerton.  Fig.  2.  Cells  of  Osmia  pacifica ;  communicated  by  Mr.  Sanborn. 
Fig.  3.  Vertical  section  of  nest  of  Vespa  with  a  group  of  primitive  cells  surrounded 
by  one  layer  of  paper,  and  part  of  another;  from  Saussure.  Fig.  4.  Nest  of  Po- 
listes  annularis ;  from  Saussure.  Fig.  5.  Three  primitive  cells  of  Polistes;  5  a,  top 
view  of  the  same,  one  being  eggless.  The  sides  adjoining  are  angular.  Figs.  G  and 
6 a,  a  cell  farther  advanced,  consisting  of  four  cells,  each  containing  an  egg,  and 
with  the  edges  of  the  cells  built  up  higher  and  more  decidedly  six-sided ;  original. 
Fig.  7.  Cells  of  Icaria  giittatipennis,  showing  that  each  cell  is  built  up  independently 
in  regular  hexagons.  Fig.  8.  Ground  plan  of  a  similar  nest.  Fig.  9.  Ground  plan 
of  cells  of  Tatua  morio ;  from  Smith.  Fig.  1C.  Nest  of  Hftschocyttfirus  labiutus  ; 
from  Saussure.  Fig.  11.  Nest  of  Apo'ica  pallida ;  from  Saussure.  Fig.  12,  Nest  of 
Odynerus  birenimaculatus .  Fig.  13.  Nest  of  Odynerus  albophaleratus ;  original, 
Fig.  14.  Mud  cell  of  Pelopceus  flavipes ;  original.  Fig.  15.  A  row  of  spherical  cells 
of  Eumenes  fraterna,  with  the  female;  from  Harris. 


Plate  5. 


ARCHITECTURE    OF    WASPS. 


CRABRONID^E.  157 

as  a  cherry.  It  is  attached  by  a  short  stout  pedicel  to  bushes, 
and  the  cavity  is  filled  with  the  larvae  of  small  moths. 

Rapliiglossa  odyneroides,  from  Epirus,  described  by  S.  S. 
Saunders,  makes  elongated  cells  in  galleries  in  briars,  storing 
them  with  the  larvae  of  what  he  supposed  to  be  weevils.  The 
dark  brown  dense  tough  cocoon  of  a  Chrysis  was  also  found  in 
the  cells. 

In  Masaris,  which  connects  the  Ve spar  ice,  with  the  succeed- 
ing family,  the  wings  are  not  completely  folded  when  at  rest ; 
there  are  but  two  subcostal  cells ;  the  maxillae  are  rudimen- 
tary ;  and  the  antennae  are  clavate  and  eight-jointed.  Masaris 
vespoides  Cresson,  inhabits  Colorado  Territory. 

CRABRONIDJS  Latreille.  Sand-wasps,  Wood-wasps.  In  the 
more  typical  genera  the  head  is  remarkably  large,  cuboidal, 
while  the  clypeus  is  very  short,  and  covered  for  the  most  part 
with  a  dense  silvery  or  golden  pile.  The  antennae  are  genicu- 
late,  the  long  second  joint  being  received,  when  at  rest,  in  a 
deep  frontal  vertical  groove ;  the  mandibles  are  large,  and  of 
even  width  throughout,  and  the  mouth-parts  are  rather  short, 
especially  the  lingua,  which  is  often,  however,  well  developed. 
There  is  only  one  subcostal  cell,  except  in  the  Philanthince. 
The  thorax  is  sub-spherical,  and  the  abdomen  is  either  short 
and  stout,  or  more  or  less  pedicellate.  The  forefeet  are 
adapted  for  digging  and  tunnelling,  the  forelegs  in  the  females 
being  broad  and  flat,  and  in  the  males,  which  are  supposed  to 
do  no  work,  they  are  sometimes,  as  in  Thyreopus,  armed  with 
vexhillate  expansions. 

The  larva  is  rather  short  and  thick,  a  little  flattened  on  the 
under  side,  but  much  rounded  above  ;  the  segments  are  convex 
above,  the  thoracic  segments  differing  from  the  abdominal  seg- 
ments in  not  being  thickened  posteriorly  on  each  ring.  They 
spin  either  a  very  slight  cocoon,  or  a  thin  dense  brown  oval 
cylindrical  case,  generally  reddish  brown  in  color.  The  pupae 
have  much  the  same  character  as  the  imago,  with  prominent 
acute  tubercles  above  the  ocelli. 

The  members  of  this  family  afford,  so  far  as  we  are  ac- 
quainted with  their  habits,  most  interesting  examples  of  the 
interdependence  of  structure  and  the  habits  of  insects.  Most 


158  HYMENOPTERA. 

of  the  species  are  wood-wasps,  making  their  cells  in  cy- 
lindrical holes  in  rotten  wood,  or  enlarging  nail-holes  in 
posts,  as  is  the  case  with  Crabro  singularis,  according  to  the 
observations  of  Mr.  C.  A.  Shurtleff,  thus  adapting  them  to  the 
requirements  of  their  young.  Other  genera  (Rhopalum  pedicel- 
latum,  Stigmus  fraternus,  and  Crabro  stirpicola)  avail  them- 
selves of  those  plants  whose  stem  has  a  pith  which  they  can 
readily  excavate  and  refit  for  their  habitations.  The  females 
provision  their  nests  with  caterpillars,  aphidae,  spiders,  and 
other  insects. 

This  family  is  most  difficult  to  classify  ;  it  consists  rather  of 
groups  of  genera,  some  higher  and  some  lower,  though  as  a 
general  rule  those  genera  with  pedunculate  abdomens  are  the 
lowest  in  the  series.  In  illustration,  we  regard  Stigmus,  writh 
its  elongated  decephalized  body,  as  inferior  to  Blepharipus, 
which  again  is  subordinate  to  the  more  cephalized  Crabro, 
where  the  body  is  shorter,  the  abdomen  sessile,  the  anterior 
part  of  the  body  more  developed  headwards,  while  its  nests 
are  constructed  more  elaborately.  The  genus  Psen,  for  the 
same  reason,  is  lower  than  Cerceris,  of  which  it  seems  a  de- 
graded form. 

Some  of  the  most  useful  characters  in  separating  the  genera 
of  this  family  are  to  be  found  in  the  form  of  the  clypeus,  its 
sculpturing  and  relative  amount  of  pubescence  or  hirsuties  ;  in 
the  form  and  sculpturing  of  the  propodewn  (Newman),  or  tho- 
racico-abdominal  ring  of  Newport ;  while  the  tip  of  the  abdo- 
men presents  excellent  generic  and  also  specific  characters, 
depending  on  its  grooved  or  flattened  shape. 

The  species  of  this  family  are  mostly  found  in  the  north 
temperate  zone,  being  very  abundant  in  North  America  and  in 
Europe.  The  Pemphredoninse  occur  far  north  in  abundance, 
while  Cerceris  occurs  farthest  towards  the  tropics. 

The  subfamily  Philanthince  includes  the  three  genera,  Plii- 
lantlms,  Eucerceris,  and  Cerceris.  In  Philantlms  (Fig.  84,' wing), 
the  head  is  short,  transversely  suboval,  the  clypeus  longer 
than  broad,  with  the  first  joint  of  the  abdomen  nearly  as  broad 
when  seen  from  above  as  the  succeeding  one.  Our  more  com- 
mon form  southward  is  Philantlms  vertilabns  Say  (Fig.  85). 
In  Europe  P.  apivorus  provisions  its  nest  with  honey-bees. 


CRABRONID^:. 


159 


Fig.  85. 


Fig.  87. 


Cresson  remarks  that  Eucerceris  (Fig.  86,  fore  wing  of  male  ; 
a,  female)  differs  from  Cerceris  in  the  venation,  which  differs 
greatly  in  the  two  sexes.  E.  zonatus  Say 
occurs  in  the  west. 

The  species  of  Cerceris  (Fig.  87,  wing) 
have  transversely  oblong  heads,  the  front  of 
the  head  is  flattened  and  destitute  of  hairs, 
and  the  rings  of  the  abdomen  are  contracted, 
the  middle  part  being  un- 
usually convex  and  coarsely 
punctured,  while  the  basal 
ring  is  nearly  one-half  nar- 
rower than  the  succeeding 
ones.  Cerceris  deserta  Say  is  our  most  com- 
mon form.  In  Europe  some  species  are 
known  to  store  their  nests  with  bees,  and  the  larvae  of  Cur- 
culionidce  and  Buprestidce.  Dufour  unearthed  in  a  sin- 
gle field  thirty  nests  of  C.  bupresticida  which  were  filled  with 
ten  species  of  Buprestis,  comprising  four  hundred  individuals, 
and  none  of  any  other  genus.  Cerceris  tuberculata  provisions 
its  nest  with  Leucosomus  ophthalmicus ;  and  C.  triciucta  with 
Clythra. 

In  the  subfamily  Crabronince,  there  is  a  great  disparity  in 
the  sexes,  the  form  of  the  females  being  the  most  persistent. 
In  the  male  the  head  is  smaller,  narrow  behind,  with  shorter 
mandibles,  and  a  narrower  clypeus ;  the  body  is  also  much 
slenderer,  especially  the  abdomen,  and  the  legs  are  simple  in 
Crabro,  but  in  Thyreopus  variously  modified  by  expansions  of 
the  joints,  especially  the  tibia.  The 
species  of  Crabro  (Fig.  88)  are  readily 
distinguished  by  the  large  cubical 
head,  and  the  sharp  mucronate  abdo- 
minal tip  of  the  female.  The  more 
typical  form  of  this  very  extensive 
genus  is  Crabro  sex-maculatus  Say, 
so-called  from  the  six  yellow  spots 

on  the  subpedunculate  abdomen.  According  to  Dr.  T.  W. 
Harris  (MS.  notes),  this  wasp  was  seen  by  Rev.  Mr.  Leonard, 
of  Dublin,  N.  H.,  burrowing  in  decayed  wood,  June  10th. 


160  HYMENOPTERA. 

Crabro  singularis  Smith,  was  discovered  by  Mr.  C.  A.  Shuvtleff 
boring  in  a  post. 

In  Thyreopus,  the  body  is  slender,  and  the  forelegs  are 
curiously  dilated  in  the  males,  often  forming  a  broad  expansion, 
and  so  dotted  as  to  present  a  sieve-like  appearance,  while  the 
head  is  much  shorter,  being  more  transverse.  T.  latipes  Smith 
is  known  by  the  broad,  long,  acute,  mucronate,  shield-like  ex- 
pansion of  the  fore  tibia,  which  is  striped  with  black  at  the 
base. 

The  species  of  Rhopalum  are  usually  blackish,  without  the 
gay  colors  prevalent  in  the  genera  before  mentioned ;  the  legs 
are  simple,  and  the  abdomen  is  long  and  slender,  with  a  long 
peduncle.  The  body  of  the  larva  is  short  and  thick,  tapering 
rapidly  towards  each  extremity ;  the  segments  are  convex, 
those  of  the  thorax  especially  being  smooth,  broad,  and  regu- 
larly convex,  while  the  abdominal  rings  are  provided  with 
prominent  tubercles.  The  tip  of  the  body  is  quite  extensible, 
and  when  protruded  is  subacute,  terminating  in  a  small  knob- 
like  body,  formed  by  the  last  ring.  The  larvae  of  this  genus 
differ  from  those  of  the  Vesparice  andApiarice  known  to  us 
by  having  a  few  hairs  scattered  over  the  body. 

In  the  pupa  the  antennae,  in  their  natural  position,  do  not 
quite  reach  to  the  second  pair  of  trochanters,  and  reach  onl}- 
to  the  tip  of  the  maxillary  palpi.  The  tip  of  the  abdomen  is 
very  acute  and  elongated  unusually  far  beyond  the  ovipositor. 
On  the  head,  between  the  ocelli  and  antennae,  are  two  very 
prominent,  acute  tubercles,  and  the  abdominal  segments  are 
dentate  on  the  hind  edge.  Thus  both  the  larva  and  pupa 
would  seem,  by  their  anatomy,  to  be  unusually  active  in  their 
loose,  illy-constructed  cells,  which  do  not  confine  their  food  so 
closely  as  in  the  other  wasps,  as  the  insects  on  which  they  prob- 
ably feed  have  a  greater  range  in  their  rather  roomy  cells.  April 
18th  we  opened  several  stems  grown  in  the  open  air,  and 
found  both  larvae  and  pupae ;  the  latter  in  different  stages  of 
development.  The  cells  were  placed  in  the  closely  packed 
dust  made  by  the  larva  of  an  JEgeria,  or  directly  bored  in  the 
pith  of  the  plants.  There  were  six  such  cells,  each  with  its 
inhabitant,  within  a  space  an  inch  in  length,  some  laying  cross- 
wise, others  along  the  middle.  The  larvae  spin  but  a  very 


CRABRONIDJE.  161 

slight  cocoon,  not  at  all  comparable  with  that  of  Crabro ;  the 
walls  of  the  cell  being  simply  lined  with  silken  threads.  Under 
other  circumstances,  i.  e.  where  the  cells  are  more  exposed,  it 
is  not  unlikely  that  a  more  elaborate  cocoon  may  be  spun. 

Mr.  James  Angus  has  bred  numerous  specimens  of  Rlwpa- 
lum  pedicellatum  Pack.,  from  stems  of  the  Rose,  Corcorus,  Ja- 
ponica,  and  Spiraea,  grown  in  hot-houses  at  West  Farms,  N.  Y. 
The  larva  is  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long. 

The  following  genera  belong  to  the  subfamily  Pemphre- 
donince : 

The  genus  Stigmus,  as  its  name  indicates,  may  at  once  be 
known  by  the  very  large  pterostigma,  as  well  as  the  unusually 
small  size  of  the  species.  The  body  of  the  larva  is  moderately 
long  and  slender,  cylindrical,  tapering  slowly  towards  both  ex- 
tremities. The  rings  are  short,  very  convex,  subacutely  so, 
and  the  larva  is  of  a  beautiful  roseate  color.  Stigmus  frater- 
nus  Say  burrows  in  the  stems  of  the  Syringa,  of  which  speci- 
mens have  been  received  from  Mr.  Angus  with  the  larvae  and 
pupae. 

In  Cemonus  the  front  narrows  rapidly  towards  the  insertion 
of  the  mandibles,  and  there  is  a  short  triangular  enclosure  on 
the  propodeum,  while  the  abdomen  is  shorter  and  thicker  than 
in  PempJiredon,  a  closely  allied  genus ;  the  rjedicel  is  also 
longer.  The  larvae  of  Cemonus  inornatus  Harris  live  in  irregu- 
lar burrows  in  the  elder,  like  those  of  Rhopalum  from  which 
they  have  been  reared  by  Mr.  Angus.  They  are  known  by  the 
broad  flattened  head  and  body,  serrate  side  and  tergum  of  the 
body,  and  large,  conspicuously  bidentate  mandibles,  as  well  as 
by  the  peculiarly  flattened  abdominal  tip. 

In  Passalcecus  the  labrum  is  very  prominent,  while  the  man- 
dibles are  very  large,  widening  towards  the  tip,  and  in  the  com- 
mon P.  mandibularis  Cresson  they  are  white,  and  thus  very 
conspicuous.  This  species  burrows  in  company  writh  the  other 
wood-wasps  mentioned  above  in  the  stems  of  the  elder  and 
syringa.  The  cells  are  lined  with  silk.  The  wasps  appear 
early  in  June.  Their  nests  are  tenanted  by  Chalcids.  The 
female  stores  her  cells  with  Aphides,  as  we  have  found  them 
abundantly  in  stems  of  plants  received  from  Mr.  Angus. 

The  genus  Psen  seems  to  be  a  degraded  Gerceris,  but  the 
11 


162  HYMENOPTERA. 

abdomen  is  pedicelled,  and  differs  from  Mimesa,  a  still  more 
slender-bodied  genus,  in  having  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  more  or 
less  grooved,  while  in  Mimesa  it  is  flat  and  not  grooved  at  all. 
Psen  leucopus  Say  has  a  dense  silvery  pile  on  the  front  of 
the  head,  with  black  antennae,  and  the  pedicel  is  rather  short. 

NYSSONID^E  Leach.  In  this  family  the  head  is  transversely 
longer  and  less  cubical  than  in  the  preceding  group ;  the  ver- 
tex is  higher  and  more  convex,  while  the  front  is  narrow,  the 
clypeus  long  and  narrow,  the  eyes  long  and  narrow,  and  the 
antennae  are  more  clavate  than  in  the  Crabronidoe,  and 
the  propodeum  is  sometimes  armed  with  acute  spines,  while 
the  enclosed  space  is  smoothly  polished  or  striated.  The  wings 
are  long  and  narrow,  and  the  abdomen  is  sessile  in  the  typical 
genera,  where  it  is  obconic,  but  clavate  when  pedicellate. 

In  Trypoxylon  the  body  is  long,  with  a  pedicellate  clavate 
abdomen.  In  Europe  "Mr.  Johnson  has  detected  it  frequent- 
Ing  the  holes  of  a  post  pre-occupied  by  a  species  of  Odynerus, 
and  into  which  it  conveyed  a  small  round  ball,  or  pellet,  con- 
taining about  fifty  individuals  of  a  species  of  Aphis  ;  this  the 
Odynerus,  upon  her  return,  invariably  turned  out,  flying  out 
with  it,  held  by  her  legs,  to  the  distance  of  about  a  foot  from 
the  aperture  of  her  cell,  where  she  hovered  a  moment,  and  then 
let  it  fall ;  and  this  was  constantly  the  case  till  the  Trypoxylon 
had  sufficient  time  to  mortar  up  the  orifice  of  the  hole,  and  the 
Odynerus  was  then  entirely  excluded  ;  for  although  she  would 
return  to  the  spot  repeatedly,  she  never  endeavored  to  force 
the  entrance,  but  flew  off  to  seek  another  hole  elsewhere." 

T.  politum  Say  has  purplish  wings,  and  no  enclosure  on  the 
propodeum. 

T.  frigidum  Smith  lives  in  the  stems  of  Syringa,  from  which 
it  has  been  reared  by  Mr.  Angus.  The  thin,  delicate  cocoon  is 
long  and  slender,  enlarging  slightly  towards  the  anterior  end. 

The  genus  Mellinus  (belonging  to  the  third  subfamily,  Mel- 
linince,)  is  known  by  its  broad  front,  and  slender  antennae, 
and  its  pedunculate  abdomen,  while  in  Alyson,  a  slender- 
bodied  genus,  it  is  sessile.  Mellinus  bimaculatus  Say  has  a 
black  head,  with  pale  tipped  antennae,  and  two  ovate  yellow 
spots  on  the  abdomen.  Atyson  oppositus  is  black,  with  two 


NYSSONID^.  163 

yellow  spots  on  the  abdomen,  which  has  the  basal  ring  yel- 
lowish red  in  the  female.  * 

The  fourth  subfamily  is  the  Nyssonince,  so  named  from  Nys- 
son,  a  typical  genus. 

The  genus  Gorytes  is  truly  a  mimetic  form,  closely  simulat- 
ing the  genus  Odynerus,  one  of  the  Vesparice.  The  front  of 
the  head  is  narrow,  while  the  clypeus  is  larger  than  usual.  The 
species  are  numerous,  occurring  late  in  the  summer  on  the 
flowers  of  Spiraea.  Gorytes  flavicornis  Harris  is  polished  russet 
brown,  with  narrow  yellow  rings  on  the  abdomen,  the  propo- 
deum  is  smooth  and  polished,  and  the  basal  ring  of  the  abdomen 
is  black.  A  species  has  been  observed  in  Europe  protruding 
her  sting  into  the  frothy  secretion  of  Tettigoniaa  living  on 
grass,  and  carrying  off  the  insect  to  provision  its  nest  with. 

Oxybelus  is  a  short,  stout,  black  genus,  with  whitish  abdomi- 
nal spots,  and  stout  spines  on  the  thorax,  while  the  sessile 
abdomen  is  distinctly  conical.  "Its  prey  consists  of  Diptera, 
which  it  has  a  peculiar  mode  of  carrying  by  the  hind,  legs  the 
while  it  either  opens  the  aperture  of  its  burrow  or  else  forms  a 
new  one  with  its  anterior  pair.  Its  flight  is  low,  and  in  skips  ; 
it  is  very  active."  (West wood.) 

Oxybelus  emarginafus  Say  has  two  oval  membranous  appen- 
dages to  the  metathorax,  and  is  a  common  black  species  found 
abundantly  on  the  flowers  of  the  Virginia  Creeper. 

In  Nysson  the  body  is  a  little  longer,  narrow  compared  with 
that  of  Oxybelus,  while  the  terminal  joint  of  the  antennae  is 
thickened,  flattened,  and  excavated  beneath.  Nysson  lateralis 
Say  is  dull  black,  with  six  light  spots  on  the  abdomen. 

The  species  of  Stizus  are  of  large  size  and  easily  recognized 
by  their  hirsute  body,  stout  legs,  triangular  silvery  clypeus, 
and  the  high  transverse  vertex  of  the  head.  The  propodeum 
has  a  faintly  marked  triangular  enclosure.  The  species  are 
very  rapacious,  paralyzing  grasshoppers  and  other  large  insects 
with  their  formidable  sting,  and  carrying  them  off  to  provision 
their  nests.  Professor  S.  Tenney  has  sent  us  a  specimen  of 
the  Dog-day  Cicada  (C.  canicularis)  which  Stizus  speciosus  had 
thus  stung.  Mr.  Atkinson  has  observed  the  same  fact,  and  has 
found  the  deep  burrows  of  this  species,  the  hole  being  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  He  has  observed  it  feeding  on 
sap  running  from  a  tree. 


164  HYMENOPTERA. 

The  species  of  Larra  are  smaller,  and  differ  from  those  of 
Stizus  in  the  long,  narrow,  very  prominent  labrum,  the  shorter 
clypeus,  broader  front  and  longer  abdomen,  the  tip  of  which  is 
without  the  broad  subtriangular  area  which  is  present  in  Stizus 
and  the  other  genera  of  this  family.  Larra  unicincta  Say  is  black- 
ish, with  a  single  reddish  band  on  the  second  abdominal  ring. 

BEMBECID^E  Latreille.  We  have  but  two  genera,  Bembex 
and  Monedula,  which  have  large  heads  and  flattened  bodies, 
bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  Syrphus  flies  from  their  similar 
coloration.  The  labrum  is  very  large  and  long,  triangular,  like 
a  beak.  The  species  are  very  active,  flying  rapidly  about 
flowers  with  a  loud  hum.  "The  female  Bembex  burrows  in 
sand  to  a  considerable  depth,  burying  various  species  of  Dip- 
tera  (Syrphidae,  Muscidae,  etc.),  and  de'positing  her  eggs  at  the 
same  time  in  company  with  them,  upon  which  the  larvae,  when 
hatched,  subsist.  When  a  sufficient  store  has  been  collected, 
the  parent  closes  the  mouth  of  the  cell  with  earth."  "  An 
anonymous  correspondent  in  the  Entomological  Magazine,  states 
that  B.  rostrata  constructs  its  nests  in  the  soft  light  sea-sands 
in  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  appears  to  catch  its  prey  (consisting 
of  such  flies  as  frequent  the  sand ;  amongst  others,  a  bottle- 
green  fly)  whilst  on  the  wing.  He  describes  the  mode  in 
which  the  female,  with  astonishing  swiftness,  scratches  its  hole 
with  its  forelegs  like  a  dog.  Bembex  tarsata,  according  to 
Latreille,  provisions  its  nests  with  Bombylii"  (Westwood.) 
Dufour  states  that  two  Diptera,  Panopea  carnea  and  Toxophora 
fasciata,  the  latter  allied  to  Systrophus,  are  parasites  on  Bem- 
bex. Mr.  F.  G.  Sanborn  has  noticed  the  exceedingly  swift 
flight  of  our  common  Bembex  fasciata  Fabr.  on  sandy  beaches 
where  it  is  found  most  abundantly. 

Monedula  differs  from  Bembex  in  its  slenderer  body,  more 
clavate  antennae,  and  its  shorter,  very  obtuse  labrum.  The 
body  is  smoother,  and  most  generally  more  highly  colored  and 
more  gaily  spotted  than  in  Bembex. 

Monedula  Carolina  Fabr.  and  M.  ^-fasciata  Say  are  common 
southwards  of  New  England. 

LARRID^E  Leach.  Mr.  F.  Smith  defines  this  family  as  having 
"mandibles  notched  exteriorly  near  the  base  ;  the  labrum  con- 


LARRLLME.  165 

cealed,  with  a  single  spine  at  the  apex  of  the  intermediate 
tibiae  ;  the  abdomen  is  ovoid-conical." 

The  genus  Astata  is  a  large  hairy  form,  with  long  antennae 
and  palpi  and  an  elongated  prothorax.  Its  spiny  legs  show  its 
near  relationship  to  the  Sphegidce.  Astata  unicolor  Say  repre- 
sents the  genus  in  this  country. 

Tacliytes  is  also  of  larger  size  than  the  following  genus. 
It  is  covered  with  long  dense  golden  short  hairs,  with  a  trap- 
ezoidal front.  Tacliytes  aurulentus  Fabr.  is  rare ;  it  frequents 
the  flowers  of  the  Asclepias,  as  we  have  found  pollen  masses  at- 
tached to  the  spines  of  its  legs.  We  figure 
(89)  a  tarsus  of  a  wasp  belonging  probably  to 
this  genus,  received  from  Mr.  V.  T.  Chambers, 
showing  the  pollen  masses  of  Asclepias  at- 
tached to  the  spines. 

The  genus  Larrada  "contains  those  species 
which  have  the  marginal  cell  truncated  at  the 
apex  and  appendiculated,  and  three  submarginal 
cells,  the  first  as  long  as  the  two   following ; 
....  the   metathorax    [propodeum]  truncated 
posteriorly,  elongate,  the  sides  being  generally 
parallel ;  the  mandibles  are  large  and  arcuate,          Fio-  89. 
with  a  tooth  on  their   exterior  towards   the   base  ;    abdomen 
ovate-conical,    acuminate   at  the   apex."     Larrada  argentata 
Beauv.  is  covered  with  silvery  pile.     It  is  a  slender  form,  with 
short,  nearly  unarmed  legs. 

A  Brazilian  species  of  Larrqda,  according  to  Mr.  H.  W. 
Bates,  builds  a  nest  composed  apparently  of  the  scrapings  of 
the  woolly  texture  of  plants  ;  it  is  attached  to  a  leaf,  having  a 
close  resemblance  to  a  piece  of  German  tinder,  or  a  piece  of 
sponge.  The  cocoons  were  dark  brown,  and  of  a  brittle  consist- 
ency. The  reporter,  Mr.  F.  Smith,  adds  :  "I  am  not  aware  of 
any  similar  habit  of  building  an  external  nest  having  been  pre- 
viously recorded;  our  British  species  of  the  closely  allied 
genus  Tachytes,  are  burrowers  in  the  ground,  particularly  in 
sandy  situations  ;  their  anterior  tarsi  are  strongly  ciliated,  the 
claws  bifid  and  admirably  adapted  for  burrowing.  On  examin- 
ing the  insect  which  constructed  the  nest  now  exhibited,  I  find 
the  legs  differently  armed ;  the  anterior  pair  are  not  ciliated, 


166  HYMENOPTERA. 

and  the  claws  are  simple  and  slender,  clearly  indicative  of  a 
peculiar  habit  differing  from  its  congeners,  and  how  admirably 
is  this  illustrated  in  the  nest  before  us?" 

SPHEGID^E  Latreille.  Smith  defines  this  family  as  having 
"the  posterior  margin  of  the  prothorax  not  prolonged  back- 
wards to  the  insertion  of  the  wings,  and  anteriorly  produced 
into  a  neck,  with  the  abdomen  petiolated."  The  very  fossorial 
legs  are  long  and  spiny,  the  posterior  pair  being  of  unusual 
length.  The  mandibles  are  large,  curved,  narrow,  and  acute, 
the  base  not  being  toothed  externally,  and  the  antennae  are 
long  and  filiform.  The  species  are  often  gaily  colored,  being 
ornamented  with  black  and  red,  brown  and  red,  or  are  entirely 
black,  or  blue.  They  love  the  sunshine,  are  very  active,  rest- 
less in  their  movements,  and  have  a  powerful  sting. 

The  sting  of  these  and  other  wasps  which  store  up  insects  for 
their  young,  penetrates  the  nervous  centres  and  paralyzes  the 
victim  without  depriving  it  of  life,  so  that  it  lives  many  days. 
A  store  of  living  food  is  thus  laid  up  for  the  young  wasp. 
After  being  stung  the  caterpillars  will  transform  into  chrys- 
alids,  though  too  weak  to  change  to  moths.  Mr.  Gueinzius, 
who  resides  in  South  Africa,  observes  that  "large  spiders 
and  caterpillars  became  immediately  motionless  on  being  stung, 
and  I  cannot  help  thinking  that  the  poisonous  acid  of  Hymen- 
optera  has  an  antiseptic  and  preserving  property;  for  cater- 
pillars and  locusts  retain  their  colors  weeks  after  being  stung, 
and  this,  too,  in  a  moist  situation  under  a  burning  sun." 

These  insects  either  make  their  nests  in  the  sand,  or,  like  the 
succeeding  family,  are  "mud-daubers,"  building  their  cells  of 
mud  and  plastering  them  on  walls,  etc. 

The  tropical  genus  Ampulex  is  more  closely  allied  to  the 
preceding  family  than  the  other  genera.  The  species  are 
brassy  green.  Dr.  G.  A.  Perkins  has  described  in  the  Ameri- 
can Naturalist,  vol.  1,  p.  293,  the  habits  of  a  wasp,  probably 
the  Ampulex  Sibirica  Fabr.,  which  inhabits  Sierra  Leone,  and 
oviposits  in  the  body  of  the  cockroach.  The  dead  bodies  of 
the  cockroaches  are  often  found  with  the  empty  cocoon  of  the 
wasp  occupying  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen. 

A  species  of  this  genus,  abundant  at  Zanzibar  at  certain  sea- 


SPHEGIDJE.  1(57 

sons,  was  frequently  observed  by  Mr.  C.  Cooke  to  attack  the 
cockroach.  The  cockroach,  as  if  cowed  at  its  presence,  im- 
mediately yields  without  a  struggle.  The  Ampulex  stings 
and  paralyses  its  victim,  and  then  flies  away  with  it. 

Chlorion  is  closely  allied,  containing  blue  and  metallic  green 
species,  often  with  golden  yellow  wings.  Chlorion  cyaneum 
Dahlb.,  a  blue  species,  is  found  in  the  Southern  States. 

The  genus  Priononyx  "differs  from  the  genus  Sphex  in  hav- 
ing the  claws  quadridentate  beneath  at  their  base ;  the  neura- 
tion  of  the  wings  and  the  form  of  the  abdomen  are  the  same  as 
in  Harpactopus"  which  is  found  only  in  the  tropics  and  Aus- 
tralia. Priononyx  Thomce  is  found  from  South  Carolina  to 
Brazil,  including  the  West  Indies. 

The  genus  /Sphex  is  quite  an  extensive  one.  The  head  is  as 
wide  as  the  thorax ;  the  antennae  are  filiform,  mandibles  large 
and  acute,  bidentate  within,  the  teeth  notched  at  their  base, 
forming  a  rudimentary  tooth,  the  apical  tooth  being  acute. 
The  thorax  is  elongate-ovate,  truncated  behind,  with  a  trans- 
verse collar  (prothorax).  The  fore  wings  have  one  marginal 
and  three  submarginal  cells  ;  the  marginal  cell  elongate,  rounded 
at  its  apex ;  the 
first  submarginal 
cell  as  long  as  the 
two  following.  The 
abdomen  is  pedun- 
culated,  conically 
ovate,  and  the  an- 
terior tarsi  are  cili- 
ated in  the  females. 

/Sphex  ichneumo- 
nea  Linn.  (Figure 
90)  is  a  large  rust- 
red  species,  with  a 
dense  golden  pu-  Fig.  90. 

bescence.  It  is  common  from  Massachusetts  southwards.  In 
the  last  week  of  July,  and  during  August  and  early  in  Sep- 
tember, we  noticed  nearly  a  dozen  of  these  wasps  busily  en- 
gaged in  digging  their  holes  in  a  gravelly  walk.  In  previous 
seasons  they  were  more  numerous,  burrowing  into  grassy 


1 G  8  H  YMENOPTERA . 

banks  near  the  walk.  The  holes  were  four  to  six  inches  deep. 
In  beginning  its  hole  the  wasp  dragged  away  with  its  teeth  a 
stone  one  half  as  large  as  itself  to  a  distance  of  eight  inches 
from  the  hole,  while  it  pushed  away  others  with  its  head.  In 
beginning  its  burrow  it  used  its  large  and  powerful  jaws  almost 
entirely,  digging  to  the  depth  of  an  inch  in  five  minutes,  com- 
pleting its  hole  in  about  half  an  hour.  After  having  inserted 
its  head  into  the  hole,  where  it  loosened  the  earth  with  its 
jaws  and  threw  it  out  of  the  hole  with  its  jaws  and  fore 
legs,  it  would  retreat  backwards  and  push  the  dirt  still 
farther  back  from  the  mouth  of  the  cell  with  its  hind  legs.  In 
cases  where  the  farther  progress  of  the  work  was  stopped  by  a 
stone  too  large  for  the  wasp  to  remove  or  dig  around,  it  would 
abandon  it  and  begin  a  new  hole.  Just  as  soon  as  it  reached 
the  required  depth  the  wasp  flew  a  few  feet  to  the  adjoining 
bank  and  falling  upon  an  Orchelimum  vulgare  or  O.  gracile, 
stung  and  paralyzed  it  instantly,  bore  it  to  its  nest,  and  was  out 
of  sight  for  a  moment,  and  while  in  the  bottom  of  its  hole 
must  have  deposited  its  egg  in  its  victim.  Reappearing  it  be- 
gan to  draw  the  sand  back  into  the  hole,  scratching  it  in  quite 
briskly  by  means  of  its  spiny  fore  tarsi,  while  standing  on  its 
two  hind  pairs  of  legs.  It  thus  threw  in  half  an  inch  of  dirt 
upon  the  grasshopper  and  then  flew  off.  In  this  wray  one  Sphex 
will  make  two  or  three  such  holes  in  an  afternoon.  The  walk 
was  hard  and  composed  of  a  coarse  sea-gravel,  and  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  wasp  worked  her  way  in  with  tooth  and  nail  was 
marvellous. 

Sphex  tibialis  St.  Fargeau  is  a  black,  stout,  thick  insect. 
Mr.  J.  Angus  has  reared  this  species,  sending  me  the  larvae  in 
a  cavity  previously  tunnelled  by  Xylocopa  Virginica  in  a 
pine  board.  The  hole  was  six  inches  long,  and  the  oval  cylin- 
drical cocoons  were  packed  loosely,  either  side  by  side,  where 
there  was  room,  or  one  a  little  in  advance  of  the  other.  The 
interstices  between  them  were  filled  with  bits  of  rope,  which 
had  perhaps  been  bitten  up  into  pieces  b}^  the  wasp  itself ;  while 
the  end  of  the  cell  was  filled  for  a  distance  of  two  inches  with  a 
coarse  sedge  arranged  in  layers,  as  if  rammed  in  like  gun- wad- 
ding. The  cocoons  are  eighty  to  ninety  hundredths  of  an  inch 
long,  oval  lanceolate,  somewhat  like  those  of  Pompilus.  They 


SPHEGIM;.  .       1C9 

consist  of  two  layers,  the  outer  ver}T  thin,  the  inner  tough, 
parchment-like.  The  larvae  hybernate  and  turn  to  pupae  in 
the  spring,  appearing  in  the  summer  and  also  in  the  autumn. 

The  larva  is  cylindrical,  with  the  pleural  ridge  prominent, 
and  with  no  traces  of  feet ;  the  head,  which  is  small  and  not 
prominent,  and  rather  narrow  compared  with  that  of  Pelopseus, 
is  bent  inwards  on  the  breast  so  that  the  mouth  reaches  to  the 
sternum  of  the  fourth  abdominal  ring.  The  posterior  half  of 
each  ring  is  much  thickened,  giving  a  crenulated  outline  to  the 
tergum.  The  abdominal  tip  is  obtuse. 

Spliex  Lanierii  Guerin,  according  to  Smith  (Proceedings 
of  the  Entomological  Society  of  London,  Feb.  7,  1859),  con- 
structs its  nest  of  a  cottony  substance,  filling  a  tunnel  formed 
by  a  large  curved  leaf.  The  species  of  the  genus  are  sup- 
posed to  burrow  in  the  ground,  and  the  two  cases  above 
cited  show  an  interesting  divergence  from  this  habit.  Mr. 
Smith  adds,  that  in  "the  Sphex  which  constructs  the  nest  in 
the  rolled  leaf,  the  anterior  tarsi  are  found  to  be  very  slightly 
ciliated,  and  the  tibiae  almost  destitute  of  spines,  thus  affording 
another  instance  proving  that  difference  of  structure  is  indica- 
tive of  difference  of  habit." 

The  genus  Pelopceus  is  of  a  slighter  form  than  in  Sphex,  the 
body  being  longer  and  slenderer ;  the  clypeus  is  as  broad  as 
long,  triangular  above,  in  front  convex,  or  produced  and  end- 
ing in  two  teeth.  The  outer  costal  eell  is  lanceolate  oval,  the 
second  subcostal  cell  subtrapezoidal,  being  widest  above  ;  it  is 
also  somewhat  longer  than  broad.  The  first  median  cell  is  very 
long  and  narrow,  much  more  so  than  usual.  The  pedicel  of 
the  abdomen  is  long,  the  first  joint  in  the  male  being  often  as 
long  as  the  remainder  of  the  abdomen. 

The  larva  of  P.  cceruleusl^mn.  is  much  like  that  of  Sphex, 
having  a  cylindrical  body  with  the  rings  thickened  posteriorly. 
It  differs  from  that  of  Pompilus  in  its  longer  and  narrower  head, 
the  short  broadly  trapezoidal  clypeus,  and  the  distinctly  marked 
exserted  labrum.  The  mandibles  are  long  and  tridentate. 

The  pupa  (of  P.  flavipes)  differs  from  that  of  the  Ve  spar  ice 
in  having  the  head  more  raised  from  the  breast ;  the  palpi  are 
not  parltially  concealed,  as  they  may  be  easily  seen  for  their 
whole  length.  The  long  curved  mandibles  cover  the  base  of  the 


170  HYMENOPTERA. 

maxillae  and  lingua,  and  the  antennae  reach  to  the  posterior  coxae. 
The  maxillae  are  slender,  not  reaching  to  the  tip  of  the  labium. 

The  female  usually  provisions  her  cells  (Plate  5,  Fig.  14)  with 
spiders.  The  cells  are  constructed  of  layers  of  mud  of  unequal 
length,  and  formed  of  little  pellets  placed  in  two  rows,  and  di- 
verging from  the  middle.  They  are  a  little  over  an  inch  long, 
and  from  a  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide,  and  are  some- 
what three-sided,  the  inner  side  next  the  object,  either  stone- 
walls or  rafters,  to  which  it  is  attached,  being  flat.  As  the 
earthen  cells  sufficiently,  protect  the  delicate  larvae  within,  the 
cocoons  are  very  thin,  and  brown  in  color. 

The  cells  of  .Pelopceus  flavipes  from  Brownville,  Texas,  col- 
lected by  an  United  States  officer  and  presented  to  the  Boston 
Society  of  Natural  History,  contained  both  spiders  and  numer- 
ous pupae  of  a  fly,  Sarcophaga  nudipennis  Loew  (MS)  which  is 
somewhat  allied  to  Tachina.  These  last  hatched  out  in  mid- 
summer a  few  days  before  the  specimens  of  Pelopaeus.  It  is 
most  probable  that  they  were  parasitic  on  the  latter.  These 
specimens  of  P.  flavipes  were  more  highly  ornamented  with  yel- 
low .than  in  those  found  northwards  in  the  Atlantic  States, 
the  metathorax  being  crossed  by  a  broad  yellow  band. 

The  genus  Ammophila  is  a  long  slender  form,  with  a  petio- 
late  abdomen,  the  tip  of  which  is  often  red.  The  petiole  of  the 
abdomen  is  two-jointed,  and  very  long  and  slender,  being 
longer  than  the  fusiform  part.  In  the  males  the  petiole  is  in 
some  species  much  shorter.  The  wings  are  small,  with  the  apex 
more  obtuse  than  usual ;  the  second  subcostal  cell  is  pentag- 
onal, and  the  third  is  broadly  triangular. 

Westwood  states  that  "the  species  inhabit  sandy  districts, 
in  which  A.  sabulosa  forms  its  burrow,  using  its  jaws  in  bur- 
rowing;  and  when  they  are  loaded,  it  ascends  backwards  to 
the  mouth,  turns  quickly  around,  flies  to  about  a  foot's  distance, 
gives  a  sudden  turn,  throwing  the  sand  in  a  complete  shower 
to  about  six  inches'  distance,  and  again  alights  at  the  mouth 
of  its  burrow." 

"Latreille  states  that  this  species  provisions  its  cells  with 
caterpillars,  but  Mr.  Shuckard  states  that  he  has  observed  the 
female  dragging  a  very  large  inflated  spider  up  the  nearly  per- 
pendicular side  of  a  sand-bank,  at  least  twenty  feet  high,  and 


POMPILIDJE. 


171 


that  whilst  burrowing  it  makes  a  loud  whirring  buzz  ;  and,  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  London,  he 
states  that  he  has  detected  both  A.  sabulosa  and  A.  hirsuta 
dragging  along  large  spiders.  Mr.  Curtis  observed  it  bury 
the  caterpillars  of  a  Noctua  and  Geometra.  St.  Fargeau,  how- 
ever, states  that  A.  sabulosa  collects  caterpillars  of  large  size, 
especially  those  of  Noctuse,  with  a  surprising  perseverance, 
whereas  A.  arenaria,  forming  a  distinct  section  in  the  genus, 
collects  spiders."  (Westwood.) 

Ammophila  cementaria  Smith,  and  A.  urnaria  Klug,  are  the 
more  common  species  in  this  country ;;  they  are  red  and  white, 
while  A.  hictuosa  Smith  is  a  black,  shorter,  stouter,  more  hirsute 
species.  They  may  all  be  seen  flying  about  hot  sandy  places, 
and  alighting  near  wells  and  standing  water  to  drink. 

POMPILID^E  Leach.  In  this  family  the  body  is  oblong,  the 
sides  often  compressed,  and  the  head  shorter,  when  seen  from 
above,  being  more  trans- 
versely ovate  than  in 
the-  preceding  family. 
The  antennae  are  long, 
not  geniculate,  and  in 
the  males  are  stouter 
and  with  shorter  joints 
than  in  the  females. 
The  eyes  are  narrow 
oval,  and  the  maxillary 
palpi  are  six,  and  the 
labial  palpi  four-jointed. 
The  prothorax  is  ex- 
tended on  the  sides  back 
to  the  base  of  the  wings,  Fis-  91< 

which  latter  are  large  and  broad,  the  fore  pair  having  three 
subcostal  cells.  The  legs  are  very  long  and  slender,  with  thick 
slender  spines.  The  Pompilidce,  of  which  about  seven  hun- 
dred species  are  known,  have  a  wide  geographical  range,  from 
the  temperate  zone  to  the  tropics.  Like  the  Sphegidce,  they 
oviposit  in  the  body  of  other  insects,  storing  their  nests,  usually 
built  in  the  sand,  with  spiders  and  caterpillars. 

The  head  of  Pompilus  (Fig.  91)  is  a  little  longer,  seen  from 


172 


HYMENOPTERA. 


above,  than  in  the  other  genera ;  the  front  of  the  head  is  about 

a  third  longer  than  broad.  The  antennae  are  long  and  fili- 
form and  sometimes  crenulate,  as  in  Figure  91  a,  in  the 
males ;  the  mandibles  are  stout,  broad,  sabre-shaped, 
being  much  curved,  with  low  flattened  teeth,  and  the 
maxillary  palpi  are  longer  than  the  labial  palpi.  The 
wings  are  rather  broad,  with  the  three  subcostal  cells 
lying  in  a  straight  row.  The  abdomen  is  slightly  com- 
pressed, and  equals  in  length  the  remainder  of  the 
body.  The  sting  is  very  large  and  formidable,  and  ex- 
cessively painful,  benumbing  the  parts  it  enters.  They 

Fig.  91  a.  are  exceedingly  active,  running  and  flying  over  sandy 

places  like  winged  spiders. 

There  are  about  five  hundred  species  of  this  genus  described. 

They   are  usually  shining  black  or  deep  bluish  black,  with 


Fig.  92. 

smoky  or  reddish  wings,  and  sometimes  a  reddish  abdominal 
band.  This  genus  is  interesting,  as  affording  in  its  form  a 
mean  between  the  globular  thorax  and  short  body  of  the 
Apia  rice  and  the  elongated  body  of  the  Ichneumon  idee. 

The  Pompilus  formosus  Say  (Fig.  92),  called  in  Texas  the 
Tarantula-killer,  attacks  that  immense  spider  the  Myyale  Hentzii, 
and,  according  to  Dr.  G.  Lincecum  (American  Naturalist,  May, 


1 


1867),  paralyzes  it  with  its  formidable  sting,  and  inserting  an 

egg  in  its  body,  places  it  in  its  nest,  dug  to  the  depth  of  five 
inches.  There  is  but  a  single  brood, 
produced  in  June,  which  is  killed  off  by 
the.  frosts  of  November.  This  species 
feeds  in  summer  "upon  the  honey  and 
pollen  of  the  flowers  of  the  Elder,  and 
of  Vitis  ampelopsis,  the  Virginia  Creeper  ; 
but  its  favorite  nourishment  is  taken  from 
the  blossoms  of  Asdepias  quadrifolium" 

(Lincecum.)     P.  cylindricus  Cresson  (Fig.  93,  wing)  is  one  of 

our  smallest  species,  being 

from    three    to    five    lines 

long.      It    occurs    in    the 

South  and  West.    P.  arctus 

Cresson  (Fig.  94,  wing)  in- 
habits Colorado  Territory. 

P.  Marice  Cresson  (Fig.  95, 

?  enlarged)  is  a  beautiful 

and  rare  species  found  in 

Pennsylvania.     The  genus 

Priocnemis  is  characterized 

by  the  two   hind   pair   of 

tibise    being   serrated    ( 

Fig.  96,   a,  wing ;  6,  pos- 


Fig.  95. 


terior  leg  ;  c,  anterior  leg),  and  by  the  want  of  spines  on  the  an- 
terior legs.     P.  unifasciatus  Say  is  a  wide-spread  species  and 

readily  recognized  by  the  deep  black 
color  of  the  body,  the  yellow  an- 
tennae and  the  large  yellow  spot  at 
the  tip  of  each  anterior  wing. 

The  genus  Agenia  (Fig.  97,  a, 
wing ;  6,  posterior  leg)  differs  in 
having  smooth  legs.  A.  brevis  Cres- 
son (Fig.  98,  wing)  is  a  little  spe- 
A.  congruus  Cresson  (Fig.  99,  wing) 


\ 


Fig.  96. 

cies  found  in  Georgia, 
was  captured  in  West  Virginia  ;  and  A.  acceptus  Cresson  (Fig. 
100,  wing)  in  Georgia.  The  genus  Notocyphus  (Fig.  101, 
?,wing)  is  found  in  Brazil  and  Mexico.  Planiceps  (Fig.  102, 


174 


HYMENOPTERA. 


Fig.  101. 


wing)  contains  a  few  species,  of  which  P.  niger  Cresson,  an 
entirely  black  species,  is  found  in  Connecticut.  Aporus  (Fig. 
103,  wing)  contains  a  single  American 
species,  A.  fasdatus  Smith,  taken  in 
North  Carolina. 

From  Mr.  F.  G.  Sanborn  we  have  re- 
ceived the  larva  and  cocoon  of  Pompilus 
Fig.  97.  funereus  St.  Farg.,  a  small  black  spe- 

cies, which  builds  its  nest  in  fields.  The  larva  is  short  and 
broad,  with  the  lateral  region  rather  prominent,  and  the  tip  of 
the  abdomen  rather  acute.  It  differs 
from  Pelopaeus  in  its  stouter,  rather  flat- 
tened body,  and  thickened  segments, 
though  as  our  specimen  is  preserved  in 
alcohol  these  characters  may  have  be- 
come exaggerated.  It  more  nearly  re- 
sembles Pelopaeus  in  its  transverse 
clypeus,  thin  bilobate  labrum,  and  the 
stout  mandibles,  which  are,  however, 
much  stouter  than  in  Pelopaeus,  while 
the  whole  head  is  shorter,  broader,  and 
rounder.  It  is  probable  that  this  pecu- 
liar form  of  the  head  (which  as  in  Sphex 
is  bent  beneath  the  breast),  together  Fig.  103. 

with  the  broad  transverse  clypeus,  and  broad,  short,  bilobate, 
thin,  transparent  labrum,  and  especially  the  unidentate  short 
broad  mandibles  are  family  characters,  sep- 
arating the  larvae  of  this  group  from  those  of 
the  Sp hegidce  .  The  cocoon  is  ovate,  long, 
and  slender,  much  smaller  at  one  end  than 
the  other,  not  being  so  regularly  fusiform 
as  in  Sphex. 

Ceropales  differs  from  the  foregoing  gen- 
Fig.  100.  era  in  ^s  broad  head,  its  much  shorter  ab- 
domen ;  and  also  in  the  eyes  being  a  little  excavated,  in  the 
depressed  labium,  the  narrow  front,  which  dilates  above  and 
below  the  middle,  and  in  the  greatly  elongated  hind  legs,  gen- 
erally banded  with  red  or  whitish.  Ceropales  bipunctata  Say 
is  generally  distributed  throughout  the  United  States.  It 


8COLIADJE. 


175 


is  easily  recognized  by  the  black  body  and  legs,  and  red  pos- 
terior femora,  and  is  six  lines  long.  C.  Robinsonii  Cresson 
(Fig.  104,  <?)  is  an  elegant 
species  found  in  West 
Virginia.  An  allied  genus 
is  Mygnimia  (Fig.  105, 
wing)  containing  M.  Mex- 
icana  Cresson  and  M.  us- 
tulataDahlb.,  two  Mexican 
species. 

In  the  genus  Pepsis 
(Fig.  106,  wing)  the  max- 
illary and  labial  palpi  are 
of  equal  length.  The  spe- 
cies are  large,  some  of 
them  being  among  the  lar- 
gest of  Hymenoptera,  and 
are  generally  indigo-blue  in  color.  Pepsis  heros  Dahlbom  is 
found  in  Cuba ;  it  is  two  inches  long.  P.  cyanea  Linn., 

which  is  blackish-blue,  with 
blue  abdomen  and  wings, 
the  latter  reddish  at  the 
apex,  has  been  described  by 
Beauvois  from  the  United 
States,'  while  P.  elegans  St. 
Farg.  also  occurs  in  the 
Southern  States. 

P.    formosa    Say    affords 
another  example  of  a  species 
rig.  106.  common  to  both  sides  of  the 

Rocky  Mountains,  as  it  has  been  found  both  in  Texas  and  Cal- 
ifornia. It  is  black,  with  bluish  or  greenish  reflections,  with 
bright  fiery  red  wings,  and  is  thirteen  to  eighteen  lines  long. 

SCOLIAD^E  Leach.  This  family  forms  a  group  very  easily 
distinguished  from  the  Bembecidce  or  Chrysididce ,  as  well 
as  the Pompilidce,  by  the  broad  front, the  small  indented  eyes, 
and  the  great  sexual  differences  in  the  antennae,  those  of  the 
male  being  long  and  slowly  thickened  towards  the  tip,  while  in 


IK 

ML 

17i       //*/  HYMEX^PTERA. 

174     \1k 

the  female  they  are  short,  thick,  and  elbowed  on  the  second 
joint.  The  clypeus  is  large,  irregularly  quadrilateral,  becom- 
ing shorter  in  the  lower  genera,  and  the  labrum  is  small, 
scarcely  exserted,  while  the  mandibles  are,  in  the  female  es- 
pecially, large  and  broad.  The  prothorax  is  very  square  in 
front.  In  the  fore-wings  are  three  subcostal  spaces.  The 
abdomen  in  the  t}-pical  genus  (Scolia)  is  broad  and  flat,  longer 
than  the  rest  of  the  body.  The  abdomen  of  Mutilla  approaches 
that  of  the  Chrysididce  in  having  the  second  ring  much  en- 
larged over  the  others.  The  males  usually  have  the  anal 
stylets  very  prominent,  while  the  sting  of  the  female  is  very 
powerful.  The  body  and  legs  are  general^  very  hirsute,  and 
the  first  tarsal  joint  is  as  long  as  the  tibiae. 

The  genus  Sapyga  is  easily  recognized  by  its  smooth  slender 
body,  being  ornamented  with  yellow,  with  transverse  bands  on 
the  abdomen.  The  head  is  long,  very  convex  in  front,  and 
the  antennae  are  clavate ;  the  prothorax  is  very  broad,  giving 
an  oblong  appearance  to  the  thorax.  The  legs  are  slender  and 
smooth.  It  is  said  to  be  parasitic,  laying  its  eggs  in  the  cells 
of  Osmia.  Sapyga  Martinii  of  Smith  is  found  northward. 

The  species  of  Scolia  are  often  of  great  size,  being  black 
and  very  hirsute,  with  the  labium  composed  of  three  linear  di- 
visions ;  the  abdomen  alone  being  banded  or  spotted  with 
yellow  on  the  sides.  They  are  found  in  the  hottest  places 
about  strongly  scented  flowers.  In  Europe,  Scolia  bicincta 
u  makes  its  burrows  in  sand-banks,  to  the  depth  of  sixteen 
inches,  with  a  very  wide  mouth ; "  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
nest  is  stored  with  grasshoppers. 

Scolia  quadrimaculata  Fabr.  is  found  in  the  Middle  and 
Southern  States.  The  larva  of  Scolia  Jlavifrons  was  found  by 
Passerini  to  live  in  the  body  of  the  lamellicorn  beetle,  Oryctes 
nasicornis.  In  Madagascar,  Scolia  oryctophaga  lives  on 
Oryctes  simia,  according  to  Coquerel. 

Professor  Sumichrast  states  that  at  Tehuacan  (Department 
of  Puebla)  the  Scolia  Azteca  Sauss.  is  very  common ;  and  is 
particularly  abundant  in  the  leather  tanneries,  which  leads  him 
to  think  that  the  females  of  this  species  also  deposit  their  eggs 
under  the  epidermis  of  the  larva  which  abounds  in  the  tan. 

Tiphia  is  black  throughout  and  rather  hirsute.     The  antennae 


MUTILLARI^E.  177 

are  shorter  than  in  Scolia  or  Myzine  ;  the  clypeus  is  also  shorter, 
while  the  prothorax  is  longer.  In  the  fore-wings  the  outer  cos- 
tal cell  is  short,  broad,  angulated,  oval ;  and  of  the  two  sub- 
costal cells,  the  outer  one  is  broad  and  triangular,  twice  as  long 
as  broad,  while  the  first  median  cell  is  regularly  short  rhom- 
boidal,  much  more  so  than  in  the  other  genera. 

The  females,  according  to  Westwood,  "make  perpendicular 
burrows  in  sandy  situations,  for  the  reception  of  their  eggs ; 
but  the  precise  food  stored  up  for  the  larvae  has  not  been  ob- 
served." Tipliia  inornata  Say  is  a  common  species  with  us, 
and  flies  low  over  sandy  places  early  in  the  season. 

The  short  oval  head,  the  large  eyes,  short  meso-scutum, 
large  meso-scutellum,  and  the  flattened,  rather  smooth  body, 
characterize  the  genus  Myzine.  The  females  are  very  different 
from  the  males,  the  two  sexes  being  for  a  long  time  considered 
as  separate  genera.  The  female,  especially,  differs  in  the  great 
length  of  the  square  prothorax,  which  is  very  broad  and  convex 
in  front.  In  the  male  the  eyes  are  lunate,  while  in  the  female 
they  are  small,  entire,  and  remote.  In  its  general  form  the  fe- 
males much  resemble  Scolia,  while  the  males  are  long  and  nar- 
row, with  broad  yellow  bands,  especially  on  the  abdomen,  and  a 
large  exserted  sting-like  organ.  Myzine  sexcincta  Fabr.  is  seen 
from  New  England  southwards,  flying  low  over  hot  sandy  places. 
The  genus  Elis  is  closely  allied.  Sumichrast  (American  Nat- 
uralist, vol.  2),  surmises  that  Elis  costalis  St.  Farg.  lives  on 
certain  Scarabaeides,  which  undergo  their  metamorphosis  in  the 
formicary  of  QEcodoma  in  Mexico. 

MUTILLARI^:  Latreille.  This  interesting  family  is  character- 
ized by  the  females  alone  being  wingless,  though  Morawitz  says 
that  wingless  males  occur  in  two  species  ;  and  by  the  absence, 
generally,  of  the  three  ocelli.  In  Mutilla  and  Myrmosa  the 
thorax  is  still  high,  compressed,  and  oblong  cuboidal,  and  ex- 
cept in  the  closely  united  tergal  pieces  the  females  do  not  greatly 
recede  from  the  type  of  the  winged  males.  The  species  are 
very  equal  in  size,  are  black,  or  black  and  red,  and  either 
smooth  or  hirsute. 

The  antennae  are  inserted  low  down  on  the  front,  the  clypeus 
being  very  short  and  broadly  ovate  (especially  in  Myrmosa), 
12 


178  HYMENOPTERA. 

or  it  is  indented,  as  in  Mutilla.  The  tongue  is  shorter  than  usual. 
The  sides  of  the  thorax  contract  in  width,  both  before  and  be- 
hind. The  meso-scutum  is  squarer  than  usual,  while  the  meso- 
scutellum  is  much  narrower  and  longer,  and  the  propodeum  is 
squarely  truncated  behind,  thus  presenting  a  full  convex  surface. 
The  abdomen  is  not  much  longer  than  the  rest  of  the  body,  be- 
ing shorter  than  usual.  In  all  these  characters  this  family  shows 
its  affinities  to  the  Ants.  The  wings  are  very  dissimilar  in  the 
different  genera.  In  Myrmosa  the  neuration  closely  approaches 
that  of  Sapyga,  while  in  the  larger,  more  acute  primaries  of 
Mutilla,  and  especially  in  the  short  outer  costal  cell,  and  short 
open  pterostigma,  the  latter  genus  differs  from  the  others. 

The  male  of  Sderoderma  closely  mimics  the  Procto- 
trypidce,  the  veins  of  the  wings  being  absent,  while  the 
form  of  the  head  and  abdomen  also  reminds  us  of  some  genera 
in  that  family.  The  wingless  female  is  very  different,  having 
more  of  the  form  of  Mutilla,  with  a  large  oblong  head  and  long 
acutely  conical  abdomen.  The  species  are  minute  and  rarely 
met  with.  S.  contracta  "Westwood  is  found  in  "Carolina." 

In  the  female  Methoca  the  eyes  are  very  long,  and  the  seg- 
ments of  the  abdomen  are  widely  separated,  much  as  in  the 
ants.     Methoca  Canadensis  Smith  is  shin- 
ing black,  and  slightly  villose. 

The  species  of  Myrmosa  may  be  known 
by  the  very  short  clypeus,  the  broad  ver- 
tex, and  the  rings  of  the  abdomen  of  the 
male  being  unusually   contracted.     The 
Fig.  107.  abdomen    of  the    female   is    cylindrical, 

about  twice  as  long  as  broad,  and  thickest  on  the  second  ring. 
The  rings  are  densely  hirsute  on  the  hinder 
edge.  Myrmosa  unicolor  Say  (Figs.  107, 
male  ;  108,  female)  is  widely  distributed.  We 
have  taken  this  species  in  Maine,  while  sex- 
ually united,  early  in  June.  The  wingless 
female  is  like  an  ant,  and  is  pale  reddish  on 
the  thorax  and  basal  ring  of  the  abdomen,  Fig.  ios. 

and  the  antennae  and  feet  are  concolorous,  while  the  head  and 
remaining  abdominal  rings  are  much  darker.  It  is  .20  inch 
long.  The  male  is  .28  inch  long  and  entirely  black. 


FOKMICARLE.       £  ,179 

The  genus  Mutilla  is  a  very  extensive  one,  and  enjoys  a  wide 
geographical  range.  It  is  throughout  stouter  than  Myrmosa, 
the  head  is  more  cubical,  and  the  thorax  and  abdomen  is 
shorter,  the  tip  of  the  latter  being  somewhat  truncated. 

The  wingless  female  closely  resembles,  both  in  its  form  and 
motions,  a  worker  ant.  The  body  is  coarsely  granulated  and 
either  naked  or  densely  hirsute,  and  of  a  scarlet,  black,  or  pale 
red,  or  brown-black  color.  The  females  are  found  running  in 
hot  sandy  places,  and  hide  themselves  quickly  when  disturbed, 
while  the  males  frequent  flowers.  Mutilla 
occidentalis  is  a  large  species.  It  is  of  a 
beautiful  scarlet  color  and  is  armed  with  a 
very  powerful  sting.  According  to  Profes- 
sor A.  E.  Verrill  this  species  was  found  by 
him,  at  New  Haven,  to  construct  deep 
holes  in  a  hard  beaten  path,  storing  its  nest 
with  insects.  This  species  is  also  said  by 
Kirby  to  be  very  active,  "taking  flies  by  surprise."  (West- 
wood.)  Mr.  Verrill  noticed  that  this  insect  makes  a  slight 
creaking  noise.  The  larvae  of  M.  Europcea  are  said  to  live 
parasitically  in  Humble-bees'  nests.  Mutilla  ferrugata  Fabr. 
(Fig.  109)  is  found  frequently  in  New  England. 

FORMICARY  Latreille.  The  family  of  ants  would  seem 
naturally  to  belong  with  the  truly  fossorial  Hymenoptefa,  both 
from  their  habits  and  structure. 

Both  males  and  females  are  winged,  but  the  males  are  much 
smaller  than  the  females,  while  the  wingless  workers  are  smaller 
than  the  males.  In  these  wingless  forms  the  segments  of  the 
thorax  become  more  or  less  separated,  making  the  body  much 
longer  and  slenderer,  and  less  compact  than  in  the  winged  nor- 
mal sexual  forms,  the  prothorax  being  more  developed  than  in 
the  males  and  females.  The  workers  often  consist  of  two 
forms :  one  with  a  large  cubical  head,  or  worker  major,  some- 
times called  a  soldier/  and  the  usual  small-headed  form,  or 
worker  minor^ 

The  head  is  generally  triangular.  The  eyes  are  large  in  the 
males,  smaller  in  the  workers,  anc^  in  those  of  some  genera 
(Ponera,  Typhlopone,  etc.)  they  are  absent;  while  in  the 


180  HYMENOPTERA. 

workers  the  ocelli  are  often  wanting,  though  present  in  the 
winged  individuals  of  both  sexes.  The  anteunaa  are  long, 
slender  and  elbowed.  The  mandibles  are  stout,  and  toothed, 
though  in  those  species  that  do  not  themselves  labor,  but  en- 
slave the  workers  of  other  species,  they  are  unarmed  and 
slender.  The  maxillary  palpi  are  from  one  to  six-jointed,  and 
the  labial  palpi  two  to  four-jointed.  The  fore-wings  usually 
have  but  a  single  complete  subcostal  (cubital)  cell.  The  sting 
is  often  present,  showing  that  in  this  respect  as  well  as  their 
^fossorial  habits  the  ants  are  truly  aculeate  Hymenoptera.  The 
larva  is  short,  cylindrical,  with  the  end  of  the  body  obtuse. 
The  rings  of  the  body  are  moderately  convex.  The  head  is 
rather  small  and  bent  upon  the  breast.  The  larvae  are  fed  by 
the  workers  with  food  elaborated  in  their  stomachs. 

The  larvae  of  the  stingless  genera  usually  spin  a  delicate 
silken  cocoon,  while  those  of  the  aculeate  genera  do  not.  Both 
Latreille  and  Westwood,  however,  state  that  sometimes,  as  in 
Formica  fusca,  of  Europe,  the  pupae  are  naked,  and  at  other 
times  enclosed  in  a  cocoon. 

The  colonies  of  the  different  species  vary  greatly  in  size.  In 
the  nests  of  Formica  sanguinea  the  number  of  individuals  is  very 
great.  The  history  of  a  formicarium,  or  ant's  nest  is  as  follows  : 
The  workers  only  (but  sometimes  the  winged  ants)  hibernate, 
and  are  found  early  in  spring,  taking  care  of  the  eggs  and 
larvae  produced  by  the  autumnal  brood  of  females.  In  the 
course  of  the  summer  the  adult  forms  are  developed,  swarming 
on  a  hot  sultry  day.  The  little  yellow  ants,  abundant  in  paths 
and  about  houses  in  New  England,  generally  swarm  on  the  af- 
ternoon of  some  hot  day  in  the  first  week  of  September,  when 
the  air  is  filled  towards  sunset  with  myriads  of  them.  The 
females,  after  their  marriage  flight  in  the  air,  may  then  be  seen 
entering  the  ground  to  lay  their  eggs  for  new  colonies,  or,  as 
Westwood  states,  they  are  often  seized  by  the  workers  and 
retained  in  the  old  colonies.  Having  no  more  use  for  their 
wings  they  pluck  them  off,  and  may  be  seen  running  about 
wingless.  According  to  Gould,  an  early  English  observer, 
the  eggs  destined  to  hatch  the  future  females,  males  and 
workers,  are  deposited  at  three  different  periods. 

The  nests  of  some  species  of  Formica  are  six  feet  in  diameter 


FORMIC  ARI.E.  181 

and  contain  many  thousand  individuals.  Ants  also  build 
nests  of  clay  or  mud,  and  inhabit  hollow  trees.  They  enjoy 
feeding  upon  the  sweets  of  flowers  and  the  honey  of  the  Plant- 
lice,  which  they  domesticate  in  their  nests.  Several  species  of 
beetles,  including  some  of  the  Stapliylinidce ,  take  up  their 
abode  in  ants'  nests.  Ants  are  useful  as  scavengers,  feeding 
on  decaying  animal  matter.  A  good  method  of  obtaining  the 
skeletons  of  the  smaller  animals,  is  to  place  them  on  a  densely 
populated  ant-hill.  The  habits  of  the  ants,  their  economy  and 
slave-making  habits,  are  described  in  the  works  of  Huber,  La- 
treille,  and  Kirby  and  Spence. 

Upwards  of  a  thousand  species  of  ants  have  already  been 
described  ;  those  of  this  country  have  still  to  be  monographed. 

The  first  group  of  this  extensive  family  consists  of  Dorylus 
and  its  allies,  and  Formica  and  the  neighboring  genera,  all  of 
which  are  distinguished  by  having  only  the  first  abdominal  seg- 
ment contracted,  while  in  the  second  group  (Myrmicarice) ,  the 
two  basal  rings  are  contracted  into  knot-like  segments. 

The  genus  Dorylus  was,  by  Latreille,  Klug,  and  others,  in- 
cluded in  the  Mutillarice.  The  head  is  very  short,  the 
ocelli  are  large  and  globular.  The  thorax  and  abdomen  are 
elongated,  the  last  is  cylindrical,  with  a  small,  round,  basal 
joint.  The  legs  are  short,  with  broad  compressed  femora  and 
feather-like  tarsi.  In  the  wings  the  outer  subcostal  cells  are 
wanting.  The  females  are  not  yet  known.  Mr.  F.  Smith  says 
that  Dorylus  was  found  by  Hon.  W.  Elliot  to  live  in  the  man- 
ner of  ants,  under  the  stone  foundation  of  a  house  in  India. 
The  society  was  very  numerous.  'The  difference  in  size  of  the 
male  and  worker  is  very  remarkable.  The  males  are  of  large 
size  and  are  found  in  tropical  Asia  and  Africa. 

Typhlopone  is  an  allied  genus.  T.  pallipes  Haldeman  is 
found  in  Pennsylvania. 

To  the  genus  Anomma  belong  the  Driver-ants  of  Western 
Africa.  They  march  in  vast  armies,  driving  everything  before 
them,  so  formidable  are  they  from  their  numbers  and  bite, 
though  they  are  of  small  size.  They  cross  streams,  bridging 
them  by  their  interlocked  bodies.  Only  the  workers  are  known. 
Two  species  only,  A.  Burmeisteri  Shuckard,  and  A.  arcens 
Westwood,  are  described  from  near  Cape  Palmas,  West  Africa. 


182  HYMENOPTERA. 

The  genus  Ponera  is  found  distributed  throughout  the 
tropics.  The  females  and  workers  are  arrned  with  spines  ;  the 
abdomen  is  elongated,  the  segments  more  or  less  diminished 
in  size,  the  first  comparatively  large  and  often  cubical.  The 
legs  are  slender.  P.  ferruginea  Smith  is  a  Mexican  species. 

The  allied  genus  Odontomachus  springs  like  some  leaping 
spiders.  It  uses  for  this  purpose  its  unusually  long  mandibles, 
which  are  bent  at  right  angles.  0.  darus  Roger  lives  in  Texas. 

Formica  includes  the  typical  species  of  ants.  Over  two  hun- 
dred species  of  this  genus  have  been  already  described.  The 
body  is  unarmed.  The  abdomen  is  short,  oval  or  spherical, 
the  scale-like  first  segment  being  lenticular  in  form,  with  a 
sharp  upper  edge.  The  subcostal  cell  of  the  fore-wings  ends  in 
a  point.  Formica  sanguinea  Latr.  is  one  of  our  most  abundant 
species,  making  hillocks  of  sand  or  clay,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  ground.  From  the  formicary  walks,  and  underground 
galleries,  radiate  in  all  directions.  This  species  has  been  ob- 
served making  forays  upon  each  others  colonies.  We  have 
found  a  variety  of  this  species  in  Labrador,  where  it  is  com- 
mon. It  does  not  throw  up  hillocks,  but  tunnels  the  earth. 

This  species  has  been  observed  in  Europe  by  P.  Huber,  to 
go  on  slave  expeditions.  They  attack  a  "negro-colony"  be- 
longing to  a  smaller  black  species,  pillaging  the  nest,  and  carry- 
ing off  merely  the  larvae  and  pupae.  The  victors  educate  them 
in  their  own  nests,  and  on  arriving  at  maturity  the  negroes  take 
the  entire  care  of  the  colony.  Polyergus  rufescens  is  also  a  slave- 
making  ant,  and  "Latreille  very  justly  observes  that  it  is  physi- 
cally impossible  for  the  rufescent  ants  (Polyergus  rufescens), 
on  account  of  the  form  of  their  jaws,  and  the  accessory  parts  of 
their  mouth,  either  to  prepare  habitations  for  their  family, 
to  procure  food,  or  to  feed  them."  Formica  sanguinea  sallies 
forth  in  immensely  long  columns  to  attack  the  negro  ant.  Hu- 
ber states  that  only  five  or  six  of  these  forays  are  made  within 
a  period  of  a  month,  at  other  seasons  they  remain  at  peace. 
Huber  found  that  the  slave-making  Polyergus  rufescens  when 
left  to  themselves  perish  from  pure  laziness.  They  are  waited 
upon  and  fed  by  their  slaves,  and  when  they  are  taken  away,  their 
masters  perish  miserably.  Sometimes  they  are  known  to  labor, 
and  were  once  observed  to  carry  their  slaves  to  a  spot  chosen 


FOKMICARLE.  183 

for  a  nest.  The  F.  sanguinea  is  not  so  helpless,  "they  assist 
their  negroes  in  the  construction  of  their  nests,  they  collect  their 
sweet  fluid  from  the  Aphides ;  and 
one  of  then*  most  usual  occupations 
is  to  lie  in  wait  for  a  small  species 
of  ant  on  which  they  feed  ;  and  when 
their  nest  is  menaced  by  an  enemy 
they  show  their  value  for  these  faith- 
ful servants,  by  carrying  them  down 
into  the  lowest  apartments,  as  to  a 
place  of  the  greatest  security." 
(Kirby.)  Pupae  of  both  of  the  slave- 
making  species  were  placed  in  the 
same  formicary  by  Huber,  where  they  Fig.  no. 

were  reared  by  the  "negroes,"  and  on  arriving  at  maturity 
"lived  together  under  the  same  roof  in  the  most  perfect  amity," 
as  we  quote  from  Kirby.  Darwin  states  that  in  England,  F. 
sanguinea  does  not  enslave  other  species. 

In  this  country  Mr.  J.  A.  Allen  has 
described  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Essex  Institute,  vol.  5,  1866,  a  foray 
of  a  colony  of  F.  sanguinea  upon  a 
colony  of  a  black  species  of  Formica, 
for  the  purpose  of  making  slaves  of 
them. 

Formica  Pensylvanica,  our  largest 
species,  is  found  in  oaks  and  decay- 
Fig.  111.  ing  trees,  while  F.  herculanea  Latr. 
burrows  in  the  earth,  its  hole  opening  beneath  stones  and  sticks. 
Gould,  who  wrote  in  1747,  states  that  there  are  two  sizes  of 
workers  of  the  common  European  Formica  rufa,  and  flava; 
one  set  of  individuals  exceeding  the  other  by  about  one-third. 
Kirby  states  that  in  his  specimens  "the  large  workers  of  For- 
mica rufa  are  nearly  three  times,  and  of  F.  flava ,  twice  the 
size  of  the  small  ones."  Mr.  E.  Norton  describes  F.  fulvacea 
(Fig.  110,  worker  minor),  and  also  Tapinoma  tomentosa  (Fig. 
Ill,  worker  major  ;  antennae  broken  off),  from  Mexico. 

The  tropical  genus  Polyrliacliis  includes,  according  to  Smith, 
all   those   species  that  closely  resemble  Formica,  but  which 


184 


HYMENOPTERA. 


have  the  thorax  and  node  of  the  peduncle  armed  with  spines 
or  hooks.  They  construct  small  semicircular  nests,  of  a  kind 
of  net-work,  on  the  leaves  of  trees  and 
shrubs.  Their  communities  are  small,  sel- 
dom exceeding  twenty  individuals.  Mr. 
Norton  describes  P.  arboricola  (Fig.  112, 
worker  major)  from  Mexico.  An  allied 
genus  is  Ectatomma  (Fig.  113,  worker  major 
of  E.  ferruginea  Norton,  from  Mexico). 

Mr.  F.  Smith  has  described  a  new  genus, 
(Ecophylla,  which  is  allied  to  Formica. 
They  are  green  ants,  found  building  in  trees  Fig.  112. 

in  the  tropics  of  the  old  world.  The  nest  of  (E.  smaragdina 
Smith  is  "formed  by  drawing  together  a  number  of  green 
leaves,  which  they  unite  with  a  fine  web.  Some  nests  are  a 
foot  in  diameter.  They  swarm,  says  Mr.  Wallace,  in  hilly  for- 
ests in  New  Guinea.  Their  sting  is  not  very  severe.  This 
genus  forms  a  link  between  Formica  and  Myrmica ;  it 

agrees  with  the  former  in  hav- 
ing a  single  node  to  the  pe- 
duncle, and  with  the  latter  in 
Laving  the  ocelli  obsolete  in 
the  workers,  and  in  being  fur- 
nished with  a  sting." 

The  curious  Honey-ant  of 
Texas  and  Mexico,  Myrmeco- 
cystus  Mexicanus  West  wood, 
has  two  kinds  of  ' '  workers  of 
very  distinct  forms,  one  of  the 
usual  shape,"  according  to 
Smith,  "and  performing  the 
- 113<  active  duties  of  the  formica- 

rium  ;  the  other  and  larger  worker  is  inactive  and  does  not  quit 
the  nest,  its  sole  purpose,  apparently,  being  to  elaborate  a  kind 
of  honey,  which  they  are  said  to  discharge  into  prepared  recep- 
tacles, which  constitutes  the  food  of  the  entire  population  of 
the  community.  In  the  honey-secreting  workers  the  abdomen 
is  distended  into  a  large  globose  bladder-like  form.  From 
this  honey  an  agreeable  drink  is  made  by  the  Mexicans." 


FOKMICARLE.  185 

The  second  subfamily,  Myrmicarice,  includes  those  species 
in  which  the  two  first  abdominal  segments  are  contracted  and 
lenticular.  In  Myrmica  the  females  and  workers  are  armed 
with  spines,  and  the  ocelli  are  absent  in  the  workers.  The 
species  are  very  small,  and  mostly  bright  colored.  Myrmica 
molesta  Say  is  found  in  houses  all  over  the  world. 

Gr.  Lincecum  describes  the  habits  of  the  Agricultural  Ant  of 
Texas,  Myrmica  molefaciens.  It  lives  in  populous  communi- 
ties. "They  build  paved  cities,  construct  roads,  and  sustain 
a  large  military  force."  In  a  year  and  a  half  from  the  time 
the  colony  begins,  the  ants  previously  living  concealed  beneath 
the  surface,  appear  above  and  "clear  away  the  grass, .herbage, 
and  other  litter,  to  the  distance  of  three  or  four  feet  around  the 
entrance  to  their  city,  and  construct  a  pavement,  ....  con- 
sisting of  a  pretty  hard  crust  about  half  an  inch  thick,"  formed 
of  coarse  sand  and  grit.  These  pavements  would  be  inun- 
dated in  the  rainy  season,  hence,  "  at  least  six  months  pre- 
vious to  the  coming  of  the  rain,"  they  begin  to  build  mounds 
rising  a  foot  or  more  from  the  centre  of  the  pavement.  Within 
these  mounds'  are  neatly  constructed  cells  into  which  the 
"eggs,  young  ones,  and  their  stores  of  grain,  are  carried  in 
time  of  rainy  seasons."  No  green  herb  is  allowed  to  grow  on 
the  pavement  except  a  grain-bearing  grass,  Aristida  stricta. 
This  grain,  when  ripe,  is  harvested,  and  the  chaff  removed, 
while  the  clean  grain  is  carefully  stored  away  in  dry  cells. 
Lincecum  avers  that  the  ants  even  sow  this  grain.  They  also 
store  up  the  "grain  from  several  other  species  of  grass,  as 
well  as  seeds  from  many  kinds  of  herbaceous  plants." 

Pheidole  is  distinguished  by  having  workers  with  enormous 
heads.  P.  notabilis  Smith,  from  the  Island  of  Bachian,  Indian 
Archipelago,  is  noted  for  the  enormously  enlarged,  cubical 
head  of  the  worker  major,  which  is  at  least  six  times  the  size 
of  the  abdomen,  while  in  the  worker  minor,  the  head  is  of 
the  ordinary  size.  An  Indian  species,  P.  providens  "VYestwood, 
according  to  Col.  Sykes,  "collects  so  large  a  store  of  grass 
seeds  as  to  last  from  January  and  February,  the  time  of 
their  ripening,  till  October." 

The  genus  Atta  is  also  well-armed,  while  the  workers  have 
a  very  large,  deeply  incised  and  heart-shaped  head,  without 


186 


HTMENOPTEEA. 


ocelli,  and  the  second  abdominal  knot-like  ring  is  very  trans- 
verse.    A.   clypeata  Smith  is  a  Mexican  species. 

In  Etiton  the  man- 
dibles nearly  equal 
the  length  of  the  in- 
sect itself.  This  ge- 
nus is  the  most 
ferocious  of  all  the 
ants,  entering  the  nest 
of  species  of  Formica 
and  tearing  them, 
limb  from  limb,  and 
then  carrying  off  the 
remains  to  their  own 
houses. 

Eciton  Mexicana 
Roger  (Fig.  114, 
worker  major,  a,  front 
view  of  head,  show- 
Fig,  lu.  ing  the  immense 
sickle-like  mandibles,  and  only  the  two  basal  joints  of  the 
antennae ;  Fig.  115,  worker  minor,  with  a  front  view  of  the 
head,  showing  the  mandi- 
bles of  the  usual  size). 
This  species,  with  Eciton 
Sumiclirasti  Norton,  (Fig. 
116,  worker  minor)  has 
been  found  by  Professor 
Sumichrast  at  Cordova  and 
Orizaba,  Mexico. 

The  males  of  Eciton  are 
not    yet     known.      Smith 
supposes  that  Labidus    (a 
genus  allied  to  Dorylus)  is 
the  male  form,   and  Sumi- 
chrast thinks   this   conjec- 
ture is   "sustained  by  the  rig.  115. 
fact  that  it  is  in  the  season  when  the  sorties  of  the  Eciton 
are  the  more  frequent  that  the  Labidus  also  show  themselves." 


FORMIC  ARLE. 


187 


An  allied  genus  is  Pseudomyrma.  P.  bicolor  Guerin  (Fig. 
117)  is  found  in  Central  America.  P.flamdula  Smith,  found  in 
Central  and  South  America,  in  Mexico  lives,  according  to 
Sumichrast,  within  the  spines  which  arm  the 
stems  of  certain  species  of  Mimosa.  These 
spines,  fixed  in  pairs  upon  the  branches,  are 
pierced  near  the  end  by  a  hole  (Fig.  118 a), 
which  serves  for  the  entrance  and  exit  of  the 
ants. 

The  genus  (Ecodoma  differs  from  Atta  in 
having  the  thorax  armed  with  spines.  CE.  Fig.  lie. 
Mexicana  Smith  (Figs.  119,  female;  120,  worker  major)  is 
abundant  on  the  Gulf  Coast  of  Mexico.  In  many  places,  ac- 
cording to  Sumichrast,  the  natives  eat  the  females  after  hav- 
ing detached  the  thorax.  The  intelligence  of  these 
ants  is  wonderful.  They  are  seen  in  immense  num- 
bers transporting  leaves.  Sumichrast  states  that 
"the  ground  at  the  foot  of  the  tree,  where  a  troop  of 
these  'ameras,'  or  workers,  is  assembled  for  despoil- 
ing it  of  its  leaves,  is  ordinarily  strewn  with  frag- 
ments cut  off  with  the  greatest  precision.  And  if  the 
Fig,  117.  tree  is  not  t00  lofty,  one  can  satisfy  himself  that  a 
party  of  foragers,  which  have  climbed  the  tree,  occupies  itself 
wholly  in  the  labor  of  cutting  them  off,  while  at  the  foot  of 
the  tree  are  the  carriers  which  make  the  journeys  between  the 
tree  and  the  nest.  This  manage- 
ment, which  indicates  among  these  a 
insects  a  rare  degree  of  intelligence, 
is,  perhaps,  not  a  constant  and  in- 
variable practice,  but  it  is  an.  incon- 
testable fact,  and  one  which  can  be 
constantly  proved." 

"It  is  specially  in  the  argillaceous 
countries  that  the  QEcodomas  build 
their  enormous  formicaries,  so  that 
one  perceives  them  from  afar  by  the  Fig.  us. 

projection  which  they  form  above  the  level  of  the  soil,  as 
well  as  by  the  absence  of  vegetation  in  their  immediate 
neighborhood.  These  nests  occupy  a  surface  of  many  square 


188  HYMENOPTERA. 

metres,*  and  their  depth  varies  from  one  to  two  metres. 
Very  many  openings,  of  a  diameter  of  about  one  to  three  in- 
ches, are  contrived  from  the  exterior,  and  conduct  to  the  inner 
cavities  which  serve  as  storehouses  for  the  eggs  and  larvae. 
The  central  part  of  the  nest  forms  a  sort  of  funnel,  designed 
for  the  drainage  of  water,  from  which,  in  a  country  where 
the  periodical  rains  are  often  abundant,  they  could  hardly  es- 
cape without  be- 
ing entirely  sub- 
merged, if  they 
did  not  provide 
for  it  some  out- 
let. 

"The     system 
which   reigns    in 
Fig.  119.  the    interior    of 

these  formicaries  is  extreme.  The  collection  of  vegetable 
debris  brought  in  by  the  workers  is  at  times  considerable ; 
but  it  is  deposited  there  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  cause  any 
inconvenience  to  the  inhabitants,  nor  impede  their  circulation. 
It  is  mostly  leaves  which  are  brought  in  from  without,  and  it 
is  the  almost  exclusive  choice  of  this  kind  of  vegetation  which 
makes  the  (Ecodo^a  a  veritable  scourge  to  agriculture.  At 
each  step,  and  in  almost  every  place  in  the 
elevated  woods,  as  on  the  plains  ;  in  desert 
places  as  well  as  in  the  neighborhood  of 
habitations,  one  meets  numerous  columns 
of  these  insects,  occupied  with  an  admirable 
zeal  in  the  transportation  of  leaves.  It 
seems  even  that  the  great  law  of  the  divi- 
Fig.  120.  sion  of  labor  is  not  ignored  by  these  little 

creatures,  judging  from  the  observations  which  I  have  often 
had  occasion  to  make."     (Sumichrast.) 

"The  (E.  cephalotes"  says  H.  W.  Bates,  "from  its  immense 
numbers,  eternal  industry,  and  its  plundering  propensities,  be- 
comes one  of  the  most  important  animals  of  Brazil.  Its  immense 
hosts  are  unceasingly  occupied  in  defoliating  trees,  and  those 
most  relished  by  them  are  precisely  the  useful  kinds.  They 

*  A  metre  is  about  thirty-nine  (39.37)  inches. 


FORMICARY .  189 

have  regular  divisions  of  laborers,  numbers  mounting  the  trees 
and  cutting  off  the  leaves  in  irregularly  rounded  pieces  the  size 
of  a  shilling,  another  relay  carrying  them  off  as  they  fall." 
"The  heavily  laden  fellows,  as  they  came  trooping  in,  all  de- 
posited their  load  in  a  heap  close  to  the  mound.  About  the 
mound  itself  were  a  vast  number  of  workers  of  a  smaller  size. 
The  very  large-headed  ones  were  not  engaged  in  leaf-cutting, 
nor  seen  in  the  processions,  but  were  only  to  be  seen  on  dis- 
turbing the  nest."  Bates  also  says,  "I  found,  after  removing 
a  little  of  the  surface,  three  burrows,  each  about  an  inch  in 
diameter  ;  half  a  foot  downward,  all  three  united  in  one  tubular 
burrow  about  four  inches  in  diameter.  To  the  bottom  of  this  I 
could  not  reach  when  I  probed  with  a  stick  to  the  depth  of  four 
or  five  feet.  This  tube  was  perfectly  smooth  and  covered  with 
a  vast  number  of  workers  of  much  smaller  size  than  those  oc- 
cupied in  conveying  the  leaves  ;  they  were  unmixed  with  any 
of  a  larger  size.  Afterwards,  on  probing  lower  into  the  bur- 
row, up  came,  one  by  one,  several  gigantic  fellows,  out  of  all 
proportion,  larger  than  the  largest  of  those  outside,  and  which 
I  could  not  have  supposed  to  belong  to  the  same  species.  Be- 
sides the  greatly  enlarged  size  of  the  head,  etc.,  they  have  an 
ocellus  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead  ;  this  latter  feature,  added 
to  their  startling  appearance  from  the  cavernous  depths  of  the 
formicarium,  gave  them  quite  a  Cyclopean  character." 

Of  another  species,  the  (Ec.  sexdentata,  Mr.  Smith  quotes 
from  Rev.  Hamlet  Clark,  that  at  Constancia,  Brazil,  the  pro- 
prietor of  a  plantation  used  every  means  to  exterminate  it  and 
failed.  "  Sometimes  in  a  single  night  it  will  strip  an  orange  or 
lemon  tree  of  its  leaves  ;  a  ditch  of  water  around  his  garden, 
which  quite  keeps  out  all  other  ants,  is  of  no  use.  This  spe- 
cies carries  a  mine  under  its  bed  without  any  difficulty.  In- 
deed, I  have  been  assured  again  and  again,  by  sensible  men, 
that  it  has  undermined,  in  its  progress  through  the  country,  the 
great  river  Paraiba.  At  any  rate,  without  anything  like  a  nat- 
ural or  artificial  bridge,  it  appears  on  the  other  side  and  con- 
tinues its  course."  This  testimony  is  confirmed  by  Mr. 
Lincecum  (Proceedings  of  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences, 
Philadelphia,  1867,  p.  24)  in  an  interesting  account  of  the  (Ec. 
Texana,  which  he  has  observed  for  eighteen  years.  He  states 


190  HTMENOPTERA. 

that  they  often  carry  their  subterranean  roads  for  several  hun- 
dred yards  in  grassy  districts,  where  the  grass  would  prove  an 
impediment  to  their  progress.  On  one  occasion,  to  secure  ac- 
cess to  a  gentleman's  garden,  where  they  were  cutting  the 
vegetables  to  pieces,  they  tunnelled  beneath  a  creek,  which  was 
at  that  place  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  deep,  and  from  bank  to  bank 
about  thirty  feet.  He  also  observes  that  the  smaller  workers 
which  remain  around  the  nest  do  not  seem  to  join  in  cutting  or 
carrying  the  leaves,  but  are  occupied  with  bringing  out  the 
sand,  and  generally  work  in  a  lazy  way,  very  differently  from 
the  quick,  active  leaf-cutters.  Also,  that  the  pieces  of  leaves 
are  usually  dried  outside  before  being  carried  in,  and  that  if 
wet  by  a  s,udden  shower  are  left  to  decay  without.  He  also 
thinks  that  their  lives  are  dependent  upon  access  to 
water,  and  that  they  always  choose  places  where  it 
is  accessible  by  digging  wells.  In  one  case,  a  well 
was  dug  by  Mr.  Pearson  for  his  own  use,  and  water 
found  at  the  depth  of  thirty  feet.  The  ant- well 
which  he  followed  was  twelve  inches  in  diameter." 
Fig.  121.  (Norton,  American  Naturalist,  vol.  2.) 
The  genus  Cryptocerus  is  remarkable  for  its  flattened  head, 
with  the  sides  expanded  into  flattened  marginal  plates,  con- 
cealing, or  partly  hiding  the  eyes.  C.  multispinosus  Norton 
(Fig.  121)  is  the  most  common  species  about  Cordova,  Mexico, 
where  they  live,  according  to  Sumichrast,  within  the  trunks  of 
trees. 

CHKYSIDID^E  Latreille.  In  this  small  group  the  thirteen- 
jointed  antennae  are  elbowed,  the  eyes  are  oval  and  the  ocelli 
distinct.  The  maxillary  palpi  are  five,  and  the  labial  palpi 
three-jointed.  There  are  about  four  hundred  species  known. 

These  insects  are  very  different  from  the  ants  in  their  oblong 
compact  form,  their  nearly  sessile,  oblong  abdomen,  having  only 
three  to  five  rings  visible,  the  remaining  ones  being  drawn  with- 
in, forming  a  long,  large,  jointed  sting-like  ovipositor,  which 
can  be  thrust  out  like  a  telescope.  The  abdomen  beneath  is 
concave,  and  the  insect  can  roll  itself  into  a  ball  on  being  dis- 
turbed. They  are  green  or  black.  The  sting  has  no  poison- 
bag,  and  in  this  respect,  besides  more  fundamental  characters, 


191 

the  Chrysis  family  approaches  the  Ichneumons.  They  best 
merit  the  name  of  "Cuckoo-flies,"  as  they  fly  and  run  briskly 
in  hot  sunshine,  on  posts  and  trees,  darting  their  ovipositor  into 
holes  in  search  of  the  nests  of  other  Hymenoptera,  in  which  to 
lay  their  eggs.  Their  larvae  are  the  first  to  hatch  and  devour 
the  food  stored  up  by  other  fossorial  bees  and  wasps.  "St. 
Fargeau,  however,  who  has  more  carefully  examined  the  econ- 
omy of  these  insects,  states  that  the  eggs  of  the  Chrysis  do 
not  hatch  until  the  legitimate  inhabitant  has  attained  the  greater 
part  of  its  growth  as  a  larva,  when  the  larva  of  the  Chrysis 
fastens  on  its  back,  sucks  it,  and  in  a  very  short  time  attains 
its  full  size,  destroying  its  victim.  It  does  not  form  a  cocoon, 
but  remains  a  long  time  in  the  pupa  state."  (Westwood.) 

"  In  the  Entomological  Magazine  has  been  noticed  the  dis- 
covery of  Hedychrum  bidentulum,  which  appears  to  be  parasitic 
upon  Psen  caliginosus  ;  the  latter  insect  had  formed  its  cells  in 
the  straws  of  a  thatched  arbor,  as  many  as  ten  or  twelve  cells 
being  placed  in  some  of  the  straws.  Some  of  the  straws,  per- 
haps about  one  in  ten,  contained  one  or  rarely  two,  of  the 
Hedychrum,  placed  indiscriminately  amongst  the  others. 
Walkenaer,  in  his  Memoirs  upon  Halictus,  informs  us  that 
Hedychrum  lucidulum  waits  at  the  mouth  of  the  burrows  of 
these  bees,  in  order  to  deposit  its  eggs  therein  ;  and  that  when 
its  design  is  perceived  by  the  bees,  they  congregate  together 
and  drive  it  away.  St.  Fargeau  states  that  the  females  of 
Hedychrum  sometimes  deposit  their  eggs  in  galls,  while  H. 
regium  oviposits  in  the  nest  of  Megachile  muraria ;  and  he 
mentions  an  instance  in  which  the  bee,  returning  to  its  nearly 
finished  cell,  laden  with  pollen  paste,  found  the  Hedychrum 
in  its  nest,  which  it  attacked  with  its  jaws ;  the  parasite  im- 
mediately, however,  rolled  itself  into  a  ball,  so  that  the  Mega- 
chile  was  unable  to  hurt  it ;  it,  however,  bit  off  its  four  wings 
which  were  exposed,  rolled  it  to  the  ground  and  then  deposited 
its  load  in  the  cell  and  flew  away,  whereupon  the  Hedychrum, 
now  being  wingless,  had  the  persevering  instinct  to  crawl  up 
the  wall  to  the  nest,  and  there  quietly  deposit  its  egg,  which  it 
placed  between  the  pollen  paste  and  the  wall  of  the  cell,  which 
prevented  the  Megachile  from  seeing  it."  (Westwood.) 

In  Cleptes  the  underside  of  the  abdomen  is  not  hollowed  out ; 


192  HYMENOPTEKA. 

it  is  acutely  oval,  and  with  five  rings  in  the  male.  Cleptes 
semiaurata  Latr.  is  found  in  Central  Europe.  "We  have  no  na- 
tive species.  In  Clirysis  and  the  other  genera,  Stilbum,  Parno- 
pes,  and  Hedychrum,  the  abdomen  is  hollowed  beneath,  and 
the  tip  is  broad  and  square.  Clirysis  hilaris  Dahlb.  (Fig.  122) 
is  a  short,  thick,  bluish  green  species,  .32  inch  in  length.  It 
is  not  uncommon  in  New  England. 

In  Hedychrum  the  maxillary  palpi  and  ligula  are  rather  short, 
the  last  cordate  ;  the  mandibles  are  three-toothed  within.  The 
abdomen  is  broad  and  short,  almost  spherical,  the  second  seg- 
ment being  the  largest.  H.  dimidiatum  Say  is  found  in  the 
Middle  States. 

The  European  Stilbum  splendidum,  Fabr.  according  to  Du- 
four,  lives  in  the  cells  of  Pelopseus  spirifex.     It  makes  oblong 
cocoons  of  a  deep  brown,  with  rounded 
ends  ;  they  are  of  great  tenacity,  being 
mixed  with  a  gummy  matter. 

Mr.    Guenzius   states    that    in    Port 
Natal   "a   species  of  Stilbum   la}^s  its 
eggs  on  the  collected  caterpillars  stored 
Fig.  122.  up    by   Eumenes    tinctor,   which    con- 

structs a  nest  of  mud  and  attaches  it  to  reeds,  etc.,  not  in  a 
single,  but  a  large  mass,  in  wThich  cells  are  excavated,  similar 
to  the  nest  of  Chalicodoma  micraria  ?  *  First,  it  uses  its  ovi- 
positor as  a  gimlet,  and  when  its  point  has  a  little  penetrated, 
then  as  a  saw  or  rasp  ;  it  likewise  feels  with  its  ovipositor,  and, 
finding  an  unfinished  or  an  empty  cell  it  withdraws  it  immedi- 
ately, without  laying  an  egg." 

ICHNEUMONID^E  Latrcille.  The  Ichneumon-flies  are  readily 
recognized  by  the  usually  long  and  slender  body,  the  long  ex- 
serted  ovipositor,  which  is  often  very  long,  and  protected  by  a 
sheath  formed  of  four  stylets  of  the  same  length  as  the  true 
ovipositor.  The  head  is  usually  rather  square,  with  long, 
slender,  many-jointed  antennae  which  are  not  usually  elbowed. 
The  maxillary  palpi  are  five  to  six-jointed,  while  the  labial 

*  A  query  ( ?)  after  the  name  of  a  species  indicates  a  doubt  whether  the  insect 
really  belongs  to  that  species ;  so  with  a  ?  after  the  name  of  a  genus.  A  ?  before 
both  the  genus  and  species  expresses  a  doubt  whether  that  be  the  insect  at  all. 


ICHNEUMONID^.  193 

palpi  are  three  to  four-jointed.  The  abdomen  is  inserted  im- 
mediately over  the  hind  pair  of  trochanters,  and  usually  consists 
of  seven  visible  segments.  The  fore- wings  have  one  to  three 
subcostal  (cubital)  cells. 

The  larva  is  a  soft,  fleshy,  cylindrical,  footless  grub,  the 
rings  of  the  body  being  moderately  convex,  and  the  head  rather 
smaller  than  in  the  foregoing  families.  The  eggs  are  laid  by 
the  parent  either  upon  the  outside  or  within  the  caterpillar,  or 
other  larva,  on  which  its  young  is  to  feed.  When  hatched  it 
devours  the  fatty  portions  of  its  victim  which  dies  gradually  of 
exhaustion.  The  ovipositor  of  some  species  is  very  long,  and 
is  fitted  for  boring  through  very  dense  substances ;  thus  Mr. 
Bond,  of  England,  observes  that  Rliyssa,  persuasoria  actually 
bores  through  solid  wood  to  deposit  its  eggs  in  the  larvae  of 
Sir  ex ;  the  ovipositor  is  worked  into  the  wood  like  an  awl. 
When  about  to  enter  the  pupa  state  the  larva  spins  a  cocoon, 
consisting  in  the  larger  species  of  an  inner  dense  case,  and  a 
looser,  thinner,  outer  covering,  and  escapes  as  a  fly  through 
the  skin  of  the  caterpillar.  The  cocoons  of  the  smaller  genera, 
such  as  Cryptus  and  Microgaster,  may  be  found  packed  closely 
in  considerable  numbers,  side  by  side,  or  sometimes  placed  up- 
right within  the  body  of  caterpillars. 

The  Ichneumon-flies  are  thus  very  serviceable  to  the  agricul- 
turist, as  they  must  annually  destroy  immense  numbers  of  cat- 
erpillars. In  Europe  over  2,000  species  of  this  family  have 
been  described,  and  it  is  probable  that  we  have  an  equal  num- 
ber of  species  in  America ;  Gerstaecker  estimates  that  there 
are  4,000  to  5,000  known  species. 

The  Ichneumons  also  prey  on  certain  Coleoptera  and  Hymen- 
optera,  and  even  on  larvae  of  Phryganidce,  which  live  in  the 
water.  In  Europe,  Pimpla  Fairmairii  is  parasitic  on  a  spider, 
Clubione  holosericea,  according  to  Laboulbene.  Boheman 
states  that  P.  ovivora  lives  on  a  spider,  and  species  of  Pimpla 
and  Hemiteles  were  also  found  in  a  nest  of  spiders,  according  to 
Gravenhorst.  Bouche  says  that  Pimpla  rufata  devours,  during 
winter  and  spring,  the  eggs  of  Aranea  diadema,  and  Ratzburg 
gives  a  list  of  fourteen  species  of  Ichneumons  parasitic  on 
spiders,  belonging  to  the  genera  Pimpla,  Pezomachus,  Ptero- 
malus,  Cryptus,  Hemiteles,  Microgaster,  and  Mesochorus.  Mr. 
13 


194  HYMENOPTERA. 

Emerton  informs  me  that  he  has  reared  a  Pezomachus  from 
the  egg-sac  of  Attus,  whose  eggs  it  undoubtedly  devours.  They 
are  not  even  free  from  attacks  of  members  of  their  own  family, 
as  some  smaller  species  are  well  known  to  prey  on  the  larger. 
Being  cut  off  from  communication  with  the  external  world, 
the  Ichneumon  larva  breathes  by  means  of  the  two  principal 

tracheae,  which 
terminate  in  the 
end  of  the  body, 
and  are  placed, 
according  to  Ger- 
staecker,  in  com- 
munication with  a 
stigma  of  its  host. 
From  the  com- 
plete assimilation 
of  the  liquid  food, 
Fig.  123.  the  intestine  ends 

in  a  cul  de  sac,  as  we  have  seen  it  in  the  larvae  of  Humble-bees 
and  of  Sty  lops,  and  as  probably  occurs  in  most  other  larvae 
of  similar  habits,  such  as  young  gall-flies,  weevils,  etc.,  which 
live  in  cells  and  do  not  eat  solid  food. 

The  first  subfamily,  the  Evaniidce,  are  insects  of  singular  and 
very  diverse  form,  in  which  the  antennae  are  either  straight  or 
elbowed,  and  thirteen  to  fourteen- 
jointed ;  the  fore-wings  have  one  to 
three  subcostal  (cubital)  cells,  and  the 
hind  wings  are  almost  without  veins. 
In  Evania  and  Fcenus  the  abdomen 
has  a  very  slender  pedicel,  originating 
next  the  base  of  the  metanotum.  The 
former  genus  has  a  remarkably  short 
triangular  compressed  abdomen  in  the 
female,  but  ovate  in  the  male.  The  ri°- 

species  are  parasitic  on  Blatta  and  allies.  Evania  Icevigata 
Olivier  (Fig.  123,  $  and  pupa)  is  a  black  species,  and  is  para- 
sitic on  the  cockroach,  Periplaneta,  from  the  eggs  of  which  we 
have  taken  the  pupa  and  adult.  The  eggs  of  the  cockroach  are 
just  large  enough  to  accommodate  a  single  Evania.  This  species 


ICHNEUMONIDJE . 


195 


is  widely  distributed,  and  in  Cuba,  according  to  Cresson,  it 
devours  the  eggs  of  Periplaneta  Americana. 

The  genus  Autocodes  of  Cresson,  "  forms  a  very  close  con- 
necting-link between  the  minute  Ichneumons  and  the  Evaniae." 
A.  nigriventris  Cresson  (Fig.  124,  a;  &,  metathorax;  c,  inser- 
tion of  the  abdomen)  lives  in  Cuba. 

Fcenus  is  quite  a  different  genus,  as  the  abdomen  is  very  long 
and  slender.  Foenus  jaculator  Linn,  is  known  in  Europe  to 

frequent    the   nests      ^ ^          ^  ,,- 

of  Crabronidce, 
ovipositing  in  the 
larvae. 

Pelecinus  is  a  fa- 
miliar insect,  the  im- 
mensely elongated, 
linear  abdomen  of 
the  female  easily  Fig.  125. 

distinguishing  it.  The  male  is  extremely  rare ;  its  abdomen 
is  short  and  clavate.  It  strikingly  resembles  Trypoxylon, 
though  the  abdomen  is  considerably  larger.  Pelecinus  poly- 
cerator  Drury  (Fig.  125,  $  and  ?)  is  widely  distributed 
throughout  this  country. 

The  genuine  Ichneumonidce  have  long,  straight,  multiarticu- 
late  antennas.  The  first  subcostal  (cubital)  cell  of  the  fore- 

wings  is   united   with   the   median 
)  cell    lying    next  to   it,   while   the 
secoriti    is    very   small    or    wholly 
wanting.     There  are  two  recurrent 
veins.     Mr.  Cresson  has  described 
the  genus   Eiplwsoma    (Fig.   126), 
Fig.  126.  which  he  states  may  be  known  by 

the  long,  slender,  compressed  abdomen,  and  the  long  posterior 
legs,  with  their  femora  toothed  beneath  the  tips.  E.  annu- 
latum  Cresson,  a  Cuban  species,  is,  according  to  Poey,  "para- 
sitic upon  a  larva  of  Pyralis."  (Cresson.) 

Iii  Opliion  the  antennae  are  as  long  as  the  body,  the  abdo- 
men is  compressed,  and  the  species  are  honey-yellow  in  color. 
0.  macrurum  Linn.  (Fig.  127)  attacks  the  American  Silk- 
worm, Telea  Polyphemus.  Anomalon  is  a  larger  insect  and 
usually  black.  A.  vesparum  is,  in  Europe,  parasitic  on  Vespa. 


196 


HYMENOPTERA . 


The  genus  RJiyssa  contains  our  largest  species,  and  frequents 
the  holes  of  boring  insects  in  the  trunks  of  trees,  inserting  its 

remarkably  long  ovipositor 
in  the  body  of  the  larvae 
deeply  embedded  in  the 
trunk  of  the  tree.  Harris 
states  that  Uliyssa  (Pimpla) 
atrata  and  lunator  (Fig.  128, 
male)  of  Fabricius,  "may 
frequently  be  seen  thrusting 
their  slender  borers,  measur- 
ing from  three  to  four  in- 
ches in  length,  into  the 
trunks  of  trees  inhabited 
by  the  grubs  of  the  Tre- 
mex,  and  by  other  wood- 
Fis- 12?-  eating  insects ;  and,  like 

the  female  Tremex,  they  sometimes  become  fastened  to  the 
trees,  and  die  without  being  able  to  draw  their  borers  out 
again."  The  abdomen  of  the  male  is  very  slender. 

Pimpla  has  the  ovipositor  half  as  long  as  the  abdomen.     P. 
pedalis  Cresson  is  a  parasite  on  Clisiocampa. 

The  genus  Trogus  leads  to  Ichneumon.  The  antennae  are 
shorter  than  the  body  ;  the  abdomen  is  slightly  petiolate,  fusi- 
form, and  the  second  subcostal  cell 
is  quadrangular.  Trogus  exesorius 
Brulle  is  tawny  red,  and  is  a  para- 
site of  Papilio  Asterias. 

The  genus  Ichneumon  (Fig.  129) 
is  one  of  great  extent,  probably 
containing  over  three  hundred  spe- 
cies. The  abdomen  is  long  and 
slender,  lanceolate  ovate,  slightly 
petiolate.  The  second  subcostal  cell 
is  five-sided,  and  the  ovipositor  is 
either  concealed  or  slightly  exserted.  Fig.  *  128. 

Ichneumon  suturaUs  Say  is  a  very  common  form,  and  has  been 
reared  in  abundance  from  the  larva  of  the  Army- worm,  Leu- 
cania  unipuncta.  The  body  is  pale  rust-red,  with  black  sutures 
on  the  thorax.  Another  common  species,  also  parasitic  on  the 


ICHNEUMONIDJE. 


197 


Army-worm,  is  the  Ichneumon  paratus,  which  is  blackish, 
banded  and  spotted  with  yellow. 

The  singular  genus  Gfrotea,  established  by  Mr.  Cresson,  has 
a  long  and  narrow  thorax  (Fig.  130  a),  and  a  very  long  and 
petiolated  abdomen  (c).  We  have 
taken  G.  anguina  Cresson,  the  only 
species  known,  from  the  cells  of 
Crabro  in  raspberry  stems  received 
from  Mr.  Angus. 

Cryptus  is  a  genus  of  slender 
form,  with  a  long,  cylindrical  abdo- 
men, which  is  p etiolate.  In  the  fe- 
male it  is  oval  with  an  exserted 
ovipositor.  Cresson  figures  a  wing  Fi&-  129- 

(Fig.  131)  of  C.?  ornatipenniS)  a  Cuban  species,  which  has  the 
wings  differently  veined  from  the  other  species.  Westwood 
remarks  that  in  Europe  a  species  of  this  genus  preys  on  the 
larvae  of  the  Ptinidce. 

Pezomaclius  is  usually  wingless,  and  might  at  first  sight  read- 
ily be  mistaken  for  an  ant.  The  body  is  small,  the  oval  abdo- 
men petiolate,  and  the  wings,  when  pres- 
ent, are  very  small.  The  species  are  very 
numerous.  Gerstaecker  suggests  that 
some  may  be  wingless  females,  belong- 
ing to  winged  males  of  allied  genera. 

The  third  subfamily  is  the  Braconidce,  containing  those 
genera  having  long  multiarticulate  antennae,  and  with  the  first 
subcostal  cell  separate  from  the  first  median,  lying  just  behind 
it.  The  second  subcostal  cell  is  usually 
large,  and  there  is  only  one  recurrent  vein. 

The  genus  Bracon  is  distinguished  by  the 
deeply  excavated   clypeus.     The   first   sub- 
costal   cell    is    completely   formed    behind, 
wanting  the  recurrent  nerve  ;  the  second  cell 
is  long,  and    four-sided.     More    than    five 
hundred    species,    mostly    of    bright,    gay 
colors,  are  already  known.     The  genus  Rliopalosoma  of  Cres- 
son   connects   Bracon  and  other  minute   genera  (Bracoriidae) 
with  the  true  Ichneumons.     R.  Poeyi  Cresson  (Fig.  132)  is  a 


Fig.   131. 


198  HYHENOPTERA. 

pale  honey-yellow  species,  with  a  long  club-shaped  abdomen. 
It  lives  in  Cuba. 

JRogas  is  a  genus  differing  from  Bracon  in  having  the  three 
first  abdominal  rings  long,  forming  a  slender  petiole. 

In  Microgaster,  a  genus  containing   numerous   species,  the 
antennae  are  eighteen-jointed,  and  the  abdomen  is  shorter  than 
^__^         usual,  and  clavate.     There  are  two  or  three 
subcostal  cells,   the  second  very  small.     Mi- 
crogaster  nephoptericis  (Plate  3,  figs.  3,  3  a)  is 
parasitic  on  Nephopteiyx  Edmandsii,  found  in 
the  cells  of  the  Humble-bee. 

Aphidius,  the  parasite  of  the  Plant-lice,  is 
a  most  valuable  ally  of  man.  It  is  known  by 
its  small  size,  and  by  having  the  second  and 
third  segments  of  the  abdomen  moving  free  on 
Fig.  132.  eack  Other.  There  are  three  cubital  cells,  though 
the  wings  are  sometimes  wanting.  Aphidius  (Praon)  arena- 
phis  of  Fitch,  the  Oat-louse  Aphidius,  is  black  with  honejr- 
yellow  legs,  and  is  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long.  Aphidius 
(Toxares)  triticaphis  Fitch,  the  Wheat-louse  Aphidius,  is  black, 
shining,  with  thread-like  antennae  composed  of  twenty-five 
joints.  Its  length  is  .08  inch.  Frequently  the  large  size  of 
the  parasite  causes  the  body  of  the  dead  Aphis  to  swell  out 
into  a  globular  form. 

PROCTOTKYPIDJE  (Proctotrupii)  Latreille.  Egg-parasites. 
In  this  family  are  placed  very  minute  species  of  parasitic  Ich- 
neumon-like Hymenopters  which  have  rather  long  and  slender 
bodies,  with  straight  or  elbowed  antennae  of  various  lengths, 
often  haired  on  the  joints,  usually  ten  to  fifteen,  sometimes  only 
eight  in  number,  while  the  wings  are  covered  with  minute  hairs 
and  most  of  the  nervures  are  absent.  The  maxillary  palpi  are 
three  to  six,  the  labial  palpi  usually  three-jointed.  The  abdo- 
men has  from  five  to  seven  joints,  and  the  tarsi  are  mostly  five- 
jointed,  rarely  four -jointed.  These  insects  are  often  so  minute 
that  they  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  by  the  naked  eye  unless 
it  is  specially  trained ;  they  are  black  or  brown,  and  very 
active  in  their  habits. '  They  may  be  swept  off  grass  and 
herbage,  from  aquatic  plants,  or  from  hot  sand-banks.  They 


PROCTOTRYPID.E.  199 

prey  on  the  wheat-flies  by  inserting  their  eggs  in  their  larvae, 
on  gall-midges,  and  gall-flies,  and  on  fungus-eating  flies.  In 
Europe,  species  of  Teleas  lay  their  eggs  in  those  of  other 
insects,  especially  butterflies  and  moths  and  hemipters,  where 
they  feed  on  the  juices  of  the  larvae  growing  within  the  egg, 
coming  out  as  perfect  Ichneumons.  We  probably  have  many 
species  of  these  insects  in  this  country.  They  usually  occur  in 
great  numbers  where  they  are  found  at  all.  They  are  almost 
too  small  to  pin,  and  if  transfixed  would  be  unfit  for  study, 
and  should,  therefore,  be  gummed  on  mica,  or  put  into  small 
vials  with  alcohol. 

In  Proctotrupes  the  antennas  are  long,  feathered,  twelve- 
jointed.  The  fore-wings  have  the  beginning  of  a  cubital  cell, 
and  two  longitudinal  veins  on  the  posterior  half.  The  abdo- 
men is  spindle-shaped  and  very  acutely  pointed,  the  terminal 
joints  being  tubular  in  their  arrangement, 
and  thus,  as  West  wood  states,  approaching 
the  CJirysididce.  An  unknown  species 
(Fig.  133)  we  have  taken  at  the  Glen,  in 
the  White  Mountains. 

The  head  of  Diapria  is  horizontal  and  Fig.  133. 

longer  than  broad;  the  ocelli  are  moved  forward  on  to  the 
front  edge ;  the  long,  filiform  antennae  have  a  projection  on 
the  under  side,  with  the  basal  joint  much  elongated ;  in  the 
male  they  are  thirteen  or  fourteen-jointed,  with  one  joint  less 
in  the  female.  The  wings  are  without  stigma  or  veins.  The 
abdomen  is  long,  oval,  pedicelled.  In  Europe,  D.  ceddomyi- 
arum  Bouche  is  parasitic  on  the  larvae  of  Cecidomyia  arte- 
misiae.  Esenbeck  considers  that  this  genus  is  also  parasitic  on 
the  earth-inhabiting  Tipulidce. 

Gonatopus  is  a  wingless  genus,  with  the  head  very  broad, 
transverse,  and  the  front  deeply  hollowed  out,  while  the  ten- 
jointed  antennae  are  long,  slightly  clavate,  and  the  thorax  is 
much  elongated,  deeply  incised,  forming  two  knot-like  portions. 
Gonatopus  lunatus  Esenbeck,  found  in  Europe,  is  one  and  a 
half  lines  long. 

Ceraphron  has  the  antennae  inserted  near  the  mouth ;  they 
are  elbowed,  and  eleven-jointed  in  the  male,  and  ten-jointed  in 
the  female.  The  abdomen  has  a  very  short  pedicel.  The  fore- 


200  HYMENOPTERA. 

wings  have  a  very  short,  bent  costal  (radial)  vein.     C.  arma* 
turn  Say  was  described  from  Indiana. 

The  egg-parasite,  Teleas,  has  the  elbowed  twelve-jointed  an- 
tennae inserted  very  near  the  front  of  the  head,  and  slightly 
hairy  and  simple  in  the  male,  but  in  the  female  terminated  in  a 
six-jointed  club.  The  thorax  is  short,  the  legs  thickened  and 
adapted  for  leaping,  and  the  abdomen  is  pedicelled.  Many 
species  have  been  found  in  Europe.  According  to  Westwood, 
"the  type  of  this  genus  is  the  Ichneumon  ovulorum  of  Linnaeus 
(Teleas  Linncei  Esenbeck),  which  Linnaeus  and 
De  Geer  obtained  from  the  eggs  of  moths."  It 
has  been  raised  from  the  eggs  of  several  Bom- 
bycidce.  "Bouche  observed  the  female  deposit 
rig.  134.  an  egg  in  each  of  the  eggs  of  a  brood  of  Bom- 
byx  neustria.  He  describes  the  larva  as  elliptical,  white, 
shining,  rugose,  subincurved,  and  one-third  of  an  inch  long." 
(Westwood.) 

Of  the  extensive  genus  Platyg&ster  over  a  hundred  European 
species  are  already  known.  The  body,  especially  the  abdomen, 
is  generally  flattened,  the  antennae  are  ten-jointed,  and  in  the 
female  clavate.  The  wing  veins  are  absent ;  the  rather  slender 
legs  are  not  adapted  for  leaping,  and  the  tarsi  are  five-jointed. 
A  species  of  Platygaster  (Fig.  134)  not  yet  named,  oviposits 
in  the  eggs  of  the  Canker-worm  moth,  Anisopteryx  vernata, 
and  by  its  numbers  does  much  to  check  the  increase  of  this 
caterpillar.  We  have  seen  several  of  these  minute  insects 
engaged  in  inserting  their  eggs  into  those  of  the  Canker- 
worm. 

Dr.  Harris,  in  speaking  of  the  enemies  of  the  Hessian-fly, 
states,  that  "two  more  parasites,  which  Mr.  Herrick  has  not 
yet  described,  also  destroy  the  Hessian-fly,  while  the  latter  is 
in  the  flax-seed  or  pupa  state.  Mr.  Herrick  says,  that  the  egg- 
parasite  of  the  Hessian-fly  is  a  species  of  Platygaster,  that  it  is 
very  abundant  in  the  autumn,  when  it  lays  its  own  eggs,  four 
or  five  together,  in  a  single  egg  of  the  Hessian-fly.  This,  it 
appears,  does  not  prevent  the  latter  from  hatching,  but  the 
maggot  of  the  Hessian-fly  is  unable  to  go  through  its  trans- 
formations, and  dies  after  taking  on  the  flax-seed  form.  Mean- 
while its  intestine  foes  are  hatched,  come  to  their  growth,  spin 


PROCTOTRYPIDJE.  201 

themselves  little  brown  cocoons  within  the  skin  of  their  victim, 
and  in  due  time,  are  changed  to  winged  insects/and  eat  their 
way  out."  P.  error  Fitch  (Fig.  135)  is  closely  allied  to  P. 
tipulce  Kirby,  which,  in  Europe,  destroys  great  numbers  of  the 
Wheat-midge.  Whether  this  is  a  parasite  of  the  midge,  or 
not,  Dr.  Fitch  has  not  yet  determined. 

The  habits  of  the  genus  Bethylus  remind  us  of  the  fossorial 
wasps.  Bethylus  fuscicornis,  according  to  Haliday,  "buries 
the  larvae  of  some  species  of  Tinea,  which  feed  upon  the  low 
tufts  of  Rosa  spinosissima,  dragging  them  to  a  considerable 
distance  with  great  labor  and  solicitude,  and  employing,  in  the 
instance  recorded  by  Mr.  Haliday,  the  bore  of  a  reed  stuck  in 
the  ground  instead  of  an  arti- 
ficial funnel,  for  the  cells  which 
should  contain  the  progeny  of 
the  Bethylus,  with  its  store  of 
provision."  (Westwood.) 

The  genus  Inostemma  is  re- 
markable for  having  the  »basal 
segment  of  the  abdomen  of  the 
females  furnished  with  a  thick  rig.  135. 

curved  horn,  which  extends  over  the  back  of  the  thorax  and 
head.  Dr.  Fitch  states  that  I.  inserens  is  supposed  by  Kirby  to 
insert  its  eggs  into  those  of  the  Wheat-midge.  In  the  genus 
Galesus  of  Curtis,  the  mandibles  are  so  enlarged  and  length- 
ened as  to  form  a  long  beak,  and  Westwood  farther  states  that 
in  some  specimens  the  anterior  wings  have  a  notch  at  the  ex- 
tremity. Say's  genus  Coptera  has  similar  wings.  C.  polita 
Say  was  discovered  in  Indiana. 

In  the  very  minute  species  of  My  mar  and  its  allies,  the  head 
is  transverse,  with  the  antennae  inserted  above  the  middle  of 
the  face ;  they  are  long  and  slender  and  elbowed  in  the  male, 
but  clavate  in  the  female.  There  are  no  palpi,  while  the  very 
narrow  wings  have  a  very  short  subcostal  vein  and  on  the 
edges  are  provided  with  long  dense  cilise.  The  antennae  of 
Mymar  are  thirteen-jointed  in  the  male,  and  nine-jointed  in  the 
female ;  the  club  is  not  jointed.  The  tarsi  are  four-jointed, 
and  the  abdomen  is  pedunculated.  Mymar  pulcliellus  Curtis 
is  a  quarter  of  a  line  long.  It  is  found  in  Europe.  An  allied 


202  HYMENOPTEEA. 

form  Polynema  ovulorum  Linn,  lays  numerous  eggs  in  a  single 
butterfly's  egg. 

In  Anaplies  the  male  antennae  are  twelve-jointed,  those  of 
the  female  nine-jointed,  and  the  abdomen  is  subsessile  and 
ovoid.  In  Anagrus  the  male  antennae  are  thirteen-jointed, 
those  of  the  female  nine-jointed,  while  the  tarsi  are  four-jointed, 
and  the  acutely  conical  abdomen  is  sessile.  No  native  species 
are  known. 

The  smallest  Hymenopterous  insect  known,  if  not  the  most 
minute  of  all  insects,  is  the  Pteratomus  Putnamii  Pack.  (Plate 
3,  figs.  8,  8 a,  hind  wing),  which  we  first  discovered  on  the 
body  of  an  Anthophorabia  in  the  minute  eggs  of  which  it  is 
undoubtedly  parasitic.  It  differs  from  Anagrus  in  the  obtusely 
conical  abdomen,  and  the  narrower,  very  linear  wings,  which 
are  edged  with  a  fringe  of  long,  curved  hairs,  giving  them  a 
graceful,  feathery  appearance.  The  fore-wings  are  fissured, 
a  very  interesting  fact,  since  it  shows  the  tendency  of  the 
wings  of  a  low  Hymenopterous  insect  to  be  fissured  like 
those  of  Pterophorus  and  Alucita,  the  two  lowest  Lepidop- 
terous  genera.  It  is  one-ninetieth  of  an  inch  in  length. 

CHALCIDID^E  Westwood.  This  is  a  group  of  great  extent ; 
the  species  are  of  small  size  ;  they  are  often  of  shiny  colors,  as 
the  name- of  the  principal  genus  implies,  being  either  bronzen 
or  metallic.  They  have  also  elbowed  antennae  with  from  six 
to  fourteen  joints,  and  the  wings  are  often  deficient  in  veins. 
In  some  genera,  including  Chalcis,  the  hind  thighs  are  thickened 
for  leaping.  The  differences  between  the  sexes,  generally  very 
marked  in  Hymenoptera,  are  here  especially  so.  The  abdo- 
men is  usually  seven-jointed  in  the  male  and  six-jointed  in  the 
female,  the  other  rings  being  aborted.  The  male  of  several 
species  has  the  joints  of  the  antennae  swelled  and  furnished  with 
long  hairs  above.  Some  of  the  species  of  Pteromalus  are  wing- 
less, and  closely  resemble  ants.  They  infest  eggs  and  larvae. 
Some  species  prey  upon  the  Aphides,  others  lay  their  eggs  in 
the  nests  of  wasps  and  bees.  One  species  is  known  in  Europe 
to  be  a  parasite  of  the  common  house-fly.  Others  consume 
the  larvae  of  the  Hessian-fly,  and  those  Cecidomyiae  that  pro- 
duce galls,  and  also  the  true  gall-flies  (Cynips).  Some  are 


CHALCIDID^C.  203 

parasites  on  other  Ichneumon  parasites,  as  there  are  species 
preying  on  the  genus  Aphidius,  which  is  a  parasite  on  the 
Aphis.  Mr.  Walsh  has  bred  a  species  of  Hockeria  and  of 
Glyphe,  which  are  parasitic  on  a  Microgaster,  which  in  turn 
preys  upon  the  Army-worm,  Leucania  unipuncta  ;  and  Chalcis 
albifrons  Walsh,  was  bred  from  the  cocoons  of  Pezomachus,  an 
Ichneumon  parasite  of  the  same  caterpillar. 

The  pupae  of  some  species  are  said  to  have  the  limbs  and 
wings  soldered  together  as  in  Lepidoptera,  and  the  larvae  sel- 
dom spin  a  silken  compact  cocoon.  We  have 
probably  in  this  country  at  least  a  thousand 
species  of  these  small  parasites,  nearly  twelve 
hundred  having  been  named  and  described  in 
Europe  alone.  They  are  generally  large  enough 
to  be  pinned  or  stuck  upon  cards  or  mica  ;  some 
individuals  should  be  preserved  in  this  way, 
others,  as  wet  specimens.  Fig.  136. 

Chalcis  is  known  by  the  abdomen  having  a  long  pedicel,  its 
much  thickened,  oval  thighs,  and  curved  tibiae.  Chalcis  bra- 
cata  (Fig.  136),  so  named  by  Mr.  Sanborn  "in  allusion  to  the 
ornamental  and  trousered  appearance  of  the  posterior  feet" 
is  about  .32  inch  in  length.  "Reaumur  has  described  and 
figured  a  species  of  Chalcis,  which  is  parasitic  in  the  nest  of 
the  American  wasp  Epipone  nitidulans  and  which  he  regarded 
as  the  female  of  that  wasp."  (Westwood.) 

The  genus  Leucospis  is  of  large  size.  It  is  known  by  having 
the  large  ovipositor  laid  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  abdo- 
men, and  being  spotted  and  banded  with 
yellow,  resembling  wasps.  One  of  our  more 
common  species  is  the  L.  affinis  (Fig.  137)  of 
Say.  The  Cuban  L.  Poeyi  Guerin  is  para- 
sitic on  the  Megachile  Poeyi  of  Guerin. 

The  well-known  Joint-worm,  Eurytoma, 
(or  Isosoma  Walsh)  produces  galls  on  wheat- 
stems.  The  antennae  are,  in  the  male,  slender  and  provided 
with  verticils  of  hairs.  The  acutely  oval  abdomen  has  a 
short  pedicel.  The  hind  legs  are  scarcely  thicker  than  the 
fore  limbs.  E.  hordei  Harris  (Fig.  138)  is  found  in  gall-like 
swellings  of  wheat-stalks.  It  is  still  a  matter  of  discussion, 


204  HYMENOPTERA. 

whether  it  directly  produces  the  galls,  or  is  parasitic,  like 
many  of  the  family,  on  other  gall-insects.  Dr.  Harris,  who  has 
studied  the  habits  of  the  Joint-worm,  states  that  the  body  of 
the  adult  fly  is  jet  black,  and  that  the  thighs,  shanks  (tibiae), 
and  claw-joints,  are  blackish,  while  the  knees  and  other  joints 
of  the  feet,  are  pale-3rellow.  The  females  are  .13  inch  long, 
while  the  males  are  smaller,  have  a  club-shaped  abdomen,  and 
the  joints  of  the  antennae  surrounded  with  a  verticil  of  hairs. 
The  larva  is  described  by  Harris  from  specimens  received  from 
Virginia,  as  varying  from  one-tenth  to  nearly  three-twentieths 
of  an  inch  in  length.  It  is  of  a  pale  yellowish  white  color, 
with  an  internal  dusky  streak,  and  is  destitute  of  hairs.  The 
head  is  round  and  partially  retractile,  with  a  distinct  pair  of 
jaws,  and  can  be  distinguished  from  the  larvae  of  the  dipterous 
gall-flies  by  not  having  the  v-shaped  organs  on  the  segment 
succeeding  the  head.  During  the  sum- 
mer, according  to  Mr.  Gourgas's  observa- 
tions reported  by  Dr.  Harris,  and  when ' 
the  barley  or  wheat  is  about  eight  or  ten 
inches  high,  the  presence  of  the  young 
Joint-worms  is  detected  "by  a  sudden 
rig.  138.  check  in  the  growth  of  the  plants,  and 

the  yellow  color  of  their  leaves,"  and  several  irregular  gall- 
like  swellings  between  the  second  and  third  joints,  or,  accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Fitch,  "immediately  above  the  lower  joint  in  the 
sheathing  base  of  the  leaf;"  or,  as  Harris  states,  in  the  joint 
itself.  The  ravages  of  this  insect  have  been  noticed  in  wheat 
and  barley.  During  November,  in  New  England,  the  worms 
transform  into  the  pupa  state,  according  to  the  observations  of 
Dr.  A.  Nichols,  and  "live  through  the  winter  unchanged  in 
the  straw,  many  of  them  in  the  stubble  in  the  field,  while  others 
are  carried  away  when  the  grain  is  harvested."  In  Virginia, 
however,  the  larva  does  not  transform  until  late  in  February, 
or  early  in  March,  according  to  Mr.  Glover.  From  early  in 
May,  until  the  first  week  in  July,  the  four-winged  flies  issue 
from  the  galls  in  the  dry  stubble,  and  are  supposed  to  im- 
mediately lay  their  eggs  in  the  stalks  of  the  young  wheat  or 
barley  plants.  The  losses  by  this  insect  has  amounted,  in 
Virginia,  to  over  a  third  of  the  whole  crop.  The  best  remedy 


CHALCIDID^E.  205 

against  the  attacks  of  this  insidious  foe,  is  to  burn  the  stubble 
in  the  autumn  or  spring  for  several  successive  years.  Plough- 
ing in  the  stubble  does  not  injure  the  insects,  as  they  can 
work  their  way  out  of  the  earth. 

It  has  been  objected  by  Westwood,  Ratzburg,  and  more 
recently  by  Mr.  Walsh,  (who  afterwards  changed  his  views), 
that  as  all  the  species  of  this  family,  so  far  as  known,  are  para- 
sitic, the  Eurytoma  cannot  be  a  gall-producer,  and  that  the 
galls  are  made  by  a  dipterous  insect  (Cecidomyia)  on  which 
the  Eurytoma  is  a  parasite  ;  but,  as  they  offer  no  new  facts  to 
support  this  opinion,  we  are  inclined  to  believe  from  the 
statements  of  Harris,  Fitch,  Cabell,  T.  Glover  (Patent  Office 
Report  for  1854),  and  others,  that  the  larva  of  the  Eurytoma 
produces  the  gall.  We  must  remember  that  the  habits  of 
comparatively  few  species  of  this  immense  family  have  been 
studied ;  that  the  genus  Eurytoma  is  not  remotely  allied  to 
the  Cynipidse,  or  true  gall-flies  (which  also  comprise  animal 
parasites) ,  in  which  group  it  has  actually  been  placed  by  Esen- 
beck,  for  the  reason  that  in  Europe  "several  species  of 
Eurytoma  have  been  observed  to  be  attached  to  different 
kinds  of  galls."  (Westwood.)  Dr.  Fitch  also  describes  the 
Yellow-legged  Barley-fly,  Eurytoma  Jla/uipes,  which  produces 
similar  galls  in  barley,  and  differs  from  the  Wheat  Joint- worm 
in  having  yellow  legs,  while  the  antennae  of  the  male  are  not 
surrounded  with  whorls  of  hair.  The  Eurytoma  secalis  Fitch 
infests  rye.  It  differs  from  E.  hordei  in  "having  the  hind  pair 
of  shanks  dull  pale-yellow,  as  well  as  the  forward  ones."  We 
shall  also  see  beyond  that  several  species  of  Saw-flies  produce 
true  galls,  while  other  species  of  the  same  genus  are  external 
feeders,  which  reconciles  us  more  easily  to  the  theory  that  the 
Eurytoma  hordei,  and  the  other  species  described  by  Dr.  Fitch, 
differ  in  their  habits  from  others  of  the  family,  and  are  not  ani- 
mal parasites.  Indeed  the  Joint-worm  is  preyed  upon  by  two 
Chalcid  parasites,  for  Harris  records  finding  the  larvae,  proba- 
bly of  Torymus,  feeding  on  the  Eurytoma  larvse,  and  that  a 
species  of  Torymus  (named  T.  Harrisii,  by  Dr.  Fitch,  and  per- 
haps the  adult  of  the  first-named  Torymus)  and  a  species  of 
Pteromalus  are  parasites  on  Eurytoma. 

In  Monodontomerus  (Torymus)   the  third  joint  of  the  an- 


206  HYMENOPTEKA. 

tennse  is  minute,  and  the  hind  femora  are  thick,  but  not  ser- 
rated, and  beneath  armed  with  a  tooth  near  the  tip. 

The  wings  are  rudimentary  so  that  it  does  not  quit  the  cell. 
Newport  states  that  the  larva  is  flat,  very  hairy,  and  spins  a 
silken  cocoon  when  about  to  pupate.  It  is  an  "external  feed- 
ing parasite"  consuming  the  pupa  as  well  as  the  larva  of  An- 
thophorabia.  The  imago  appears  about  the  last  of  June, 
perforating  the  cell  of  the  bee.  It  also  lives  in  the  nests  of 
Osmia,  Anthophora,  and  Odynerus. 

The  genus  Antliopliordbia  is  so-called  from  being  a  parasite  on 
Anthophora.  The  males  differ  remarkably  from  the  females, 
especially  in  having  simple  instead  of  compound  eyes,  besides 
the  usual  three  ocelli.  A.  megachilis  Pack.  (Plate  3  ;  fig.  7, 
larva;  7  a,  pupa)  is  a  parasite  on  a  species  of  Megachile. 
The  larva  is  white,  short  and  thick,  cylindrical,  with  both 
extremities  much  alike  ;  the  segments  are  slightly  convex,  and 
the  terminal  ring  is  orbicular  and  rather  large.  Length,  .04 
inch,  being  one-third  as  broad  as  long.  On  opening  the  cells 
of  Megachile,  we  found  nearly  a  dozen  containing  these  para- 
sites, of  which  150  larvae  were  counted  clustering  on  the  out- 
side of  a  dead  and  dry  Megachile  larva.  In  England  they 
occur,  according  to  Newport's  observations,  in  much  less  num- 
bers, as  he  found  from  thirty  to  fifty  in  a  cell  of  Anthophora. 
A  few  females  hatched  out  in  the  middle  of  October,  and  there 
were  a  few  pupae  left,  but  the  majority  wintered  over  in  the 
larva  state,  and  a  new  and  larger  brood  appeared  in  the  spring. 

Perilampus  is  a  beautiful  genus,  with  its  shining,  metallic 
tints.  The  eleven-jointed  antennae  are  short,  lying  when  at 
rest  in  a  deep  frontal  furrow.  The  head  is  large,  while  the 
abdomen  is  slightly  pedicelled,  being  short,  contracted,  with 
the  ovipositor  concealed.  P.  platygaster  Say  and  P.  triangu- 
laris  Say  were  described  from  Indiana. 

The  numerous  species  of  Pteromalus  often  oviposit  in  the 
larvae  of  butterflies.  In  this  genus  the  antennae  are  inserted 
in  the  middle  of  the  front.  The  abdomen  is  nearly  sessile,  ob- 
tusely triangular,  or  acutely  ovate*  in  form,  with  the  ovipositor 
concealed.  The  femora  are  slender.  There  are  about  three 
hundred  species  known  to  inhabit  Europe.  Pteromalus  va- 
nessce  Hams  is  a  parasite  on  Vanessa  Antiopa.  P.  clisio- 


CHALCIDID^E. 


207 


Fig.  139.' 


campce  Harris  infests   Clisiocampa.       "  Pteromalus  apum   is 
parasitic  in  the  nests  of  the  Mason-bee."  (Westwood.)     A  spe- 
cies of  this  or  an  allied  genus  (Fig.  139) 
infests  the  eggs  of  the  Clisiocampa  Ameri- 
cana.    Its  eggs  are   probably  laid  within 
those  of  the   Tent-caterpillar   moth  early 
in  the  summer,  hatching  out  in  the  autumn, 
and  late  in  the  spring  or  early  in  June. 

An  allied  genus,  Siphonura,  is  a  para- 
site on  galls.  It  resembles  a  beetle,  Mor- 
della,  from  its  very  peculiar  scutum. 

The  antennae  of  Semiotellus  are  twelve-jointed.     S.  (Ceraph- 
ron)    destructor   Say    (Fig.    140),    according  to   that    author, 

destroys  the  Hessian-fly,  while  lying 
in  the  "flax-seed"  state.  Fitch  de- 
scribes it  as  being  a  tenth  of  an 
inch  long,  black,  with  a  brassy 
green  reflection  on  the  head  and 
thorax,  while  the  legs  and  base  of 
the  abdomen  are  yellowish. 

In    Encyrtus^    which    comprises 
over    a    hundred    species    already 
known,    usually    rather    small    in 
Fig.  140.  size?  ^e  body  is  short  and  rounded. 

The  eleven-jointed  antennae  are  inserted  near  the  mouth.  The 
thorax  is  square  behind,  and  the  sessile  abdomen  is  short  and 
broad  at  the  base.  Encyrtus  Bolus 
and  E.  JReate  are  described  from 
North  America  by  Mr.  F.  Walker. 
Encyrtus  varicornis  is  in  Europe 
found  as  a  parasite  in  the  cells  of 
Eumenes  coarctata. 

The  antennae  of  Euloplius  are  nine-  Fig<  141 

jointed,  with  a  long  branch  attached  to  the  third,  fourth,  and 
fifth  joints.  The  abdomen  is  flattened,  sessile.  E.  basalts 
Say  was  described  from  Indiana.  We  figure  a  Chalcid  (Fig. 
141,  cT),  allied  to  Eulopus,  which  preys  upon  the  American 
Tent  Caterpillar. 

A  species  of  Blastophaga  (B.  grossorum  Grav.)  is  interest- 
ing as  it  is  the  means  of  assisting  in  the  fertilization  of  the  Fig 


208 


HYMENOPTERA. 


blossoms,  which  act,  as  applied  to  this  instance  of  the  fertiliza- 
tion of  flowering  plants  by  insects,  has  been  called  by  Mr. 
Westwood  "  caprification." 

CYNIPID^E  Westwood.  (Diploleparice  Latreille.)  Gall-flies. 
In  this  most  interesting  family  we  have  a  singular  combination 
of  zoological  and  biological  characters.  The  gall-flies  are  closely 
allied  to  the  parasitic  Chalcids,  but  in  their  habits  are  plant- 
parasites,  as  they  live  in  a  gall  or  tumor  formed  by  the  ab- 
normal growth  of  the  vegetable  cells,  due  to  the  irritation  first 
excited  when  the  egg  is  laid  in  the  bark,  or  substance  of  the  leaf, 
as  the  case  may  be.  The  generation  of  the  summer  broods  is 
also  anomalous,  but  the  parthenogenesis  that  occurs  in  these 
forms,  by  which  immense  numbers  of  females  are  produced,  is 
necessary  for  the  work  they  perform  in  the  economy  of  nature. 
When  we  see  a  single  oak  hung  with  countless  galls,  the  work 
of  a  single  species,  and  learn  how  numerous  are  its  natural 

v. 


Fig.  142  / 

enemies,  it  becomes  evident  that  the  demand  for  a  great  nu- 
merical increase  must  be  met  by  extraordinary  means,  like  the 
generation  of  the  summer  broods  of  the  Plant-lice. 

The  gall-flies  are  readily  recognized  by  their  resemblance  to 
certain  Chalcids,  but  the  abdomen  is  much  compressed,  and 
usually  very  short,  while  the  second,  or  the  second  and  third  seg- 
ments, are  greatly  developed,  the  remaining  ones  being  imbri- 
cated or  covered  one  by  the  other,  leaving  the  hind  edges 
exposed.  Concealed  within  these,  is  the  long,  partially  coiled, 
very  slender  ovipositor,  which  arises  near  the  base  of  the  abdo- 
men.* Among  other  distinguishing  characters,  are  the  straight 

*Fig.  142.  I,  abdomen  of  Cynips  quercus-aciculata  Osten  Sacken,  \vith  the  ovipos- 
itor exserted ;  II,  the  same  with  the  ovipositor  retracted ;  III,  the  abdomen  of  the 
female  of  Figites  (Diplolepis)  5-Uneatus  Say;  IV,  the  same  showing  the  ventral 
portion,  in  nature  covered  by  the  tergal  portion  of  the  abdomen ;  V,  end  view  of  the 


CYNIPID^E.  209 

(not  being  elbowed)  thirteen  to  sixteen-jointed  antennae,  the 
labial  palpi  being  from  two  to  four-jointed,  and  the  maxil- 
lary palpi  from  four  to  six-jointed.  The  maxillary  lobes  are 
broad  and  membranous,  while  the  ligula  is  fleshy,  and  either 
rounded  or  square  at  the  end.  There  is  a  complete  costal  cell, 
while  the  subcostal  cells  are  incomplete.  The  egg  is  of  large 
size,  and  increases  in  size  as  the  embryo  becomes  more  devel- 
oped. The  larva  is  a  short,  thick,  fleshy,  footless  grub,  with 
the  segments  of  the  body  rather  convex.  When  hatched  they 
immediately  attack  the  interior  of  the  gall,  which  has  already 
formed  around  them.  Many  species  transform  within  the  gall, 
while  others  enter  the  earth  and  there  become  pupae. 

It  is  well  known  that  of  many  gall-flies  the  males  have  never 
been  discovered.  "Hartig  says  that  he  examined  at  least 
15,000  specimens  of  the  genus  Cynips,  as  limited  by  him,  with- 
out ever  discovering  a  male.  To  the  same  purpose  he  collected 
about  28,000  galls  of  Cynips  divisa,  and  reared  9,000  to  10,000 
Cynips  from  them  ;  all  were  females.  Of  G.  folii,  likewise,  he 
had  thousands  of  specimens  of  the  female  sex  without  a  single 
male."  (Osten  Sacken.)  Siebold  supposes  in  such  cases  that 
there  is  a  true  parthenogenesis,  which  accounts  for  the  immense 
number  of  females. 

Mr.  B.  D.  Walsh  has  discovered  (American  Entomologist, 
ii,  p.  330)  that  Gynips  quercus-aciculata  O.  Sack.,  which  pro- 
duces a  large  gall  in  the  autumn  upon  the  black  oak,  in  the 
spring  of  the  year  succeeding  lays  eggs  which  produce  galls 
disclosing  Cynips  quercus-spongifica  O.  Sack.  He  proved  this 
by  colonizing  certain  trees  with  a  number  of  individuals  of 
G.  quercus-aciculata,  and  finding  the  next  spring  that  the  eggs 
laid  by  them  produced  G.  quercus-spongifica.  The  autumn 
brood  of  Cynips  consists  entirely  of  agamous  females,  while 
the  vernal  brood  consists  of  both  males  and  females,  and  Mi\ 
Walsh  declares  after  several  experiments  that "  the  agamous 
autumnal  female  form  of  this  Cynips  (G.  q.  aciculata)  sooner 
or  later  reproduces  the  bisexual  vernal  form,  and  is  thus  "  a 
mere  dimorphous  female  form"  of  G.  q.  spongiftca. 

abdomen  of  Cynips,  showing  the  relations  of  segments  7-8,  the  sternal  portion  of 
the  eighth  segment  being  obsolete ;  sp,  the  single  pair  of  abdominal  spiracles ;  VI, 
terminal  ventral  piece,  from  which  the  sheaths  (s  s)  and  the  ovipositor  (o)  take 
their  origin ;  it  is  strongly  attached  at  m  to  the  tergites  of  the  sixth  and  seventh 
rings;  o,  ovipositor;  .<?,  s  its  sheaths;  a,  an  appendage  to  v,  the  terminal  sternite. 
—  From  Walsh. 

H 


210  HYMENOPTER  A . 

In  this  connection  he  refers  to  tfce  discovery  of  Glaus,  in 
1867,  of  several  males  of  Psyche  helix,  which  had  been  sup- 
posed to  be  parthenogenous,  thousands  of  specimens  having 
been  bred  by  Siebold,  all  of  which  were  females. 

Baron  Osten  Sacken  (in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Entomol- 
ogical Society  of  Philadelphia,  vol.  1,  p.  50)  says  that  "a 
strong  proof  in  confirmation  of  my  assertion  is,  that  in 
those  genera,  the  males  of  which  are  known,  both  sexes 
are  obtained  from  galls  in  almost  equal  numbers ;  even 
the  males,  not  unfrequently,  predominate  in  number  (see 
Hartig,  1.  c.  iv,  399).  Now  the  gall-flies,  reared  by  me 
from  'the  oak-apple,  were  all  females.  Dr.  Fitch,  also,  had 
only  females ;  and  Mr.  B.  D.  Walsh,  at  Rock  Island, 
Illinois,  reared  (from  oak-apples  of  a  different  kind)  from 
thirty-five  to  forty  females,  without  a  single  male.  This 
leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Cynipes  of  the  oak-apples 
belong  to  the  genera  hitherto  supposed  to  be  agamous." 

For  an  account  of  the  habits  and  many  other  interesting 
points  in  the  biology  of  these  interesting  insects,  we  further 
quote  Baron  Osten  Sacken.  ' '  Most  of  the  gall-flies  always  attack 
the  same  kind  of  oak ;  thus,  the  gall  of  C.  seminator  Harris, 
is  always  found  on  the  white  oak ;  C.  tubicola  Osten  Sacken  on 
the  post  oak,  etc.  Still,  some  galls  of  the  same  form  occur  on 
different  oaks ;  a  gall  closely  resembling  that  of  C.  quercus- 
globulus  Fitch,  of  the  white  oak,  occurs  also  on  the  post  oak, 
and  the  swamp  chestnut  oak ;  a  gall  very  similar  to  the  com- 
mon oak-apple  of  the  red  oak  occurs  on  the  black-jack  oak,  etc. 
Are  such  galls  identical,  that  is,  are  they  produced  by  a  gall-fly 
of  the  same  kind?  I  have  not  been  able  to  investigate  this 
question  sufficiently.  Again,  if  the  same  gall-fly  attacks  dif- 
ferent oaks,  may  it  not,  in  some  cases,  produce  a  slightly  differ- 
ent gall  ?  It  will  be  seen  below,  that  C.  quercus-futilis,  from  a 
leaf-gall  on  the  white  oak,  is  very  like  C.  quercus-papillata  from 
a  leaf-gall  on  the  swamp-chestnut  oak.  I  could  not  perceive 
any  difference,  except  a  very  slight  one  in  the  coloring  of  the 
feet.  Both  gall-flies  may  belong  to  the  same  species,  and 
although  the  galls  are  somewhat  different,  they  are  in  some 
respects  analogous,  and  might  be  the  produce  of  the  same  gall- 
fly on  two  different  trees. 


CYNIPIM;.  211 

' '  Some  gall-flies  appear  very  early  in  the  season ;  Cynips 
quercus-palustris  for  instance,  emerges  from  its  gall  before  the 
end  of  May ;  these  galls  are  the  earliest  of  the  season ;  they 
grow  out  of  the  buds  and  appear  full  grown  before  the  leaves 
are  developed.  May  not  this  gall-fly  have  a  second  generation, 
and  if  it  has,  may  not  the  gall  of  this  second  generation  be 
different  from  the  first  produced,  as  it  would  be  under  different 
circumstances,  in  a  more  advanced  season,  perhaps  on  leaves 
instead  of  buds,  etc? 

"A  remarkable  fact  is  the  extreme  resemblance  of  some  of 
the  parasitical  gall-flies  with  the  true  gall-fly  of  the  same  gall. 
Thus,  Cynips  quercus-futilis,  O.  Sacken,  is  strikingly  like  Aulax? 
futilis,  the  parasite  of  its  gall.  The  common  gall  on  the  black- 
berry stems  produces  two  gall-flies  which  can  hardly  be  told 
apart  at  first  glance,  although  they  belong  to  different  genera." 
(Proceedings  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  Philadelphia.) 

Hartig  has  divided  this  family  into  three  sections :  First, 
Cynips  and  its  allies,  the  true  gall-flies  (Psenides)  in  which  the 
second  (counting  the  slender  pedicel  as  the  first)  segment  of 
the  abdomen  is  longer  than  half  its  length,  and  the  subcostal 
area  is  narrow,  the  basal  areolet  (cell)  being  opposite  the  base 
of  the  former. 

Cynips  confluens  Harris  forms  the  oak-apple  commonly  met 
with  on  the  scrub-oak.  There  is  a  spring  and  summer  brood. 
These  galls,  sometimes  two  inches  in  diameter,  are  green  and 
pulpy  at  first,  but  when  ripe  have  a  hard  shell  with  a  spongy 
interior,  in  the  centre  of  which,  lodged  in  a  woody  kernel, 
which  serves  as  a  cocoon,  the  larva  transforms,  escaping 
through  a  hole,  which  it  gnaws  through  both  the  kernel  and 
shell.  We  have  found  the  fly  ready  to  escape  in  June,  and  Dr. 
Harris  has  found  it  in  October.  Two  galls  are  represented  on 
Plate  4,  fig.  13  ;  the  larger  of  which  has  been  tenanted,  after 
the  gall-flies  had  escaped,  by  an  Odynerus.  Cynips  gallce-tinc- 
torice  Olivier  produces  the  galls  of  commerce,  brought  from 
Asia  Minor. 

Biorhiza  (Apophyllus  Hartig)  is  a  wingless  genus,  and  lives 
beneath  the  earth  in  galls  formed  at  the  roots  of  oak  trees. 
Biorhiza  nigra  Fitch  is  black  throughout,  including  the  antennae 
and  feet,  and  is  but  .08  inch  long. 


212  H  YMENOPTERA . 

Galls  are  often  found  on  the  blackberry,  tenanted  by  another 
genus,  Diastrophus,  which  has  usually  fifteen-jointed  antennae 
in  the  male,  and  one  joint  less  in  the  female.  On  opening  a 
gall  containing  this  fly,  we  often  find  an  inquiline  gall-fly, 
Aulax,  "showing  the  most  striking  resemblance  in  size,  color- 
ing and  sculpture,  to  the  Diastrophus,  their  companion.  The 
one  is  the  very  counterpart  of  the  other,  hardly  showing  any 
differences,  except  the  strictly  generic  characters."  (Osten 
Sacken.)  These  galls  are  also  infested  by  Chalcid  parasites, 
Callimome  (two  species),  Ormyrus,  and  Eurytoma. 

Osten  Sacken  enumerates  "eight  cynipidous  galls  on  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  roses  of  this  country."     The  flies  all  belong  to 
the  genus  Rhodites,  which  is  distinguished  by  the  under  side 
of  the  last  abdominal  segment  being  drawn  out  into  a  long 
point,  while  the  antennae  are  fourteen-jointed 
in  both  sexes.     R.  rosce  produces  the  bede- 
guar  gall  ("  from  the  Hebrew  bedeguacJi,  said 
to  mean  rose- apple").     It  was  formerly  used 
as  a  medicine.     The  galls  form  a  moss-like 
mass,  encircling  the  rose  branch.     Rlwdites 
Fig.  143.  dichlocei-us  of  Harris    (Fig.  143),  produces 

hard,  woody,  irregular  swellings  of  the  branches. 

We  now  come  to  the  second  section,  the  Quest  gall-flies  (In- 
quilinse),  which  are  unable  to  produce  galls  themselves,  as  they 
do  not  secrete  the  gall-producing  poison,  though  possessing 
a  well  developed  ovipositor.  Hence,  like  the  Nomada,  etc., 
among  bees,  they  are  Cuckoo-flies,  laying  their  eggs  in  galls 
already  formed. 

This  group  may  generally,  according  to  Mr.  Walsh,  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  preceding  by  the  sheaths  of  the  ovipositor 
always  projecting,  more  or  less,  beyond  the  "dorsal  valve," 
which  is  a  small,  hairy  tubercle  at  the  top  of  the  seventh  ab- 
dominal segment.  This  dorsal  valve  also  projects  greatly. 
In  almost  all  the  species,  the  ovipositor  projects  from  between 
the  tips  of  the  sheaths. 

Among  the  Inquiline  genera  are  Synophrus,  Ambtynotus, 
Synerges,  and  Aulax,  which  are  guests  of  various  species  of 
Cynipides. 

In  Figites   and  allies   (Figitidae),  the  third  section  of  the 


TENTHREDINID^E . 


213 


family,  the  second  segment  is  shorter  than  half  the  length  of 
the  abdomen,  being  much  longer  and  less  high  and  compressed 
than  in  the  Cynipides,  and  the  ovipositor  is  retracted  within 
the  abdomen.  These  insects  are  true  internal  parasites,  re- 
sembling the  Chalcids.  Ibalia  is  a  parasite  on  a  wood-beetle. 
This  genus  has,  by  Walsh,  been  placed  in  the  Cynipides. 
Figites  has  feather-like  antennae  in  the  male ;  it  is  a  parasite 
on  the  larvae  of  Sarcophaga.  The  genus  Allotria  is  a  para- 
site on  Aphis. 

Walsh  states  thaj  two  genera,  which  he  has  identified  as 
Kleidotoma  and  Eucoila  are  true  Figitidw,  and  "have  the 
wings  fringed  like  a  Mymar,  and  the  former  has  them  emargi- 
nate  at  tip  with  the  radial  area  in  my  species  distinctly  open, 
and  the  latter  simple  at  tip  with  the  radial  area  in  my  species 
marginally  closed  by  a  coarse  brown  vein."  Eucoila  is  sup- 
posed to  be  parasitic  on  some  insect  attacking  the  turnip. 

TENTHREDINID^E  Leach.  The  Saw-flies  connect  the  Hymen- 
optera  with  the  Lepidoptera.  In  the  perfect  state  they  con- 
form to  the  Hymeiiop- 
terous  type,  but  as  b 

larvae  they  would  often 

be  mistaken  for  Lepi-   rf 

dopterous  larvae,  and  |;7.-: 
in  their  habits  closely  K 
resemble  many  cater- 
pillars. The  three 
divisions  of  the  body, 
usually  so  trenchantly 
marked 'in  the  higher 
Hymenoptera,  are  here 
less  distinct,  since  the  abdomen  is  sessile,  its  basal  ring  being 
broad  and  applied  closely  to  the  thorax,  while  the  succeeding 
rings  are  very  equal  in  size.  The  head  is  broad  and  the  thorax 
wide,  closely  resembling  that  of  the  Lepidoptera.  The  wings 
(Fig.  144,  fore- wing)  are  larger  in  proportion  to  the  rest 
of  the  body  than  usual ;  they  are  more  net- veined,  the  cells 
being  more  numerous  and  extending  to  the  outer  margin.* 

*In  treating  of  this  family  we  avail  ourselves  largely  of  the  important  Avork  on 
the  American  species,  publishing  at  the  time  of  writing,  by  Mr.  E.  Norton,  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  American  Entomological  Society,  vols.  1,  2.  We  therefore 


144> 


214  HYMENOPTERA. 

All  these  characters  show  that  the  saw-fly  is  a  degraded 
Hymenopter. 

The  antennae  are  not  elbowed ;  are  rather  short  and  simple, 
clavate,  but  in  rare  instances  fissured  or  feathered.  The  ab- 
domen consists,  usually,  of  eight  external  segments,  the  two 
last  being  aborted  on  the  under  side,  owing  to  the  great  develop- 
ment of  the  ovipositor.  The  ovipositor  or  "saw"  (compare 
Fig.  24)  consists  of  two  lamellae,  the  lower  edge  of  which  is 
toothed  and  fits  in  a  groove  in  the  under  side  of  the  upper  one, 
which  is  toothed  above,  both  protected  by  the  usual  sheath-like 
stylets.  On  pressing,  says  Lacaze-Duthiers,  the  end  of  the 
abdomen,  we  see  the  saw  depressed,  leave  the  direction  of 
the  axis  of  the  body,  and  become  perpendicular.  By  this 
movement  the  saw,  which  both  cuts  and  pierces,  makes  a  gash 
in  the  soft  part  of  the  leaf  wrhere  it  deposits  its  eggs. 

The  eggs  are  laid  more  commonly  near  the  ribs  of  the  leaf, 
in  a  series  of  slits,  each  slit  containing  but  a  single  egg. 
"Some  species,  on  the  other  hand,  introduce  their  eggs  by 
means  of  their  saws  into  the  edges  of  leaves  (Nematus  conju- 
gatus  Dahlb.),  and  others  beneath  the  longitudinal  ribs  of  the 
leaves.  A  few,  indeed,  merely  fasten  their  eggs  upon  the  outer 
surface  of  the  leaves  (Nematus  grossularice,  etc.),  attaching  them 
together  like  a  string  of  beads  (Reaumur,  vol.  v,  plate  10,  fig. 
8) ,  whilst  a  few  place  them  in  a  mass  on  the  surface  of  the  leaf 
(ibid,  plate  11, figs.  8,  9)."  (Westwood.)  The  irritation  set  up 
by  the  saws  in  the  wounded  leaf,  causes  a  flow  of  sap  which  is 
stated  by  Westwood  to  be  imbibed  by  the  egg,  so  that  it  swells 
gradually  to  twice  its  original  size.  It  is  known  that  the  eggs 
of  ants  increase  in  size  as  the  embryo  develops,  and  we  would 

copy  his  diagram  (Fig.  144),  showing  the  venation  of  the  wing  (compare  Fig.  29 
and  our  nomenclature),  with  the  explanation  of  parts  given  by  him. 

a,  stigma;  6,  costa  or  costal  margin;  c,  apical  margin;  d,  costal  and  post- 
costal  veins;  e,  externomedial ;  /,  g,  anal;  h,  posterior  margin;  i,  marginal  vein; 
j,  submarginal  vein;  k,  first,  second,  and  third  (transverse)  submarginal  nervures; 
I,  recurrent  nervures  (discoidal);  m,  discoidal  vein;  n,  first  and  second  inner  api- 
cal or  submarginal  nervures.  Bullae  or  clear  spots,  on  the  veins  or  nervures,  with 
bullar  or  clear  lines  crossing  them.  1,2,  marginal  or  radial  cells ;  3, 4,  5, 6,  submar- 
ginal or  cubital  cells;  7,  8,  9,  discoidal  cells;  10,  costal  cell;  11, 12,  brachial  or  me- 
dial cells ;  13, 14,  inner  and  outer  apical  cells.  (Hinder  cells,  Hartig.  Cellule  dn 
limbe,  St.  Farg.)  No.  11  is  sometimes  the  medial,  and  Nos.  12  and  13  the  submedial 
cells;  Nos.  9  and  14  the  apical  cells;  Nos.  7 and  13  discoidal;  Nos.  10, 11, 12, 15,  the 
first,  second,  third  and  fou«tti  brachial  cells;  15,  lanceolate  cell.  1,  open;  2,  con- 
tracted; 3,  petiolate;  4,  subcontracted;  5,  with  oblique  cross  nervure;  G,  with 
straight  cross  nervure. 


TENTHREDINIM:.  215 

question  whether  the  increase  in  size  of  the  eggs  of  the  Saw- 
fly  is  not  rather  due  to  the  same  cause. 

The  punctures  in  the  plant  often  lead,  in  some  genera,  to  the 
production  of  galls,  in  which  the  larvae  live,  thus  showing 
the  near  relationship  of  this  family  to  the  gall-flies  (Cynipidae) . 

The  larvae  strongly  resemble  caterpillars,  but  there  are  six 
to  eight  pairs  of  abdominal  legs,  whereas  the  caterpillar  has 
but  five  pairs.  Many  species  curl  the  hind  body  up  spirally 
when  feeding  or  at  rest.  They  are  usually  green,  with  lines 
and  markings  of  various  colors.  They  usually  moult  four 
times,  the  last  change  being  the  most  marked.  Most  of  the 
larvae  secrete  silk  and  spin  a  tough  cocoon,  in  which  they  hiber- 
nate in  the  larva,  and  often  in  the  pupa  state.  The  pupa  has 
free  limbs,  as  in  the  other  families.  The  eggs  are  usually  de- 
posited in  the  leaves  of  plants,  but  in  a  few  cases,  according 
to  Norton,  in  slender  or  hollow  stems.  While  some  are  slug- 
shaped,  like  the  Pear-slug,  others  like  Lyda  inanita,  mentioned 
by  Westwood,  live  on  rose  bushes,  and  construct  a  "portable 
case,  formed  of  bits  of  rose-leaves  arranged  in  a  spiral  coil ; " 
and  other  species  are  leaf-rollers,  like  the  Tortricids.  The 
larva  of  Ceplius  does  injury  to  grain,  in  Europe,  by  bftring 
within  the  stems  of  wheat.  A  remarkable  instance  of  the  care 
of  the  saw-fly  for  her  young,  is  recorded  by  Mr.  R.  H.  Lewis, 
who  observed  in  Australia,  the  female  of  Perga  Lewisii  deposit 
its  eggs  in  a  slit  next  the  midribs  of  an  Eucalyptus  leaf.  They 
were  placed  transversely  in  a  double  series.  "On  this  leaf 
the  mother  sits  till  the  exclusion  of  the  larvae  ;  and  as  soon  as 
these  are  hatched,  the  parent  follows  them,  sitting  with  out- 
stretched legs  over  her  brood,  protecting  them  from  the  attacks 
of  parasites  and  other  enemies  with  admirable  perseverance." 
(Westwood.) 

The  species  are  mostly  limited  to  the  temperate  zone,  but 
few  being  found  in  the  tropics.  The  perfect  insects  mostly 
occur  in  the  early  summer,  and  are  found  on  the  leaves  of  the 
trees  they  infest,  or  feeding  on  flowers,  especially  those  of 
the  umbelliferous  plants. 

The  genus  Cimbex  contains  our  largest  species,  the  antennae 
ending  in  a  knob.  C.  Americana  Leach  is  widely  distributed, 
and  varies  greatly  in  color.  The  large  whitish  larva,  with  a 


216  HYMENOPTERA. 

blackish  dorsal  stripe,  may  be  found  rolled  up  in  a  spiral  on 
the  leaves  of  the  elm,  birch,  linden  and  willow  trees.  When 
disturbed  it  ejects  a  fluid  from  pores  situated  above  the  spira- 
cles. It  constructs  a  large  tough  parchment-like  cocoon,  and 
the  fly  appears  in  the  early  summer. 

The  genus  Trichiosoma  is  recognized  by  its  hairy  body,  and 
the  antennae  have  five  joints  preceding  the  three-jointed  club. 
T.  triangulum  Kirby  is  found  in  British  America  and  Colorado, 
and  a  variety,  T.  bicolor  Hams,  on  Mount  Washington ;  it  is 
black,  except  the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  with  the  fourth  and  fifth 
joints  of  the  antennae  piceous,  and  the  thorax  is  covered  with 
ash-colored  hair. 

In  Abia  the  antenna?  are  seven-jointed,  with  the  club  obtuse  ; 
the  body  is  villose,  the  abdomen  having  a  metallic  silken  hue. 
The  Abia  capnfolii  Norton  (Fig.  145,  larva)  is  very  destruc- 
tive to  the  Tartarian  Honeysuckle,  sometimes  stripping  the 
bush  of  its  leaves  during  successive  sea- 
sons in   Maine   and   Massachusetts.     It 
hatches  out  and  begins  its  ravages  very 
soon  after  the  leaves  are  out,  eating  cir- 
cular holes  in  them.     It  lies  curled  up 
on  the  leaf   and  when   disturbed   emits 
drops  of  a  watery  fluid  from  the  pores  in 
the  sides  of  the  body,  and  then  falls  to 
the   ground.     During   the  early  part  of 
August  it  spins  a  pale  yellowish  silken 
cocoon,  but  does  not  change  to  a  pupa, 
Mr.    Rile}^    states,    until    the    following 
Fig.  145.  spring.     He  describes  the  larva  as  being 

common  about  Chicago  ;  that  it  is  "bluish  green  on  the  back, 
and  yellow  on  the  sides,  which  are  pale  near  the  spiracles,  and 
covered  with  small  black  dots.  Between  every  segment  is  a 
small,  transverse,  yellow  band,  with  a  black  spot  in  the  middle 
and  at  each  end.  Head  free,  of  a  brownish  black  above  and 
color  of  the  body  beneath."  The  fly  is  described  by  Norton 
as  being  black,  with  faint  greenish  reflections  on  the  abdomen ; 
there  are  two  white  bands  at  the  base  of  the  metathorax,  and 
the  wings  are  banded.  It  is  .36  inch  long  and  the  wings  ex- 
pand .70  inch.  The  larvae  can  easily  be  destroyed  from  their 


TENTHREDINID  M .  217 

habit  of  falling  to  the  ground  when  the  bush  is  shaken,  where 
they  can  be  crushed  by  the  foot.  Dr.  Fitch  has  reared  AUa 
cerasi  from  one  or  two  cocoons  found  on  the  wild  cherry,  the 
fly  appearing  in  New  York  during  March. 

Hylotoma  is  a  much  smaller  genus ;  the  basal  joint  of  the 
antenna  is  oval,  while  the  second  is  small  and  round,  and 
the  terminal  joint  is  very  long.  The  larva  is  twenty-footed,  and 
when  eating  curves  the  end  of  the  body  into  the  form  of  an  S. 
The  pupa  is  protected  by  a  gauzy,  doubly  enveloping  cocoon. 
H.  McLeayi  Leach  is  wholly  black,  sometimes  with  a  tinge  of 
blue.  It  is  found  throughout  the  Northern  States. 

The  genus  Pristiphora,  closely  allied  to  Nematus,  is  known 
by  its  nine-jointed  antennae,  and  the  single  costal  cell ;  the  first 
submarginal  (subcostal)  cell  having  two  recurrent  veinlets. 
P.  identidem  Norton  has  been  discovered  by  Mr.  W.  C.  Fish  to 
be  destructive  to  the  cranberry  on  Cape  Cod.  He  has  reared 
the  insect,  and  sent  me  the  following  notes  on  its  habits,  while 
the  adult  fly  has  been  identified  by  Mr.  Norton,  to  whom  I 
submitted  specimens.  The  larvae  were  detected  in  the  first 
week  of  June,  eating  the  leaves  ;  "they  were  light  or  pale  yel- 
lowish green  when  first  hatched,"  and  grew  darker  with  age. 
The  head  of  the  young  was  dark,  but  in  the  full-grown  worm 
lighter.  When  full-grown  they  were  about  .30  of  an  inch  in 
length,  and  had  two  lighter  whitish  green  stripes  running  along 
the  back  from  head  to  tail.  They  had  spun  their  cocoons  b}^  the 
20th  of  June  in  the  rubbish  at  the  bottom  of  the  rearing  bot- 
tles. On.  the  29th  of  June  they  came  out  in  the  perfect  state. 
We  would  add  to  this  description  that  the  body,  in  two  alco- 
holic specimens  of  the  larvae,  was  long,  cylindrical,  and  smooth, 
with  seven  pairs  of  abdominal  feet.  The  head  is  full,  rounded 
and  blackish,  but  after  the  last  moult  pale  honey-yellow.  The 
male  is  shining  black,  and  Mr.  Norton  informs  me  that  it  is 
his  P.  idiota.  P.  grossularice  Walsh  is  a  widely  diffused  species 
in  the  Northern  and  Western  States,  and  injures  the  currant 
and  gooseberry.  The  female  fly  is  shining  black,  while  the 
head  is  dull  yellow,  and  the  legs  are  honey-yellow,  with  the  tips 
of  the  six  tarsi,  and  sometimes  the  extreme  tips  of  the  hinder 
tibiae  and  of  the  tarsal  joints  pale  dusky  for  a  quarter  of  their 
length.  The  wings  are  partially  hyaline,  with  black  veins,  a 


218  HYMENOPTERA. 

honey-yellow  costa,  and  a  dusky  stigma,  edged  with  honey- 
yellow.  The  male  differs  a  little  in  having  black  coxae.  Mr. 
Walsh  states  that  the  larva  is  a  pale  grass-green  worm,  half 
an  inch  long,  with  a  black  head,  which  becomes  green  after 
the  last  moult,  but  with  a  lateral  brown  stripe  meeting  with 
the  opposite  one  on  the  top  of  the  head,  where  it  is  more  or 
less  confluent ;  and  a  central  brown-black  spot  on  its  face. 
It  appears  the  last  of  June  and  early  in  July,  and  a  second 
brood  in  August.  They  spin  their  cocoons  on  the  bushes  on 
which  they  feed,  and  the  fly  appears  in  two  or  three  weeks,  the 
specimens  reared  by  him  flying  on  the  26th  of  August.  P. 
sycophanta  Walsh  is  an  "inquiline,"  or  guest  gall-saw-fly, 
inhabiting  a  Cecidomyian  gall  on  a  willow. 

The  genus  Euura  comprises  several  gall-making  species.  It 
differs  from  the  preceding  genus  in  the  second,  instead  of  the 
first,  submarginal  cell  having  two  recurrent  venules.  Mr. 
Walsh  has  raised  E.  orbitalis  Norton  (E.  genuina  Walsh)  from 
galls  found  on  Salix  humilis.  This  gall  is  a  bud  which  is 
found  enlarged  two  or  three  times  its  natural  size,  before  it 
unfolds  in  spring.  The  larva  is  twenty-footed,  is  from  .13  to 
.19  of  an  inch  long,  of  a  greenish  white  color,  and  the 
head  is  dusky.  It  bores  out  of  its  gall  in  autumn,  descending 
an  inch  into  the  ground,  where  it  spins  a  thin,  silken,  whitish 
cocoon.  The  gall  of  E.  salicis-ovum  Walsh  is  found  on  Salix 
cordata.  The  female  is  shining  yellow,  while  the  ground  color 
of  the  male  is  greenish  white.  The  gall  of  this  species  is  an 
oval  roundish,  sessile,  one-chambered,  green  or  brownish  swell- 
ing, .30  to  .50  of  an  inch  long,  placed  lengthwise  on  the  side  of 
small  twigs.  The  larva  is  pale  yellowish,  and  the  fly  appears 
in  April.  The  fly  is,  according  to  Walsh,  "  absolutely  undistin- 
guishable  by  any  reliable  character  from  the  guest  gall-saw-fly, 
Euura  perturbans  Walsh,"  which  inhabits  dipterous  galls  made 
by  Cecidomyian  flies  on  the  willow  and  grape  (Wal&h).  If  these 
two  "species"  do  not  differ  from  each  other,  either  in  the  larva 
or  adult  state,  "by  any  reliable  characters,"  then  one  must 
question  whether  the  variation  in  habits  is  sufficient  to  separate 
them  as  species,  and  whether  E.  salicis-ovum  does  not,  some- 
times, instead  of  forming  a  new  gall,  lay  its  eggs  in  a  gall  ready- 
made  by  a  dipterous  gall-fly.  We  have  seen  that  Odynerus 


TENTHREDINIDJE.  219 

albophaleratus,  which  usually  makes  a  mud  cell  situated  in  the 
most  diverse  places,  in  one  case  at  least,  makes  no  cell  at  all, 
but  uses  the  tunnel  bored  out  by  a  Ceratina  !  and  yet  we  should 
not  split  this  species  into  two,  on  account  of  this  difference 
in  its  habits.  We  had  written  this  before  meeting  with  Mr. 
Norton's  remark  that  "it  is  difficult  to  give  a  hearty  assent 
to  Mr.  Walsh's  inquilines  or  guest-flies,  without  further  inves- 
tigation." (Transactions  of  the  American  Entomological 
Society,  vol.  i,  p.  194.) 

In  Nematus  the  nine-jointed  antennae  have  the  third  joint 
longest.  There  is  one  costal  and  four  subcostal  cells,  the 
second  cell  receiving  two  recurrent  veinlets ;  the  basal  half 
of  the  lanceolate  cell  is  closed ;  the  hind  wings  have  two  mid- 
dle cells,  and  the  tibiae  are  simple. 

The  larvae  are  hairy  with  warts  behind  the  abdominal  feet. 
The}'  have  twenty  feet,  the  fourth  and  eleventh  segments  (count- 
ing the  head  as  one)  being  footless.  They  are  either  solitary, 
feeding  upon  the  leaves  of  plants,  or  social  and  generally  found 
on  pine  trees,  while  some  species  live  in  the  galls  of  plants.  The 
pupa,  according  to  Hartig,  is  enclosed  in  an  egg-shaped  cocoon, 
like  that  of  Lophyrus,  but  less  firm,  though  with  more  outside 
silk.  It  is  generally  made  in  the  earth,  or  in  leaves  which  fall 
to  the  ground.  N.  vertebratus  Say  is  green,  with  the  antennae 
and  dorsal  spots  blackish,  the  thorax  being  trilineate.  There 
are  fifty  species  in  this  country,  of  which  the  most  injurious 
one,  the  Gooseberry  saw-fly,  has  been  brought  from  Europe. 
This  is  the  N.  ventricosus  Klug  which  was  undoubtedly  imported 
into  this  country  about  the  year  1860,  spreading  mostly  from 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  where  there  are  extensive  nurseries.  It  does 
more  injury  to  the  currant  and  gooseberry  than  any  other  native 
insect,  except  the  currant  moth  (Abraxas  ribearia).  Professor 
Winchell,  who  has  studied  this  insect  in  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan, 
where  it  has  been  very  destructive,  observed  the  female  on 
the  16th  of  June,  while  depositing  her  cylindrical,  whitish  and 
transparent  eggs,  in  regular  rows  along  the  under  side  of 
the  veins  of  the  leaves,  at  the  rate  of  about  one  in  forty-five 
seconds.  The  embryo  escapes  from  the  egg  in  four  days. 
It  feeds,  moults  and  burrows  into  the  ground  within  a  period  of 
eight  days.  It  remains  thirteen  days  in  the  ground,  being 


220 


HYMENOPTERA . 


most  of  the  time  in  the  pupa  state,  while  the  fly  lives  nine  days. 
The  first  brood  of  worms  appeared  May  21,  the  second  brood 
June  25.  Winchell  describes  the  larva  as  being  pale-green, 
with  the  head,  tail  and  feet,  black,  with  numerous  black  spots 
regularly  arranged  around  the  body,  from  which  arise  two  or 
more  hairs.  Figure  146,  1,  shows  the  eggs  deposited  along  the 
under  side  of  the  midribs  of  the  leaf;  2,  the  holes  bored  by  the 
very  young  larvae,  and  3,  those  eaten  by  the  larger  worms. 

In  transporting  gooseberry  and  currant  bushes,  Walsh  recom- 
mends that  the  roots  be  carefully  cleansed  of  dirt,  so  that  the 

cocoons  may  not  be  car- 
ried about  from  one  gar- 
den to  another.  The  leaves 
of  the  bushes  should  be 
examined  during  the  last 
week  of  May,  and  as  only 
a  few  leaves  are  affected 
at  first,  these  can  be  de- 
tected by  the  presence  of 
the  eggs  and  the  little 
round  holes  in  them,  and 
should  be  plucked  off  and 
burnt.  The  female  saw- 
fly  is  bright  honey-yellow, 
with  the  head  black,  but 
yellow  below  the  insertion  of  the  antennae.  The  male  differs 
in  its  black  thorax,  and  the  antennae  are  paler  reddish  than  in 
the  female.* 

The  genus  Empliytus  has  nine-jointed  antennae  ;   the  third 

*  Mr.  Norton  has  communicated  the  following  description  of  the  larva  of  another 
saw-fly  of  this  genus  which  infests  the  weeping-willow. 

"  Nematus  trilineatus  Norton.  The  larvae  of  this  were  first  seen  upon  the  weep- 
ing-willows about  August  1st,  in  immense  numbers,  almost  wholly  stripping  large 
trees  of  their  leaves.  They  begin  upon  the  edge  of  the  leaf  and  eat  all  of  it  except 
the  inner  midrib.  They  are  very  sensitive  to  disturbances,  very  lively,  and  are 
generally  found  with  the  hinder  part  of  their  bodies  bent  up  over  the  back.  They 
are  twenty-footed,  of  a  bright  green  color,  palest  at  head  and  tail,  with  five  rows  of 
black  dots  down  the  back,  the  outer  row  upon  each  side  irregular  and  with  inter- 
vals. On  each  side  above  the  feet  is  another  row  of  larger  black  dots,  and  the  three 
anterior  pair  of  feet  are  black  at  the  base,  middle  and  tip. 

"  A  great  number  of  the  saw-flies  were  found  flying  about  the  trees,  August  19th, 
in  the  proportion  of  about  ten  males  to  one  female.  The  males  being  almost 
wholly  black  upon  the  thorax." 


1*6- 


TENTIIREDIN  ID^E . 


221 


and  fourth  joints  of  equal  length  ;  the  wings  have  two  subcos- 
tal and  three  median  cells,  the  first  as  long  as  the  second,  gen- 
erally longer  ;  the  first  receiving  one  recurrent  vein,  the  second 
two.  We  have  found  the  larva  of  E.  maculatus  Norton  on  the 
cultivated  strawberry,  to  which,  in  the  Western  States,  it  some- 
times does  considerable  damage,  but  it  can  be  quite  readily 
exterminated  by  hand-picking.  Mr.  Riley  has  carefully  ob- 
served the  habits  of  this  insect,  and  we  condense  the  follow- 
ing remarks  from  his  account  in  the  Prairie  Farmer  :  —  Early  in 
May,  in  Northern  Illinois,  the  female  saw-fly  deposits  her  eggs 
in  the  stem  of  the  plant.  They  are  white  and  .03  of  an  inch 
long,  and  may  be  readily  perceived  upon  splitting  the  stalk  ; 
though  the  outside 
orifice,  at  which 
they  were  intro- 
duced, is  scarcely 
perceptible,  their 
presence  causes  a 
swelling  in  the 
stalk.  By  the  mid- 
dle of  May  the 
worms  will  have 
eaten  innumerable 
small  holes  in  the 
leaves.  They  are 
dirty  yellow  and 
gray  green,  and  at  rest  curl  the  abdomen  up  spirally.  They 
moult  four  times,  and  are,  when  full-fed,  about  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  in  length.  They  make  a  loose,  earthen  cocoon  in  the 
ground,  and  change  to  perfect  flies  by  the  end  of  June  and 
the  beginning  of  July.  A  second  brood  of  worms  appears, 
and  in  the  early  part  of  August  descend  into  the  ground  and 
remain  in  the  larva  state  until  the  middle  of  the  succeeding 
April,  when  they  finish  their  transformations.  The  fly  is  pitchy 
black,  with  two  rows  of  dull,  dirty  white,  transverse  spots  upon 
the  abdomen.  The  nine-jointed  antennae  are  black,  and  the 
legs  are  brown,  and  almost  white  at  the  joints.  Fig.  147  rep- 
resents the  Strawberry  Emphytus  in  all  its  stages  of  growth. 
1,  2,  ventral  and  side-view  of  the  pupa;  3,  the  fly  enlarged; 


147- 


222 


HYMENOPTERA. 


5,  the  same,  natural  size ;  8,  an  antenna  enlarged ;  4,  the 
larva  while  feeding  ;  6,  the  same,  at  rest ;  7,  the  cocoon  ;  9,  an 
egg  enlarged. 

Of  the  genus  Dolerus,  known  by  the  second  submarginal  cell 
receiving  two  recurrents,  D.  arvensis  Say,  is  a  common  blue- 
black  species  found  in  April  and  May  on  willows. 

The  genus  JSelandria  is  the  most  injurious  genus  of  the 
family.  It  embraces  the  Pear  and  Rose- slugs,  the  Vine-slug 
and  the  Raspberry  slug.  The  flies  are  small, 
black,  with  short  and  stout  nine-jointed  an- 
tennae, and  broad  thin  wings.  "The  larvae 
are  twenty  and  twenty-two-footed,  present- 
ing great  differences  in  appearance  and  habit, 
being  slimy,  hairy  or  woolly,  feeding  in 
companies  or  alone,  eating  the  whole  leaf  as 
they  go,  or,  removing  only  the  cuticle  of  the 
leaf,  and  forming  sometimes  one  and  some- 
times two  broods  in  a  year.  Sdandria  vitis, 
the  Vine-slug,  is  twenty-footed ;  it  has  a 
smooth  skin,  and  the  body  is  somewhat  thick- 
ened in  the  middle  but  slender  towards  the 
tail.  "While  growing,  the  color  is  green 
above,  with  black  dots  across  each  ring,  and 
yellow  beneath,  with  head  and  tail  black. 
They  live  upon  the  vine  and  are  very  destruc- 
tive, feeding  early  in  August  in  companies,  on 
the  lower  side  of  the  leaf,  and  eating  it  all  as 
they  go  from  the  edge  inwards.  There  are  two  broods  in  a 
season.  The  fly  is  shining  black,  with  red  shoulders,  and 
the  front  wings  are  clouded."  (Norton.) 

S.  rubi  Harris  feeds  on  the  raspberry,  appearing  in  May. 
The  larva  is  green,  not  slinry,  and  feeds  in  the  night,  or  early 
in  the  morning.  3.  tilice  feeds  on  the  linden.  The  Pear-slug,  JS. 
cerasi  Peck  (Fig.  148,  larvae  feeding  on  a  leaf  of  the  pear,  and 
showing  the  surface  eaten  off  in  patches  ;  a,  enlarged  ;  5,  fly), 
is  twenty-footed  ;  it  narrows  rapidly  behind  the  swollen  thorax, 
and  is  covered  with  a  sticky  olive-colored  slime.  It  feeds  on 
the  upper  side  of  the  leaves  of  both  the  wild  and  cultivated 
cherry  and  pear  trees,  and  has  been  found  on  the  plum  and 


TENTHREDINID^E.  223 

mountain-ash.  It  appears  in  June  and  September.  The  fly  is 
shiny  black,  with  the  tips  of  the  four  anterior  femora,  and  the 
tibiae  and  tarsi,  dull  white.  An  egg-parasite,  belonging  to  the 
genus  Encyrtus,  renders,  according  to  Peck,  a  great  number 
of  its  eggs  abortive. 

The  Rose-slug,  Selandria  rosce  Harris,  is  longer  than  the  Pear- 
slug,  the  body  being  scarcely  thickened  anteriorty,  and  not. 
covered  with  slime.  It  is  pale-green  and  yellowish  beneath. 
It  appears  in  July  and  August,  and  does  great  injury  in  dis- 
figuring and  killing  the  leaves  of  the 
rose,  which  remain  dried  and  with- 
ered on  the  bush.  When  full-fed, 
the  larva,  like  the  Pear-slug,  makes 
a  cocoon  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  The  flies  are  seen  in  abund- 
ance about  the  rose-bushes  as  soon  Fig«  148. 
as  the  leaves  are  expanded,  when  they  may  be  caught  with 
nets,  or  the  hand  on  cloudy  days.  Hand-picking,  and  the 
application  of  a  very  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  coal  oil, 
whale  oil  soap,  or  quassia,  are  useful  in  killing  the  larvae. 

On  the  25th  of  July  a  young  friend  brought  me  a  large  num- 
ber of  some  remarkable  larvae  (Fig.  149,  natural  size)  of  a 
saw-fly,  which  I  surmised  might  belong  to  this  genus.  It  pre- 
sented the  appearance  of  an  animated,  white,  cottony  mass, 
about  an  inch  long  and  two-thirds  as  high.  The  head  of  the 
larva  is  rounded,  pale  whitish,  and  covered  with  a  snow-white 

powdery  secretion,  with  prominent 
black   eyes.     The   body    (Fig.   150, 
naked  larva)  is  cylindrical,  with  eight 
Fig.  150.  pairs  of  abdominal  legs,  the  segments 

transversely  wrinkled,  pale  pea-green,  with  a  powdery  secre- 
tion low  down  on  the  sides,  but  above  and  on  the  back,  arise 
long,  flattened  masses  of  flocculent  matter  (exactly  resembling 
that  produced  by  the  woolly  plant-lice  and  other  Homopterous 
Hemiptera)  forming  an  irregular  dense  cottony  mass,  reaching 
to  a  height  equal  to  two- thirds  the  length  of  the  worm,  and  con- 
cealing the  head  and  tail.  On  the  27th  and  28th  of  July  the 
larvae  moulted,  leaving  the  cast  skins  on  the  leaf.  They  were 
then  naked,  a  little  thicker  than  before,  of  a  pale-green  color, 


224  HYMENOPTERA. 

and  were  curled  on  the  leaf.     They  eat  out  the  edge  of  the 
leaf  of  the   butternut   tree.      Sometime  during  August,  two 

cocoons  were  spun  between  the 
leaves,  but  I  did  not  succeed  in 
raising  the  saw-fly.  On  describing 
the  larva,  in  a  letter  to  Mr.  E.  Nor- 
ton, he  kindly  sent  me  alcoholic 
specimens  of  larvae  (without  the 
woolly  substance,  which  dissolves 
and  disappears  in  alcohol)  found 
feeding  on  the  hickory,  which  are 
Fig- 151'  apparently,  from  the  comparison  of 

alcoholic  specimens,  identical  with  the  Butternut  Selandria. 
The  adult  fly  (Fig.  151,  <?,  a,  cocoon),  he  has  named  S.  caryce, 
of  which  he  has  kindly  furnished 
me  with  the  subjoined  description.* 
Allanius  is  closely  related  to  Se- 
landria, both  in  its  structure  and  its 
habits,  but  differs  in  having  the  an- 
tennae short  and  somewhat  clavate. 
A.  basilaris  Say  is  a  common  species.  Fig.  152. 

The  Pine  saw-fly,  Lopliyrus,  may  be  known  by  the  feathered 
antennae  of  the  male.  •  L.  abietis  Harris  (Fig.  152,  female) 
infests  the  fir  and  pitch-pine.  The  male  is  black  above  and 
brown  beneath,  while  the  female  is  yellowish  brown  above, 

*  Selandria  caryce  Norton,  nov.  sp.  (Belonging  to  tribe  2.  Under  wings  with  one 
middle  cell.  Div.  A.  Antennae  filiform,  short). 

Female.  Color  shining  black.  The  pro-  and  mesothorax  and  scutellum  rufous, 
the  apex  of  the  latter  black ;  the  nasus  and  legs  white,  with  their  tarsi  blackish ;  the 
base  of  coxae  and  a  line  down  the  upper  side  of  the  legs  black.  Antennae  ehort, 
the  second  joint  as  long  as  the  first;  the  four  final  joints  together,  not  longer  than 
the  two  preceding.  Nasus  slightly  incurved.  Claws  of  tarsi  apparently  bifid, 
Wings  sub  violaceous.  Lanceolate  cell  petiolate,  the  first  submedial  cell  above  it, 
with  a  distinct  cross  vein.  Under  wings  with  one  submarginal  middle  cell  (all 
other  species  have  this  cell  discoidal),  the  marginal  cell  with  a  cross  nervure,  and 
all  the  outer  cells  closed  by  an  outer  nervure,  which  does  not  touch  the  margin. 
The  submedial  cell  extended  nearly  to  margin.  Length,  .25  of  an  inch.  Expanse 
of  wings  .40  of  an  inch. 

"  The  male  resembles  the  female,  but  the  under  wings  are  without  middle  cells. 
The  larvae  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  the  hickory  (Juglans  squamosa.)  They  are 
found  upon  the  lower  side  of  the  leaf,  sometimes  fifteen  or  twenty  upon  one  leaf, 
which  they  eat  from  the  outer  extremity  inward,  often  leaving  nothing  but  the 
strong  midribs.  They  cover  themselves  wholly  with  white  flocculent  tufts  which 
are  rubbed  off  on  being  touched,  leaving  a  green  twenty-two  legged  worm,  about  .75 


TENTHREDINIDJE. 


225 


with  a  short  black  stripe  on  each  side  of  the  thorax.  The 
larvae  are  about  half  an  inch  long,  of  a  pale  dirty  green,  yel- 
lowish beneath,  striped  with  green,  and  when  full-fed  yellowish 
all  over.  They  are  social,  and  may  often  be  found  in  consider- 
able numbers  on  a  single  needle  of  the  pitch-pine.  The  larvae 
spin  tough  cocoons 
among  the  leaves, 
and  the  flies  appear 
during  August,  but 
probably  in  greater 
numbers  in  the 


spring. 

These  slugs  can 
be  best  destroj^ed 
by  showering  them 
with  a  solution  of 
carbolic  acid,  pe- 
troleum, whale  oil  Fig.  153. 
soap,  or  tobacco  water.  Mr.  Fish  has  sent  me  the  larvae  of  a 
saw-fly,  allied  to  L.  abietis,  which,  in  Eastham,  Mass.,  ravaged 
the  young  pitch-pines  planted  in  the  sandy  soil  of  that  region.* 
The  eggs  are  laid  singly  in  the  side  of  a  needle  of  the  pine ; 
though  sometimes  an  egg  is  inserted  on  each  side  of  the 
leaf. 

Mr.  Riley  has  described  the  habits  of  the  White-pine  saw-fly, 

of  an  inch  in  length  when  fully  grown ;  darkest  above,  and  with  indistinct  black- 
ish spots  upon  the  sides.  The  head  is  white  with  a  small  black  dot  upon  each  side. 

"  Specimens  were  taken  upon  the  leaves  July  4th.  Went  into  the  ground  about 
the  20th  of  July.  The  cocoon  is  formed  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  of  a  little 
earth  or  sand  drawn  together.  Four  specimens  came  forth  about  August  22d,  all 
seeming  very  small  for  so  large  larvae." 

*  On  sending  specimens  of  the  male  and  female  to  Mr.  Norton  he  writes  that 
this  is  an  undescribed  species,  of  which  he  has  prepared  the  following  description : 

"  Lophyrus  pini-rigidce  Norton.  New  Species.  Female.  Length,  0.30 ;  expanse 
of  wings,  0.65  of  an  inch;  antennae  seventeen-jointed,  short,  brown;  color,  luteous 
brown,  with  a  black  line  joining  the  ocelli,  a  black  stripe  down  each  of  the  three  lobes 
of  the  thorax  above,  and  the  sutures  behind ;  body  paler  beneath ;  the  trochanters 
and  base  of  the  tibiae  waxen;  claws  with  an  inner  tooth  near  the  middle;  wings 
very  slightly  clouded ;  cross  nervure  of  the  lanceolate  cell  straight.  Male.  Length, 
0.25;  expanse  of  wings,  0.55  of  an  inch;  antennas  fifteen-jointed,  black, quite  short, 
with  twelve  branches  on  each  side,  those  at  the  base  nearly  as  long  as  the  sixth 
and  seventh;  apical  joint  simple,  enlarged  at  base;  color  of  insect  black,  with  the 
abdomen  at  apex  and  beneath  yellow- brown ;  legs  the  same  color  at  base;  below 
the  knees  whitish. 

15 


226 


HYMENOPTERA. 


L.  Abbotii  Leach.  The  flies  appear  early  in  June,  and  there  is 
but  a  single  brood  of  larvae,  which  remain  on  the  trees,  in  Illi- 
nois, until  November,  and  hibernate  before  changing  to  pupae. 
The  female  is  honey-yellow,  with  pale  rufous  legs,  and  the 
male  is  jet  black.  Fig.  153  represents,  after  Riley,  the  trans- 
formations of  this  species,  whose  habits  closely  resemble  those 
of  L.  abietis.  1,  is  the  fly  somewhat  magnified;  6,  magnified 
antenna  of  the  male ;  7,  female  antenna ;  2  and  3,  pupae ; 
4,  larvae  in  different  positions,  natural  size  ;  5,  cocoon.  The  L. 
Lecontei  Fitch  has  been  found  feeding  on  the  Scotch  and  Aus- 
trian pines  in  New  Jersey,  and  has  been .  described  by  Mr. 
Riley.  The  larva  is  an  inch  long,  dirty  or  yellowish  white, 
with  dorsal  black  marks  wider  before  than  behind,  and  usually 
broken  transversely  in  the  full-grown  individuals ;  they  are 
farther  apart  than  in  L.  Abbotii.  "The  lateral  spots  are  some- 
what square,  with  an  additional  row  of  smaller  black  marks 
below  them,  and  the  last  segment  is  entirely  black  above.  The 
antennae  of  the  male  fly  are  twenty- one-jointed,  and  have  on 
one  side  seventeen  large,  and  on  the  other  seventeen  small 
branches,  there  being  eighteen  on  one  side  and  fifteen  on  the 
other  in  L.  Abbotii.  The  female  may  at  once  be  distinguished 
from  L.  Abbotii  by  her  abdomen  being  jet-black  above,  with  a 
small  brown  patch  at  the  end,  and  a  transverse  line  of  the 
same  color  just  below  the  thorax." 

There  are  several  allied  genera,  such  as  Cladius  (C.  isomera 
Harris),  Lyda  (L.  scripta  Say),  and  Xyela  (X.  infuscata  Har- 
ris), which  belong  here.  The  last  genus,  Cephus,  which  by  some 


"  The  females  of  Lophyrus  are  all  much  alike  and  I  have  found  the  number  and 
forms  of  the  joints  of  the  antennae,  so  far,  the  only  reliable  guide.  The  male  looks 
precisely  like  that  of  L.  abietis,  but  the  form  of  the  antennae  differs  in  being  much 
shorter.  The  female  looks  much  like  L.  abdominalis  Say,  taken  on  the  pine  near 
New  York.  The  following  list  will  show  how  the  species  may  be  distinguished  by 
counting  the  number  of  joints." 

male,      not  described, 


L.  Fabricii  Leach, 
L.  compar  Leach, 
L.  pini-rigidaa  Norton, 
L.  Abbotii  Leach, 
L.  abietis  Harris, 
L»  abdominalis  Say, 
L.  pinetum  Norton, 
L.  Americanus  Leach, 
L.  insularis  Cresson, 
L.  Lecontei  Fitch, 


15  joints 
not  described 
21  joints, 
not  described, 
19  joints, 
not  described, 
17  joints, 
17     " 


female,  16  joints. 
16 
17 
17 
18 
38 
18 
19 
20 
21 


Pine. 


Pine. 


Pine. 


UROCEBID^.  227 

authors  is  placed  in  the  next  family,  is  retained  by  Norton  in  the 
present  group.  The  larva  is,  in  Europe,  injurious  to  rye  and 
wheat,  boring  in  the  stems  of  the  plant.  Cephus  abbreviates  Say 
is  our  more  typical  form,  though  rarely  met  with.  C.  trimaculatus 
Say  is  found  in  New  York  early  in  June,  according  to  Dr.  Fitch. 

UROCERID^E  Leach.  The  family  of  "  Horntails"  are  so-called 
from  the  long  prominent  horn  on  the  abdomen  of  the  males, 
while  the  ovipositor  or  "saw,"  resembling  that  of  the  true  saw- 
flies,  is  attached  to  the  middle  of  the  abdomen,  and  extends  far 
beyond  its  tip.  They  are  of  large  size,  with  a  long  cylindrical 
body  and  a  large  head,  square  next  the  thorax,  but  much 
rounded  in  front.  The  antennae  are  long  and  filiform.  The 
larvae  are  "cylindrical  fleshy  grubs,  of  a  whitish  color,  with  a 
small  rounded  horny  head,  and  a  pointed  horny  tail.  They  have 
six  very  small  legs  under  the  fore-part  of  the  body,  and  are  pro- 
vided with  strong  and  powerful  jaws,  wherewith  they  bore  long 
holes  in  the  trunks  of  the  trees  they  inhabit.  Like  other  borers 
these  grubs  are  wood-eaters,  and  often  do  great  damage  to  pines 
and  firs,  wherein  they  are  most  commonly  found."  Harris 
farther  states  that,  when  about  to  transform,  the  larvae  make 
thin  cocoons  of  silk  in  their  burrows,  interwoven  with  little 
chips  made  by  the  larva.  "After  the  chrysalis  skin  is  cast  off, 
the  winged  insect  breaks  through  its  cocoon,  creeps  to  the 
mouth  of  its  burrow,  and  gnaws  through  the  covering  of  bark 
over  it,  so  as  to  come  out  of  the  tree  into  the  open  air." 

Xiphidria  is  so-called  from  the  sword-like  ovipositor,  which 
is  much  shorter  than  in  the  succeeding  genera.  The  body  is  a 
little  flattened,  somewhat  turned  up  behind,  and  the  tip  of  the 
abdomen  ends  in  an  obtuse  point,  while  the  antennae  are  short, 
curved  and  tapering  at  the  end.  Xiphidria  albicornis  Harris  is 
black  with  yellowish  legs  and  white  antennae,  with  the  two 
lowest  joints  black.  It  is  nearly  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long. 

The  typical  genus  of  the  family  is  Urocerus,  which  has  a  large 
body,  with  a  large  ovipositor  and  long,  sixteen  to  twenty-four- 
jointed  antennae,  while  the  body  of  the  male  ends  in  a  stout 
acute  horn.  U.  albicornis  Fabricius  has  white  antennae,  and  the 
female  is  of  a  deep  blue-black  color,  while  the  male  is  black. 
It  is  found  on  pine  trees  in  July.  It  is  an  inch  in  length. 


228  HYMENOPTERA. 

The  genus  Tremex  is  known  by  the  wings  having  two  mar- 
ginal and  three  submarginal  cells.  Tremex  Columba  Linn,  in- 
fests the  elm,  pear  and  button-wood.  The  female  is  an  inch 
and  a  half  long,  rust-red,  varied  with  black,  while  the  abdomen 
is  black  with  seven  ochre-yellow  bands  on  the  upper  side,  all 
but  the  two  basal  ones  being  interrupted  in  the  middle.  They 
fly  during  the  last  of  summer. 

"Dr.  Harris  thus  describes  the  habits  of  this  interesting  in- 
sect. The  female,  when  about  to  lay  her  eggs,  draws  her  borer 
out  of  its  sheath,  till  it  stands  perpendicularly  under  the  middle 
of  her  body,  when  she  plunges  it,  by  repeated  wiggling  motions, 
through  the  bark  into  the  wood.  "When  the  hole  is  made  deep 
enough,  she  then  drops  an  egg  therein,  conducting  it  to  the 
place  by  means  of  the  two  furrowed  pieces  of  the  sheath.  The 
borer  often  pierces  the  bark  and  wood  to  the  depth  of  half  an 

inch  or  more,  and  is  sometimes  driven 
in  so  tightly  that,  the  insect  cannot 
draw  it  out  again,  but  remains  fast- 
ened to  the  tree  till  she  dies.  The 
eggs  are  oblong  oval,  pointed  at 
each  end,  and  rather  less  than  one- 
twentieth  of  an  inch  in  length. 
Fis-  154<  "The  larva,  or  grub,  is  yellowish 

white,  of  a  cylindrical  shape,  rounded  behind,  with  a  conical, 
horny  point  on  the  upper  part  of  the  hinder  extremity,  and  it 
grows  to  the  length  of  about  an  inch  and  a  half.  It  is  often 
destroyed  by  the  maggots  of  two  kinds  of  Ichneumon-flies 
(Rhyssa  atrata  and  lunator  of  Fabricius).  These  flies  may 
frequently  be  seen  thrusting  their  slender  borers,  measuring 
from  three  to  four  inches  in  length,  into  the  trunks  of  trees 
inhabited  by  the  grubs  of  the  Tremex,  and  by  other  wood-eat- 
ing insects ;  and  like  the  female  of  the  Tremex  they  some- 
times become  fastened  to  the  trees,  and  die  without  being  able 
to  draw  their  borers  out  again." 

We  have  noticed  the  trunk  of  an  elm,  at  Saratoga  Springs, 
perforated  by  great  numbers  of  holes,  apparently  made  by  these 
insects.  T.  latitarsus  Cresson  (Fig.  154  ;  a,  antenna  ;  6,  wing  ; 
c,  hind  leg)  is  remarkable  for  the  expansions  on  the  hind  legs. 
It  lives  in  Cuba. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


229 


LEPIDOPTERA. 

BUTTERFLIES  AND  MOTHS  are  readily  recognized  by  their 
cylindrical,  compact  bodies ;  their  small  head,  with  its  large 
clypeus ;  by  the  maxillae  being  prolonged  into  a  tubular 


Fig.  155.*  Fig.  156. 

"tongue;"  the  obsolete  mandibles;  and  the  broad,  regularly 
veined  wings,  which  are  covered  with  minute  scales. 

Their  transformations  are  complete  ;  the  active  larvae  assum- 
ing a  cylindrical,  worm-like  form,  being  rarely  footless,  and 


ab 


md 
Fig.  157.  Fig.  158. 

having  from  one  to  five  pairs  of  fleshy  abdominal  legs,  besides 
the  three  pairs  of  corneous  jointed  thoracic  limbs.  A  large 
proportion  (butterflies  excepted)  spin  silken  cocoons  before 

*For  explanation  of  cuts,  155  to  171,  see  pages  233  and  234. 


230 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


changing  to  pupae  (chrysalids,  nymphs).  In  the  pupa  state 
the  limbs  and  appendages  of  the  head  are  soldered  together, 
and  the  head  and  thorax  tend  to  form  one  region,  upon  which 
the  third  region,  or  abdomen,  is  more  or  less  movable.  Three 


Fig.  159.  Fig.  160.  Fig.  161. 

or  four  genera  of  the  lower  families  are  partially  aquatic,  while, 
as  a  whole,  the  suborder  is  purely  terrestrial. 

The  three  regions  of  the  body  are  very  distinct,  but  the  head, 
though  free,  is  smaller  and  with  its  parts  less  equally  developed 


Fig.  162. 

than  in  the  Hymenoptera,  and  the  "propodeum"  has  now  be- 
come plainly  the  first  abdominal  ring.  The  abdomen  is  also 
longer,  with  the  genital  armor  partially  exserted,  thus  showing 
a  tendency  to  decephalization.  In  fine,  the  whole  body  is 


Fig.  163.  Fig.  164. 

loosened  and  less  compact  than  in  the  Hymenoptera.  Their 
broad  wings ;  obsolete  mouth-parts,  with  the  abnormally  devel- 
oped maxillae ;  and  active  larvae,  with  their  worm-like  shape, 


LEPIDOPTERA.  231 

are  also  characters  which  show  that  they  are  more  degraded  than 
the  Hymenoptera.     There  is  also  a  greater  disproportion  in  the 
relative  size  of  the  three  thoracic  rings.   In  the  abdominal  rings 
the  pleurites  are  much  larger  than  in  Hymenoptera,  where  they 
are   partially   obsolete.     They 
scarcely  use  the  legs,  the  fore 
pair    (so  remarkably  differen-  J^      B 

tiated  in  the  higher  Hymenop- 
tera) being  partially  obsolete 
in  some  butterflies  (Vanessa, 
etc.).  They  are  essentially 
fliers,  not  having  the  great 
variety  in  the  mode  of  loco-  Fig.  165. 

motion  observable  in  the  Hymenoptera.  No  parasites  are 
known  to  occur  in  this  suborder.  They  are  only  social  while  in 
the  larval  state,  and  then  merely  because  their  eggs,  in  such  in- 
stances, are  laid  in  bunches,  and  on  distinct  food-plants  to 
which  the  larvae  are  confined.  The  adults  rarely 
take  an  active  part  in  the  economy  of  nature, 
and  have  but  little  opportunity  for  the  mani- 
festation of  instinct  and  reason,  though  the 
larvae  in  seeking  for  suitable  places  in  which 
to  undergo  their  transformations  often  exhibit 
Fig.  166.  wonderful  instinct. 

The  readiest  method  of  determining  the  natural  position  of 
groups  is  by  a  comparison  of  their  degradational  forms.  Thus 
we  find  that  in  the  degraded  Hymenoptera  the  tripartite  form 
of  the  body  is  preserved ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  wing- 
less Lepidoptera  (such  as  the  female 
of  Orgyia  and  Anisopteryx)  the  body 
is  either  oval,  the  head  being  less 
free  and  smaller  than  in  the  winged 
form,  and  the  thorax  and  abdomen 
continuous,  their  respective  rings 
being  of  much  the  same  size  and 
shape,  while  the  legs  are  feeble: 
or,  as  in  the  female  of  CEketicus,  Fig.  167. 

the  body  is  elongated,  and  worm-like.     The  wingless  moths, 
then,  are  much  lower  than  the  worker  ants,  the  female  Scolia, 


232 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


etc.,  giving  us  an  unfailing  test  of  the  difference  in  rank  of  the 
two   suborders.      In  their    habits   and  transformations,   and 

in  their    external 

A  anatomy,  the  Lep- 

idoptera  vary  less 
than  other  insects. 
The    Lepidop- 
tera,  while  in  the 
perfect  state,  can 
be  scarcely  said  to 
walk  much,  com- 
pared with  beetles 
Fig.  168.  ^, .  an(j  other  walking 

insects,  the  legs  being  only  used  to  support  them  while  at  rest, 
and  not  for  locomotion.  They  move  almost  entirely  by  their 
broad  wings,  which 
with  them  are  more 
highly  specialized 
than  in  other  in- 
sects. Their  fore 
wings  are  usually 
triangular  in  form, 
while  their  hind 
wings  are  some- 
what square  or  rounded. 


...i 


Fig.  170. 


i 
Fig.  169. 

.The  anterior  wings  are  the  most 
typical  in  form  and  venation. 

The  surface,  from  the   costa  to  the  inner  edge,  may  be 


Fig.  171. 

divided  into  three  areas,  — the  costal,  median,  and  internal. 
There  are  five  principal  veins :   the  costal  and  subcostal  are 


LEPIDOPTERA.  233 

grouped  together,  and  form  the  costa  or  front  edge  of  the  wing  ; 
the  median  occupies  the  middle  of  the  wing;  and  the  sub- 
median  and  internal,  the  hinder,  or  internal,  area  of  the  wing. 
The  costal  vein  is  usually  simple,  and  joins  the  costa  near  its 
outer  third.  The  subcostal,  near  the  middle  of  the  wing,  is 
usually  subdivided  into  five  branches,  which  are  called  ven- 
ules,  while  the  median  is  usually  subdivided  into  one  venule 
less,  and  the  submedian  and  internal  are  simple.  The  last,  or 
fifth,  subcostal  venule,  and  the  first  median  venule,  generally 
each  throw  out  a  small  venule,  which  meet  to  form  the  discal 
venule,  thus  enclosing  a  large  central  area  called  the  discal  area, 
or  cell.  There  are  rarely  any  cross  venules  present.  Some- 
times, as  in  Hepialus,  there  is  a  transverse  costal  venule,  and 
an  interno-submedian  venule.  They  are  usually  found  only  in 
degraded  Lepidoptera,  and  recall  the  net-veined  style  of  vena- 
tion of  the  Neuroptera. 

The  legs  are  slender,  cylindrical,  and  weak.  The  coxae  are 
closely  united  with  the  thorax,  the  trochanters  are  spherical, 

FIGS.  155, 153,  give  a  general  view  of  the  body  of  a  butterfly  denuded  of  scales. 
FIG.  155.  a,  antenna ;  1,  prothorax ;  m,  patagia,  or  shoulder-tippets ;  k,  mesoscutum ; 
n,  abdomen;  A,  costal  edge  of  fore-wing;  D,  apex;  C,  outer  edge  excavated;  E, 
outer  angle;  B,  inner  edge;  ab,  discal  cell;  am,  discal  venules,  throwing  off  the 
independent  vein,  al.  The  dotted  lines  indicate  the  inner,  middle  and  outer  third 
of  the  wing.  FIG.  157  illustrates  the  mode  of  ornamentation  of  the  wings 
of  moths;  ab,  am  and  al,  the  inner,  the  middle,  and  outer  third  of  the  wings.  The 
capitals  are  the  same  as  in  FIG.  155 ;  sd,  the  basal  line ;  sa,  the  inner  line ;  sp, 
the  outer,  and  ms,  the  marginal  line  variously  waved,  scalloped  and  angulated. 
In  most  of  the  Noctuidae  are  the  dentiform  spot,  1  6 ;  mo,  the  orbicular,  and  mr,  the 
reniform  spots ;  between  the  two  latter  often  runs  the  transverse  shade,  um.  In 
FIG.  158,  hind  wing,  fr  indicates  the  "bristle"  which  fits  into  the  "hook"  on 
the  fore- wing,  uniting  the  two  wings  during  flight;  cm,  situated  in  the  discal  cell, 
indicates  the  "lunule,"  and  beyond  are  the  outer  and  marginal  dusky  bands. 
FIG.  159,  la,  internal  vein;  Ib,  submedian  vein;  2,  3,  4,  5,  the  four  branches 
(venules)  of  the  median  vein  (in  FIG.  1GO,  5  becomes  the  independent  venule) ; 
6  to  12,  branches  of  the  subcostal  (in  FIG.  161,  xii,  is  the  costo-subcostal  recurrent 
venule).  In  FIG.  1(52,  wings  of  the  Hepialus,  the  venation  is  more  irregular,  and  in 
the  fore-wing  the  discal  cell  is  divided  into  an  anterior  and  posterior  discal 
cellule,  by  the  disco-longitudinal  vein ;  sd,  x,  and  s,  accessory  cells.  In  the  Tineids 
the  venation  is  very  simple.  In  FIG.  163,  the  submedian  and  internal  veins  have 
disappeared ;  9  is  the  costal  vein ;  2,  3,  the  two  branches  of  the  median  vein ;  4  to 
8,  branches  of  the  subcostal  vein.  In  FIG.  164,  the  internal  vein  is  shortened,  and  the 
submedian  forked,  while  the  median  and  subcostal  are  merged  together.—  From 
Heinemann,  in  Morris's  Synopsis,  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections.  Compare 
also  FIG.  29  on  page  23. 

FIGS.  156  and  165.  a,  antenna,  on  one  side  wholly,  and  on  the  other  partially, 
pectinate;  6,  eye;  /,  ocellus;  h,  labial  palpus;  g,  maxillae  or  "tongue;"  o,  coxa; 
p,  trochanter;  g,  femur;  r,  tibia;  V,  single  anterior  spur;  r*,  two  middle  tibial 
spurs;  2,  3,  two  pairs  of  posterior  tibial  spurs;  s,  tarsus. 


234  LEPIDOPTERA. 

and  the  femora,  tibiae  and  tarsi,  slender  and  very  equal  in 
length.  There  are  usually  two  tibial  spurs.  The  tarsus  is 
five-jointed,  the  terminal  joint  ending  in  two  slender  claws. 

The  scales  covering  the  body  of  Lepidoptera  are  simply 
modified  hairs.  In  studying  the  wing  of  the  Cecropia  moth, 
we  find  the  hairs  of  the  body  and  base  of  the  wing  gradually 
passing  into  the  forms  represented  in  Fig.  166.  They  are 
attached  to  the  wings  and  laid  partially  over  one  another  like 
the  tiles  on  a  roof  (Fig.  167).  They  are  inserted  in  somewhat 
regular  lines,  though,  as  seen  in  the  figure,  these  lines  are  often 
irregular,  as  shown  by  the  line  of  scars  where  the  scales  have 
been  removed.  The  scales  are  beautifully  ornamented  with  mi- 
croscopic lines.  We  find,  on  removing  the  scales,  that  the 
head  consists  of  three  well-marked  pieces,*  i.  e.  the  occiput 
or  basal  piece  which  lies  behind  the  ocelli ;  the  epicranium, 
lying  behind  the  insertion  of  the  antennae,  and  carrying  the  eyes 
and  ocelli,  and  the  clypeus,  which  constitutes  the  front  of  the 
head.  The  latter  piece  is  larger  than  in  all  other  insects,  its 
size  being  distinctive  of  the  Lepidoptera.  There  is  a  general 
form  of  this  piece  for  each  family,  and  it  affords  excellent 
characters  in  the  different  genera,  especially  among  the  butter- 
flies (as  Mr.  L.  Trouvelot  has  shown  us  in  a  series  of  drawings 
made  by  him),  and  the  Zygcenidce  and  Bombycidce.  It  is 
largest,  and  most  perfectly  shield-shaped,  in  the  Attaci.  In  the 
Phal  cen  idee,  it  is  smaller,  and  square  ;  and  in  the  Tine  idee 
it  is  smaller  still,  while  the  occiput  and  epicranium  are 
larger. 

The  labrum  is  remarkably  small  and  often  concealed  by  the 
overhanging  clypeus.  The  labium  is  small,  short,  triangular, 
and  the  mentum  is  nearly  obsolete.  The  lingua  is  obsolete,  its 
place  being  supplied  by  the  tongue-like  maxillae.  The  labial 
palpi  are  feebly  developed,  sometimes  rudimentary,  and  consist 

*Fio.  168.  A,  head  of  Ctenucha  Virginica  denuded;  oc,  occiput;  ec,  epicranium, 
with  the  two  ocelli,  o,  and  the  base  of  the  antennae,  at;  e,  eye;  c,  clypeus^  I,  la- 
brum; m,  mandible;  mx, tongue,  or  maxillae,  with  the  end  split  apart;  B, rudimen- 
tary maxilla  of  Actias  Luna,  with  its  single-jointed  rudimentary  palpus,  showing 
the  mode  of  attachment  to  the  base  of  the  maxilla;  C,  two-jointed,  rudimentary 
labial  palpus  of  A.  Luna;  D,  the  same,  single  jointed,  of  Platysamia  Cecropia. 

FIGS.  169, 170.  Head  of  amoth  in  relation  to  the  prothorax  (1).  FIG.  171,  A,  B,  side 
view  and  (C)  front  view  of  the  head  of  a  moth;  «,  antenna;  b,  eye;  d,  the  "front;" 
e,  orbit  of  the  eye;  /,  ocellus;  g,  maxilla  situated  between  h,  the  three-jointed  la- 
bial palpi ;  t,  the  maxillary  palpus,  sometimes  very  large  and  three-jointed. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


235 


of  from  one  to  three  joints,  the  terminal  one  being  small  and 
pointed.     They  are  recurved  in  front  of  the  head,  on  each  side 
of  the  spiral  tongue,  and  are 
covered  with  hairs  ;  their  func- 
tion,   as    touchers    or    feelers, 
seeming  to  be  lost.     The  man- 
dibles are  rudimentary,  consist- 
ing of  a  pair  of  horny  tubercles, 
partly  concealed  by  the  front 
edge    of    the     clypeus.      The 
maxillae,    on   the   other   hand, 
are  remarkably  developed.    In 
their   rudimentary  state,  as  in  Attacus,  they  form  a  pair  of 
grooved  blades,  the  hollowed  sides  being  opposed   and  held 


Fig.  173.  Fig.  174.  Fig.  175. 

together  by  a  row  of  minute  teeth,  thus  forming  a  canal.     The 
insect   sucks   through  this  long  tube  the  sweets  of  flowers. 


Fig.  176.  Fig.  177.  Fig.  178.  Fig.  179. 

The  "tongue"  is  often  nearly  as  long  as  the  body  of  the  insect 
itself,  and  when  at  rest,  is  rolled  up  and  held  between  the 
palpi.  At  its  base  are  the  minute  rudimental  maxillary  palpi, 


236  LEPIDOPTERA. 

which  are  generally  concealed,  but  are  apparent  in  the  smaller 
and  lower  moths,  Crambus  and  the  Tineids.  They  are  usually 
from  two  to  three-jointed,  and  even  five  to  six-jointed,  as  in 
Tinea  granella,  and  longer  than  the  maxillae,  thus  resembling 
the  Phryganeidce ,  or  Caddis  flies. 

In  seeking  for  honey  with  their  long  maxillae,  the  Lepidop- 
tera  play  an  important  part  in  the  fertilization  of  plants, 
especially  the  Orchids. 

The  ocelli  are  often  present,  though  they  do  not  form  a  tri- 
angle on  the  vertex,  as  there  are  only  two,  the  third  and  most 
anterior  one  being  absent.  The  eyes  are  large  and  globose, 
and  vary  in  their  distance  apart  in  different  families. 

The  antennae  vary  greatly  ;  they  are  either  filiform  (Fig.  172, 
a),  or  setiform  (Fig.  172,  &),  or  fusiform,  as  in  the  Sphinges 
(Fig.  172,  c),  or  club-shaped,  as  in  Papilio  (Fig.  172,  d).  They 
are  rarely  entirely  naked,  but  are  finely  ciliated  (Fig.  173),  or 
have  a  pair  of  bristles  on  each  joint  (Fig.  174),  which  are 
sometimes  tufted  (Fig.  175).  The  joints  are  sometimes  toothed 
(Fig.  176),  lamellate  (Fig.  177),  serrate  (Fig.  178),  or  pec- 
tinate (Fig.  179). 

The  thorax  in  Lepidoptera  is  remarkable  for  the  small  size 
of  the  first,  or  prothoracic  ring,  the  mesothorax  being  highly 
developed.  In  Telea  (Figs.  11  and  12,  on  page  11)  the  Char- 
acteristic form  is  well  shown.  The  tergal  arch  of  the  pro- 
thorax  is  almost  obsolete,  the  scutum  alone  being  represented 
by  a  corneous  piece,  while  the  pleural  parts  are  more  developed 
as  supports  for  the  forelegs.  In  the  mesothorax  the  prae- 
scutum  is  present,  but  is  usually  vertical,  being  bent  down 
and  concealed  between  the  two  rings,  becoming  visible,  how- 
ever, from  above  in  Hepialus  (Sthenopis),  in  which  respect  it 
strikingly  resembles  the  position  and  development  of  the  same 
piece  in  the  neuropterous  Polystoechotes.  The  scutum  is  large, 
with  convex  sides,  broadest  behind  the  middle,  and  deeply 
notched  for  the  reception  of  the  triangular  scutellum,  which 
is  about  one-fourth  the  size  of  the  scutum.  The  postscutellum 
is  transverse,  and  situated  out  of  sight,  unless  the  two  hinder 
thoracic  rings  are  separated,  under  the  scutellum.  The  epi- 
sterna  and  trochantines  are  large,  and  the  whole  mesothoracic 
flanks  nearly  twice  as  wide  as  those  of  the  metathorax.  The 


LEPIDOPTERA.  237 

metathorax  is  much  compressed  antero-posteriorly.  The  scu- 
tum is  thrown  aside  as  it  were  by  the  scutellum  into  two  lat- 
eral, nearly  square  halves,  the  remaining  tergal  pieces  being 
usually  obsolete  and  membranous,  but  in  Sthenopis  the  prse- 
scutum  and  scutellum  (Fig.  13,  page  12)  are  large,  and  meet 
in  the  middle  of  the  segment,  much  as  in  the  neuropterous 
Sialidce  and  Hemerobiidce. 

The  abdomen  is  oval  in  Papilio,  becoming  long  and  linear  in 
the  Tineids.  In  the  Zygcenidce,  especially,  the  basal  ring  is 
membranous  and  is  partly  adherent  to  the  thorax,  and  somewhat 
inflated  on  each  side.  The  number  of  abdominal  segments 
varies,  being  either  eight  or  nine ;  the  variation  occurring,  as 
stated  by  Lacaze-Duthiers,  in  closely  allied  genera ;  thus  the 
genital  and  anal  openings  are  placed  more  usually  behind  the 
eighth,  but  sometimes  behind  the  ninth  segment. 

The  genital  armor  is  very  simple,  consisting  of  two  valve- 
like  pieces.  The  parts  beyond  (anal  stylets,  etc.)  are  aborted, 
so  that  the  anus  and  external  opening  of  the  oviduct  are 
brought  closely  together.  In  the  male  the  parts  are  more  com- 
plex, the  anal  forceps  often,  as  in  the  Callosamia  Promethea, 
forming  long  curved  hooks  for  clasping  the  abdomen  of  the 
female. 

The  nervous  system  of  Lepidoptera,  and  its  changes  during 
the  transformations  of  the  larva,  have  been  studied  most 
thoroughly  by  Herold  (in  Pieris)  and  Newport  (in  Sphinx 
ligustri  and  Vanessa  urticse).  In  the  imago  the  ventral  cord 
consists  of  seven  ganglia,  while  in  the  larva  there  are  eleven. 
This  decrease  in  their  number  is  due  to  the  fusion,  during  the 
pupa  state,  of  the  first,  second,  third  and  fourth  ganglia  of 
the  larva,  exclusive  of  those  situated  in  the  front  part  of  the 
head ;  these  form  the  two  thoracic  ganglia  which  distribute 
nerves  to  the  legs  and  the  muscles  of  the  wings.  Meanwhile 
the  fifth  and  sixth  ganglia  of  the  larva  have  either  disappeared 
entirely,  or  been  united  with  the  others. 

The  digestive  system  (see  Fig.  44,  on  page  35)  of  butterflies 
and  moths  is  modified  to  suit  their  peculiar  habits.  They  draw 
in  the  sweets  of  plants  through  the  "tongue"  by  a  sucking 
stomach  which  opens  into  the  hinder  end  of  the  oesophagus. 
4 'The  ileum  is  long,  small,  and  nearly  always  forms  several 


238  LEPIDOPTERA. 

convolutions.  The  colon  is  constantly  of  a  large  size,  and  is 
often  dilated  into  a  caecum  at  its  anterior  portion."  (Siebold.) 
The  salivary  glands  are  composed  of  two  simple  tubes,  which 
are  very  large  in  the  larval  state,  extending  into  the  abdomen. 

The  respiratory  system  is  normal  and  well  developed.  In 
the  larva  the  stigmata  are  wanting  on  the  second  and  third 
thoracic  and  last  abdominal  segment.  In  those  species  of 
Sphingidce,  Bombycidce  and  Noctuidce,  which  have  a 
long-sustained  flight  there  are  numerous  vesicular  dilatations 
of  the  tracheae. 

The  urinary  tubes  are  six  in  number ;  they  are  long,  free, 
and  open  into  the  stomach  by  two  excretory  ducts. 

The  silk-glands  consist  of  two  long,  flexuous,  thick-walled 
sacs,  situated  on  the  sides  of  the  body,  and  opening  by  a 
common  orifice  on  the  under  lip  (labium)  usually  at  the 
extremity  of  a  short  tubular  protuberance  (Siebold).  They 
are  most  developed  when  the  larva  approaches  the  pupa  state. 

We  once  found  a  larva  of  Clisiocampa  Americana  that  had 
just  spun  its  cocoon,  and  to  ascertain  whether  the  silk  had  been 
exhausted,  we  removed  the  worm  from  its  cocoon,  when  it  spun 
another,  but  thinner  one  ;  and  upon  removing  it  a  second  time 
it  spun  a  third  very  thin  cocoon,  before  the  supply  of  silk  was 
entirely  exhausted. 

The  ovary  consists  of  four  very  long,  spiral,  multilocular 
tubes.  The  receptaculum  seminis  is  pyriform,  and  often  has  a 
long,  spiral  ductus  seminalis.  At  its  base  is  situated  a  large, 
double  sebaceous  gland ;  and  there  are  two  small  ramose 
glands,  perhaps  odoriferous,  situated  at  the  orifice  of  the  vagina. 
The  copulatory  pouch  is  a  remarkably  large,  pyriform  reservoir, 
having  for  the  reception  of  the  male  intromittent  organ  a 
canal,  which  opens  by  a  special  orifice,  situated  below  and 
behind  the  external  opening  of  the  oviduct.  (Siebold.) 

The  testes  form  two  round  or  oval  follicles,  and  the  two 
short  deferent  canals  unite  with  two  simple  and  very  flexuous 
accessory  glands,  to  form  the  long  ductus  ejaculatorius. 

Several  interesting  cases  of  hermaphroditism  in  butterflies 
and  moths  have  been  published  by  European  entomologists. 
Mr.  Edwards  has  noticed  two  remarkable  instances  in  the  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Philadelphia  Entomological  Society  (vol.  iv, 


LEPIDOPTERA.  239 

p.  380),  the  latter  of  which  we  have  also  seen.  u  A  specimen  of 
Papilio  Asterias  is  in  my  collection,  and  was  captured  by  Mr. 
J.  Meyer  of  Brooklyn,  L.  I.,  two  or  three  years  since.  It  is  a 
fine  instance  of  a  perfect  hermaphrodite.  The  right  wings  are 
both  male,  the  left  wings  both  female,  distinctly  marked  upon 
both  surfaces  with  no  suffusion  of  color.  The  size  is  that  of 
the  largest  specimens  of  Asterias.  The  Saturnia  Promethea 
is  in  the  collection  of  Mrs.  Bridgham  of  New  York,  and  is  a 
curious  instance  of  an  imperfect  hermaphrodite.  The  left  an- 
tenna and  left  primary  are  male ;  the  right  antenna  and  left 
secondary  are  female ;  the  right  primary  is  also  female,  but  the 
right  secondary  is  something  between  the  two,  neither  male 
nor  female.  The  color  of  the  upper  surface  is  nearly  the  same 
as  the  under  surface  of  the  male.  On  the  under  side  the 
color  and  markings  of  the  left  primary  are  male,  but  the  other 
three  wings  are  female.  The  color  and  markings  of  the  male 
Promethea  are  quite  different  from  those  of  the  female,  and  on 
this  hermaphrodite  the  confusion  of  the  sexes  is  conspicuous. 
It  is  a  bred  specimen.  The  body  had  been  viscerated,  so  that  it 
is  impossible  to  determine  its  sex." 

The  larva  of  Ctenucha,  which  resembles  that  of  Arctia,  con- 
structs its  cocoon  out  of  the  hairs  of  its  body,  without  spinning 
any  silken  threads,  so  far  as  we  could  ascertain  by  microscopi- 
cal examination.  The  hairs  of  this,  as  of  probably  most  hairy 
caterpillars,  but  more  especially  the  Bombycid  larvae,  are 
thickly  armed  with  minute  spinules,  so  that  by 'being  simply 
placed  next  to  each  other,  they  readily  adhere  together.  The 
cocoon  is  finished  in  about  twelve  hours.  We  once  noticed 
a  Ctenucha  larva  just  beginning  its  cocoon.  Early  in  the 
morning  it  described  an  ellipse  upon  the  side  of  the  glass  jar  in 
which  it  was  confined,  out  of  hairs  plucked  from  just  behind  its 
head.  From  this  elliptical  line  as  a  base,  it  had  by  eight  o'clock 
built  up,  rather  unequally,  the  walls  of  its  cocoon,  in  some 
places  a  third  of  the  distance  up,  by  simply  piling  upon  each 
other  tlie  spinulated  hairs,  which  adhered  firmly  together.  At 
four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  the  arch  was  completed,  and  the 
larva  walled  in  by  a  light  partition,  and  soon  afterwards  the  thin 
floor  was  made.  No  silk  is  spun  throughout  the  whole  opera- 
tion, while  in  the  cocoon  of  Pyrrharctia  Isabella  there  is  a 
slight  frame-work  of  silk  upon  which  the  hairs  are  placed. 


240  LEPIDOPTERA. 

Trouvelot  states  that  the  Polyphemus  larva  constructs  its 
cocoon  by  drawing  the  leaves  together  as  a  support  for  the 
threads,  forming  the  foundation  of  the  cocoon.  "This  seems 
to  be  the  most  difficult  feat  for  the  worm  to  accomplish,  as  after 
this  the  work  is  simply  mechanical,  the  cocoon  being  made  of 
regular  layers  of  silk  united  by  a  gummy  substance.  The  silk 
is  distributed  in  zig-zag  lines  of  about  one-eight  of  an  inch 
long.  When  the  cocoon  is  made,  the  worm  will  have  moved 
his  head  to  and  fro,  in  order  to  distribute  the  silk,  about  two 
hundred  and  fifty-four  thousand  times.  After  about  half  a 
day's  work,  the  cocoon  is  so  far  completed  that  the  worm  can 
hardly  be  distinguished  through  the  fine  texture  of  the  wall ; 
then  a  gummy,  resinous  substance,  sometimes  of  a  light  brown 
color,  is  spread  over  all  the  inside  of  the  cocoon.  "The  larva 
continues  to  work  for  four  or  five  days,  hardly  taking  a  few 
minutes  of  rest,  and  finally  another  coating  is  spun  in  the 
interior,  when  the  cocoon  is  all  finished  and  completely  air- 
tight. The  fibre  diminishes  in  thickness  as  the  completion  of 
the  cocoon  advances,  so  that  the  last  internal  coating  is  not 
half  so  thick  and  so  strong  as  the  outside  ones." 

In  those  moths  which  spin  a  thick  cocoon,  the  pupa,  a  few 
days  previous  to  its  exit,  secretes  an  acid  fluid  from  two  glands 
opening  into  the  mouth.  This  fluid,  according  to  Mr.  L.  Trou- 
velot (American  Naturalist,  vol.  i,  p.  33),  in  his  account  of  the 
Polyphemus  silk-worm,  dissolves  the  hard  gummy  substance 
uniting  the  silken  threads,  until  after  the  expiration  of  half  an 
hour,  the  moth  is  able  to  push  the  fibres  aside,  and  work  its 
way  out,  without  breaking  a  thread. 

Trouvelot  says  that  the  larvae  of  the  Polyphemus  moth  (and 
this  remark  will  probably  apply  to  all  other  Lepidopterous 
larvae)  seem  entirely  unable  to  discern  objects  with  their  sim- 
ple eyes,  but  can  distinguish  light  from  darkness. 

In  their  adult  state  butterflies  and  moths  take  but  little  food, 
consisting  of  honey,  though  Papilio  Turnus,  according  to  a 
Canadian  observer,  is  attracted  to  heaps  of  decaying  fish. 

Caterpillars  grow  very  rapidly,  and  consume  a  great  quantity 
of  food.  Mr.  Trouvelot  gives  us  the  following  account  of  the 
gastronomical  powers  of  the  Polyphemus  caterpillar.  "It  is 
astonishing  how  rapidly  the  larva  grows,  and  one  wrho  has  no 
experience  in  the  matter  could  hardly  believe  what  an  amount 


LEPIDOPTERA.  241 

of  food  is  devoured  by  these  little  creatures.  One  experiment 
which  I  made  can  give  some  idea  of  it :  when  the  young  silk 
worm  hatches  out,  it  weighs  one-twentieth  of  a  grain  ;  when 

10  days  old  it  weighs  1-2  a  grain,  or  10  times  its  original  weight. 

20     "  "    "        "            3  grains  "  60      "        "         "  " 

30     «  "     «        "  31      "  "  620      "        "         "  " 

40     "  "    "        "          90      "  "  1800      "        "         "  " 

56     K  «     ««        »  207      «  «  4140      «        «         «  « 

When  a  worm  is  thirty  days  old  it  will  have  consumed  about 
ninety  grains  of  food ;  but  when  fifty-six  days  old  it  is  fully 
grown  and  has  consumed  not  less  than  one  hundred  and  twenty 
oak  leaves  weighing  three-fourths  of  a  pound ;  besides  this  it 
has  drank  not  less  than  one-half  an  ounce  of  water.  So  the 
food  taken  by  a  single  silk-worm  in  fifty-six  days  equals  in 
weight  eighty-six  thousand  times  the  primitive  weight  of  the 
worm.  Of  this,  about  one-fourth  of  a  pound  becomes  excre- 
mentitious  matter ;  two  hundred  and  seven  grains  are  assimi- 
lated and  over  five  ounces  have  evaporated.  What  a  destruction 
of  leaves  this  single  species  of  insect  could  make  if  only  a  one 
hundredth  part  of  the  eggs  laid  came  to  maturity !  A  few 
years  would  be  sufficient  for  the  propagation  of  a  number  large 
enough  to  devour  all  the  leaves  of  our  forests."  The  Lepidop- 
tera  are  almost  without  exception  injurious  to  vegetation  and 
are  among  the  chief  enemies  of  the  agriculturist. 

They  are  rarely  found  fossil  owing  ta  the  delicacy  of  their 
bodies.  Remains,  doubtfully  referred  to  the  Lepidoptera,  have 
been  found  in  the  Jura  formation.  A  Sphinx-like  moth  has 
been  discovered  in  the  Tertiary  formation  of  Europe,  and  a  few 
minute  forms  have  occurred  in  Amber. 

Butterflies  are  easily  distinguished  from  the  other  groups  by 
their  knobbed  antennae.  In  the  Sphinges  and  their  allies  the 
feelers  are  thickened  in  the  middle :  in  the  Moths  they  are  fili- 
form and  often  pectinated  like  feathers.  Lepidoptera  have 
also  been,  divided  into  three  large  groups,  called  Diurnal,  Cre- 
puscular and  Nocturnal,  since  butterflies  fly  in  the  sunshine 
alone,  most  Sphinges  in  the  twilight  (some  of  them,  however, 
fly  in  the  hottest  sunshine),  while  the  moths  are  generally 
night-fliers,  though  many  of  them  fly  in  the  day  time,  thus 
showing  that  the  distinctions  are  somewhat  artificial. 

The  larger  Lepidoptera  (butterflies  and  the  larger  moths) 
16 


242        .  LEPIDOPTERA. 

have  been  called  Macrolepidoptera,  while  the  smaller  ones, 
including  the  smaller  Pyralidce,  the  Tortricidce,  and  the 
Tin ei dee,  are  called  Microlepidoptera. 

In  studying  these  insects  the  best  generic  characters  will  be 
found  in  the  antennae,  the  shape  of  the  head-parts,  the  vena- 
tion and  proportions  of  the  wings :  very  slight  changes  in  these 
parts  separating  genera  and  species.  Size  and  coloration, 
which  are  usually  very  constant,  afford  good  specific  characters. 

A  good  method  of  preserving  larvae  dry,  adopted  at  Dresden, 
is  to  squeeze  out  the  intestines  through  a  hole  made  near  the 
anal  extremity  of  the  larva,  then  to  insert  a  fine  straw,  after 
which  it  may  be  placed  in  a  glass  vase,  itself  placed  in  a  tin 
vessel  and  held  over  a  lamp ;  the  larval  skin  is  blown  while 
suspended  over  the  lamp,  by  which  the  skin  dries  faster.  It 
mjay  be  done  with  a  small  tube  or  blow-pipe  fixed  at  the  end 
of  a  bladder,  held  under  the  arm  or  between  the  knees,  so  as 
to  leave  the  hands  at  liberty  ;  and  the  straw  which  is  inserted 
into  the  body  of  the  larva  may  be  fastened  by  a  cross-pin  stuck 
through  the  skin,  and  thus  retained  in  its  proper  position 
throughout  the  process  of  blowing.  The  small  larvae,  such  as 
those  of  the  Tineae,  may  be  put  alive  into  a  hot  bottle,  baked 
until  they  swell  to  the  proper  extent  and  dry,  when  they  can  be 
pinned  with  all  their  contents  inside.  (Westwood,  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Entomological  Society  of  London,  Sept.  7th,  1863.) 

Dr.  Knaggs  has,  in  the  Entomologist's  Monthly  Magazine, 
given  some  directions  for  managing  caterpillars.  Very  young 
caterpillars,  which  will  not  eat  the  food  provided,  and  become 
restless,  should  be  reared  in  air-tight  jam-pots,  the  tops  of  which 
are  covered  with  green  glass  to  darken  the  interior  of  the  ves- 
sel. When  small  larvae  hide  themselves  by  mining,  entering 
buds  and  spinning  together  leaves,  they  should  have  as  small  a 
quantity  of  food  as  possible.  In  changing  larvae  from  one  plant 
to  a  fresh  one,  a  slight  jar  or  puff  of  breath  will  dislodge  them, 
and  they  can  be  transferred  to  the  jam-pot,  or  the  glass  cylin- 
der, covered  at  one  end  with  muslin,  can  be  turned  muslin  end 
downwards  for  them  to  crawl  upon.  The  duplicate  breeding 
cage,  pot  or  tube,  should  be  "sweetened"  by  free  currents  of 
fresh  dry  air  and  then  stocked  with  fresh  food. 

Dr.  Knaggs  advises  that  "hiding  places,"  or  bits  of  chips, 


LEPIDOPTERA.  243 


etc.,  be  provided  for  such  Noctuid  larvae  as  naturally  lie 
cealed,  such  as  Orthosia,  XantMa,  Noctua,  etc.,  "while  for 
Agrotis  and  a  few  others  a  considerable  depth  of  fine  earth  or 
sand  is  necessary." 

"Larvae,  which  in  nature  hibernate,  must  either  be  stimulated 
by  warmth  and  fresh  food  to  feed  up  unnaturally  fast,  or  else 
through  the  winter  must  be  exposed  to  out-door  temperature." 
For  such  larvae  as  begin  to  eat  before  the  trees  are  leaved 
out,  the  leaves  of  evergreens  must  be  provided,  pine  leaves, 
chickweed,  grasses  and  mosses.  Hibernating,  living  larvae, 
must  during  the  winter  be  kept  dry,  otherwise  the  damp  seems 
to  hang  about  their  fur,  and  causes  them  to  be  attacked  by  a 
white  fungus  ;  while  smooth  larvae  require  the  natural  damp- 
ness of  the  soil.  Mr.  Gibson  strongly  recommends  that  during 
the  winter  all  cages  containing  larvae  be  placed  in  front  of  a 
window  facing  the  east  or  north-east,  so  that  the  inmates  may 
be  kept  as  cool  as  possible. 

When  the  moth  is  fairly  out  of  the  pupa,  as  remarked  by  Mr. 
Sanborn,  their  wings  often  fail  to  properly  expand,  on  account 
of  the  want  of  moisture,  "the  insect  being  unable  to  expand  its 
wings  in  a  heated,  dry  room.  He  has  avoided  this  difficulty 
by  placing  the  insect  just  emerged,  or  about  to  come  forth, 
beneath  a  bell-glass,  within  which  he  had  placed  moistened 
pieces  of  bibulous  paper." 

Mr.  Trouvelot  has  noticed  that  the  difference  in  size  of  the 
wings  of  moths  or  butterflies  is  due  to  the  fact  that  some  of 
the  fluid  thrown  into  the  wings  during  their  development 
escapes  from  a  break  in  the  surface  of  the  wing,  so  that  this 
wing  is  smaller  than  the  other.  He  has,  by  pinching  a  wing 
while  thus  developing,  caused  the  fluid  to  "flow  from  the  punc- 
ture, and  immediately  the  wing  so  wounded  ceased  to  grow, 
while  the  three  others  continued  their  development  to  its  full 
extent."  "I  have  sometimes  advanced  the  development  of  the 
wings  of  Telea  Polyphemus.  I  selected  for  this  purpose, 
pupae  very  far  advanced  in  their  transformation,  as  is  shown  by 
the  looseness  of  the  pupal  skin,  and  by  the  color  of  the  wings 
of  the  moth,  which  can  be  seen  through  it.  I  took  carefully 
the  pupal  skin  from  around  the  moth  and  suspended  the  insect 
in  the  position  that  Lepidoptera  take  when  emerging  from  the 


244  LEPIDOPTEKA. 

chrysalis.  It  is  very  rare  that  the  wings  of  such  an  insect 
are  developed,  though  I  have  obtained  some  perfect  specimens 
in  this  way  ;  and  in  one  instance  the  development  of  the  wings 
took  place  only  three  days  after  the  pupal  skin  had  been 
removed.  Success  is  more  certain  if  the  insect  is  put  under  a 
glass  jar  with  a  moistened  sponge,  and  something  for  the  insect 
to  hang  from  ;  the  dampness  of  the  air  in  the  jar  will  prevent 
the  soft  wings  from  drying  too  fast,  and  when  the  time  arrives 
for  the  insect  to  accomplish  its  transformation,  the  fluid  will  be 
active.  Such  an  insect  has  much  analogy  with  a  vertebrate 
born  prematurely  ;  the  insect,  like  the  quadruped,  remains 
almost  motionless  till  the  natural  time  for  its  birth  arrives." 


Latreille.  The  Butterflies,  or  Diurnal  Lepi- 
doptera,  are  at  once  distinguished  from  the  moths  by  their 
knobbed  antennae,  though  they  are  sometimes  nearly  filiform. 
The  body  is  small,  but  there  is  a  greater  equality  in  the  size  of 
the  three  regions  than  in  the  moths,  the  abdomen  being  much 
shorter  and  smaller,  as  a  general  rule,  than  in  the  lower  fami- 
lies. The  ocelli  are  usually  wanting  ;  the  spiral  tongue  or 
maxillae,  are  long  and  well  developed  ;  and  the  wings  are  car- 
ried erect  when  in  repose,  and  are  not  held  together  during 
flight  by  a  bristle  and  socket  as  in  the  moths. 

The  larvae  vary  greatly  in  shape  and  in  their  style  of  orna- 
mentation, but  they  uniformly  have,  besides  the  thoracic  legs, 
five  pairs  of  abdominal  legs.  The  pupa  is  called  a  "  chrysalis" 
or  "aurelian"  from  the  bright  golden  hues  which  adorn  those 
of  many  species.  They  disappear  as  the  wet  tissues  beneath  the 
pupa-skin  harden  just  before  the  fly  appears.  The  pupa  is  usu- 
ally angulated  on  the  sides  of  the  thorax  and  along  the  upper 
side  of  the  abdomen.  A  few  species,  such  as  those  of  Vanessa, 
hibernate,  while  several  species,  such  as  Vanessa  Antiopa,  are 
social  as  young  larvae.  The  most  "  perfect  state  of  society  is  ex- 
hibited by  a  Mexican  butterfly  (Eucheira  socialis  Westwood)  , 
the  caterpillars  of  which  construct  a  very  strong  parchment-like 
bag,  in  which  they  not  only  reside,  but  undergo  their  change  to 
the  pupa  state."  Butterflies  also  occasionally  swarm  while 
in  the  perfect  state,  such  as  species  of  Colias,  Cynthia  and 
Danais,  multitudes  of  which  are  sometimes  seen  passing  over- 


PAPILIONTD2E.  245 

head  in  long  columns.  They  are  truly  tropical  insects,  since 
Gerstaecker  mentions  that  three  times  as  many  species  (600) 
occur  at  a  single  point  (Para,  Brazil)  as  in  all  Germany,  where 
scarcely  200  species  live.  There  are  about  5,000  species  known  ; 
900  inhabit  North  America  and  probably  the  number  will  be 
increased  to  a  thousand,  while  about  125  species  have  been 
found  in  New  England  and  its  immediate  border. 

The  noble  genus  Ornithoptera  has  very  long,  slightly  knobbed 
antennae,  and  a  well  developed  prothorax ;  while  the  fore- 
wings  are  very  large,  elongated,  triangular,  and  the  hind  wings 
are  relatively  smaller  and  rounded.  0.  Priamus  Linn,  is  found 
in  the  Moluccas.  There  are  twenty  species  known.  The  larvae 
as  in  some  species  of  Papilio  have  an  external  forked  sheath 
for  the  "  tentacles."  The  pupa  is  sustained  by  a  silken  thread 
as  in  Papilio  (Wallace). 

Of  the  extensive  genus  Papilio,  or  "Swallow-tail,"  over  300 
species  are  known.  The  larva  is  rather  short  and  stout,  with  a 
v-shaped  scent-organ,  or  "tentacles."  The  pupa  is  supported 
by  a  filament  passed  entirely  around  it.  The  common  P.  As- 
terias  Drury  appears  in  New  England  in  June,  when  it  lays  its 
eggs  on  the  leaves  of  parsley  and  other  umbelliferous  plants. 
From  this  brood  a  new  set  of  butterflies  appear  in  August. 
The  larva  is  yellow,  striped  and  spotted  with  black,  and  when 
irritated,  pushes  out,  from  a  slit  in  the  prothoracic  ring,  a 
v-shaped,  yellow,  fleshy,  scent-organ,  used  as  a  means  of  de- 
fence. The  chrysalis  is  free,  attached  by  the  tip  of  the  abdo- 
men and  supported  by  a  loose  silken  thread,  which  is  passed 
over  the  back.  It  lives  in  this  state  from  nine  to  fifteen  days. 
It  has  two  ear-like  projections  on  each  side  of  the  head  and  a 
prominence  on  the  back  of  the  thorax. 

Mr.  W.  Saunders  has  received  from  St.  John's,  Newfound- 
land, several  specimens  of  a  butterfly,  one  of  which  I  have  before 
me,  and  instead  of  being  a  very  remarkable  variety  of  P.  As- 
terias,  seems  to  be  a  distinct  and  undescribed  species,  as^ 
supposed  by  my  friend  to  whose  collection  it  belongs.  He 
writes  me,  after  giving  a  detailed  description,  presented  below,* 

* "  Papilio  brevicauda  Saundei's.  Female.  Expands  three  and  one-fifth  inches; 
head,  palpi  and  antennaB  black;  thorax  black,  fringed  with  yellow  hairs  on  each 
side,  for  about  half  its  length ;  body  above  black,  with  a  row  of  seven  or  eight 
yellow  spots  along  each  side  which  are  largest  about  the  middle  of  the  row ;  under 


246  LEPIDOPTERA. 

that  "this  species  resembles  P.  Asterias,  but  differs  from  it 
in  many  points.  In  P.  Asterias  the  palpi  are  edged  within  with 
yellow  ;  in  P.  brevicauda  they  are  black.  P.  Asterias  has  two 
yellow  spots  above  at  the  base  of  the  antennae,  which  are  either 
wanting,  or  exceedingly  faint  in  the  other  species.  P.  Asterias 
has  a  spot  of  bright  yellow  on  the  anterior  edge  of  each  side  of 
the  thorax  ;  P.  brevicauda  has  a  fringe  of  duller  yellow,  extend- 
ing fully  half  the  length  of  the  thorax.  On  the  primaries  the 
discal  bar  in  P.  Asterias  is  much  narrower,  and  the  inner  row 
of  spots  smaller  and  bright  yellow,  the  upper  one  in  the  row 
being  divided  ;  in  P.  brevicauda  the  spots  are  fulvous,  the  upper 

side  of  the  body  black,  the  abdomen  being  furnished  with  two  rows  of  yellow  spots 
corresponding  with  those  above,  with  several  additional  spots  within  near  the  tip ; 
feet  black.  Primaries  above  brownish  black,  with  a  bar  of  yellow  across  the  end 
of  the  discal  cell;  just  beyond  this  is  a  row  of  eight  spots,  extending  across  the 
wing  nearly  parallel  with  the  outer  margin ;  the  upper  one,  which  rests  on  the  sub- 
costal vein,  is  yellow,  elongated  and  irregular,  with  a  blackish  dot  beyond  the  mid- 
dle ;  the  lower  ones  are  fulvous ;  the  second  and  third  smaller  than  the  first  and  of 
an  elongated,  triangular  form,  with  the  apex  pointing  inwards;  the  fourth,  fifth 
and  sixth  are  similar  in  shape,  but  larger,  the  latter  with  its  apex  partially  wanting; 
the  seventh  spot  is  wider  and  slightly  concave  on  both  the  inner  and  outer  edges, 
the  inner  edge  is  broken;  the  eighth  is  long,  narrow  and  irregular,  with  its  lower 
edge  close  to  the  hind  margin  of  the  wing.  Behind  the  upper  spot  in  this  row  is  a 
second  yellow  spot  nearly  round.  Between  these  and  the  outer  margin  is  a  second 
row  of  spots,  eight  in  number,  but  much  smaller  in  size.  These  are  all  yellow,  the 
three  upper  ones  nearly  round,  the  lower  ones  more  or  less  elongated,  the  lowest 
contracted  in  the  middle  as  if  composed  of  two  spots  joined  together;  the  fringe 
of  the  wing  is  also  spotted  with  yellow,  the  spots  corresponding  in  number  and 
position  with  those  forming  the  second  row. 

"  Secondaries  above  brownish  black,  with  a  row  of  seven  large  spots  nearly  con- 
fluent beyond  the  middle,  in  continuation  of  those  on  primaries,  all  more  or  less 
triangular  in  form,  the  middle  ones  somewhat  elongated;  these  spots  are  yellow 
above  and  at  the  sides,  fulvous  from  near  the  middle  to  the  outer  edge ;  the  fulvous 
marking  is  less  distinct  on  the  second  and  third  spots ;  within  the  margin  is  a  sec- 
ond row,  all  yellow  excepting  the  upper  one  which  is  tinged  with  fulvous ;  the  up- 
per spot  is  oblong,  the  second  nearly  round;  third,  fourth  and  filth  lunular,  nearly 
equal  in  size;  the  sixth  similar  in  form,  but  much  smaller;  while  the  inner  one  is 
irregularly  concave  above,  holding  in  the  cavity  the  eye-like  spot  at  the  anal  angle. 
On  the  outer  edge  are  six  yellow  spots,  larger  and  more  striking  than  those  form- 
ing part  of  the  fringe  on  the  primaries.  The  space  between  the  two  inner  rows  of 
spots  is  sprinkled  with  metallic  blue  atoms.  At  the  anal  angle  is  a  round,  red  spot, 
with  a  black  dot  in  it  below  the  middle,  and  a  crescent  of  bluish  atoms  above; 
\ails  very  short,  scarcely  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long,  — not  more  than  half  the 
length  of  those  of  P.  Asterias. 

"Under  surface  of  wings  somewhat  paler  in  color,  with  spots  corresponding  to 
those  above.  The  upper  spot  of  the  inner  row  on  the  primaries  is  tinted  with 
fulvous ;  the  spots  composing  the  inner  row  on  the  secondaries  are  more  decidedly 
and  uniformly  fulvous ;  the  four  upper  spots  in  the  second  row  are  also  streaked 
with  the  same  color;  the  bluish  atoms  between  the  rows  are  partially  replaced  by 
green  ones."  Taken  at  St.  John's,  Newfoundland. 


PAPILIONIDJE.  247 

one  is  undivided.  The  inner  row  of  spots  on  the  secondaries 
are  also  entirely  yellow  in  P.  Asterias,  smaller  and  very  differ- 
ent in  form  from  those  on  P.  brevicauda.  The  second  row  of 
spots  is  also  smaller  in  P.  Asterias,  and  the  red  spot  at  the 
anal  angle  paler,  with  a  smaller  black  dot  in  it,  and  a  wider 
crescent  of  bluish  atoms  above.  The  length  of  the  tail,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  striking  points  of  difference,  has  already 
been  noticed." 

We  have  compared  some  interesting  varieties  of  P.  Asterias 
in  the  Museum  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  col- 
lected about  Boston  by  Mr.  Shurtleff,  which  approach  (in  the 
reddish  hue  of  the  spots,  usually  yellow,  especially  on  the  under 
side,  and  the  shortness  of  the  tail)  the  Newfoundland  speci- 
men kindly  sent  us  by  Mr.  Saunders,  and  strongly  suggest  the 
inference,  with  which  Messrs.  Scudder  and  Sanborn  agree,  that 
P.  brevicauda  is  a  very  remarkable 
species  allied  to  P.  Asterias. 

The  yellow  Papilio  Turnus  Linn,  flies 
in  June  and  July  through  woods  and 
about  lilacs.  Its  larva  feeds  on  the 
apple  and  wild  thorn ;  it  is  green  with 
two  eye-like  spots  on  the  thorax,  and 
pupates  in  the  middle  of  August.  The 
black  dimorphic  ?  form,  P.  Glaucus, 
is  found  in  the  Southern  States.  P. 
Daunus  Boisd.  (Fig.  180)  originally  Fis- 18°- 
found  in  Mexico,  has  been  found  in  Kansas,  near  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  by  Mr.  James  Ridings.  He  states  that  it  strikingly 
resembles  P.  Turnus,  but  has  longer  antennae,  with  longer,  more 
curved  fore-wings,  besides  differing  in  other  characters.  It  ex- 
pands nearly  five  inches.  P.  Troilus  Linn,  appears  more  com- 
monly southward.  The  larva  feeds  on  the  sassafras  and  lilac 
trees,  and  was  found  by  Mr.  Saunders  feeding,  rolled  up  on 
a  leaf,  on  the  spice  bush,  August  3d.  "Its  length  was  about 
one  and  three-fourths  inches,  the  body  being  thickest  from  the 
third  to  the  fifth  segments.  The  head  is  rather  small,  flat  in 
front,  slightly  bilobed,  dull  flesh  color,  with  a  faint  tinge  of 
brown.  The  body  is  bright  pea-green,  with  a  yellow  stripe 
across  the  anterior  part  of  the  second  segment ;  edged  behind 
with  dull  black.  On  the  fourth  segment  are  two  prominent 


248  LEPIDOPTERA. 

eye-like  spots,  of  dull  yellowish  or  yellowish  buff,  encircled 
by  a  fine  ring  of  black,  and  a  large  black  pupil  filling  most 
of  the  lower  portion.  The  posterior  portion  of  this  black 
pupil  is  encircled  by  a  shining  bluish  black  ring,  the  anterior 
portion  of  which  strikes  a  little  beyond  the  middle  of  the 
pupil ;  there  is  also  a  line  of  black  in  front  of  the  pupil  ex- 
tending nearly  across  the  yellow  portion,  and  a  pale  pinkish 
spot  in  the  upper  part  of  the  yellow  which  is  edged  with  a 
slightly  darker  shade.  On  the  fifth  segment  are  two  large, 
irregular  spots  of  the  same  color,  pale  buff,  encircled  by  a  faint 
ring  of  black,  and  having  a  faint  pinkish  spot  on  the  anterior 
portion  of  each ;  these  spots  are  nearer  to  each  other  than 
those  on  the  fourth  segment,  a  portion  of  the  space  between  the 
fifth  and  sixth  segments  being  deep  black ;  each  segment,  from 

the  sixth  to  the  eleventh  in- 
clusive, has  four  blue  dots, 
encircled  with  black,  those  on 
the  seventh,  eighth  and  ninth 
segments  being  largest.  On 
each  side,  close  to  the  under 
surface,  is  a  wide  yellow 
stripe,  gradually  softening 
into  the  green  above,  and 
Fig.  MI.  edged  below  with  blackish 

brown.  Immediately  below  the  spiracles  is  a  row  of  blue  dots 
edged  with  black,  one  on  each  segment  from  the  sixth  to  the 
twelfth  inclusive.  The  under  surface  is  dull,  pale  greenish,  or 
3rellowish  white,  having  a  decided  reddish  tinge  as  it  approaches 
the  yellow  stripe  on  the  sides.  The  feet  partake  of  the  same 
general  color."  P.  Phttenor  Fabr.  is  black,  with  a  greenish 
reflection  towards  the  outer  border,  with  whitish  spots  on  the 
margin,  and  on  the  hind  wings  six  whitish  lunules.  The  larva 
is  brown,  with  two  lateral  rows  of  small,  reddish  tubercles, 
and  two  long  tubercles  on  the  prothoracic  segment.  The 
chrysalis  (Fig.  181,  side  and  dorsal  view)  is  grajdsh  violet,  yel- 
lowish on  the  back,  with  the  head  ending  in  a  truncated  cone. 
The  genus  Pai*nassius  has  short,  thick  antennae,  with  a 
rounded  club,  and  the  fore-wings  are  much  rounded  at  the 
apex ;  it  inhabits  mountains.  P.  Smintheus  Doubleday,  with 
three  other  species,  is  found  in  the  Rocky  Mountains. 


PAPILIONIDJE. 


249 


The  White  Turnip,  or  Cabbage  butterfly,  Pieris  oleracea  Harris 
(Fig.  182  ;  a,  larva),  is  well  known  as  being  often  destructive  to 
cruciferous  plants.  In  this  genus,  and  its  allies,  the  wings  are 
rounded  and  entire  on  the  edges,  and  are  grooved  on  the  inner 
edge  to  receive  the  abdomen.  The  greenish  caterpillars  are 
slender,  "tapering  a  very  little  toward  each  end,  and  are  spar- 
ingly clothed  with  a  short  down  which  is  quite  apparent,  how- 
ever, in  Pieris  oleracea."  We  have  found  the  larvae  of  this 
species  on  turnip  leaves  in  the  middle  of  August,  at  Chamber- 
lain Farm  in  Northern  Maine.  They  are  of  a  dull  green,  and 
covered  with  dense  hairs.  They  suspend  themselves  by  the 
tail  and  a  transverse  loop ;  and  their  chrysalids  are  angular 
at  the  sides,  and  pointed  at  both  ends.  (Harris.)  Pieris 
oleracea  is  white,  with  the 
wings  dusky  next  the  body, 
the  tips  of  the  fore- wings  are 
yellowish  beneath,  and  the 
hind  wings  are  straw-colored 
beneath.  The  yellowish,  pear- 
shaped,  longitudinally  ribbed 
eggs,  are  laid  three  or  four 
on  a  single  leaf.  In  a  week 
or  ten  days  the  larvae  are 
hatched.  They  live  three  Fig.  182. 

weeks  before  becoming  full-fed.  The  chrysalis  state  lasts  ten 
to  twelve  days.  There  is  an  early  summer  (May)  and  a  late 
summer  (July)  brood.  Pieris  rapce  Schrank  has  been  intro- 
duced from  Europe  and  is  now  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Quebec 
and  the  northern  parts  of  New  England. 

P.  Protodice  Boisd.  and  Lee.  is  found  southward.  The 
head  of  the  chrysalis,  kindly  sent  me  by  Mr.  Saunders,  is  pro- 
longed into  a, tubercle,  which  is  equilaterally  triangular,  seen 
in  outline,  with  two  small  tubercles  near  the  base.  On  the 
thorax  is  a  high,  thin  dorsal  ridge,  edged  with  red.  On  each  side 
of  the  abdomen  is  a  ridge,  largest  anteriorly,  and  rising  into 
a  thin  tubercle  on  the  second  ring.  There  is  a  thin  dorsal 
ridge  on  the  posterior  half  of  the  abdomen.  The  tip  is  deeply 
excavated  by  -a  furrow  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  ter- 
minal ring.  There  are  seven  rows  of  black  dots  on  each  ring. 


250  LEPIDOPTERA. 

It  is  pale  whitish  straw  yellow  throughout,  with  thick,  black 
dots  on  the  anterior  half  of  the  body.  It  is  .70  of  an  inch  in 
length.  It  also  occurs  in  California. 

The  Sulphur-yellow  butterflies,  Colias,  of  which  C.  Pliilodice 
Godart,  our  most  common  butterfly,  is  a  type,  occur  everywhere. 
There  are  three  broods,  one  appearing  in  April  and  Ma}%  and 
the  other  in  July  ;  while  a  third  brood  appears  late  in  August 
(Scudder).  "The  female  deposited  her  eggs  on  the  24th  of 
July ;  they  were  very  long,  tapering  at  each  end,  with  twelve 
or  fourteen  raised,  longitudinal  ribs,  and  smaller  cross  lines  in 
the  concave  spaces  between  them.  They  hatched  on  the  31st. 
The  freshly  hatched  larva  is  about  a  thirteenth  of  an  inch  long ; 
the  head  is  black,  and  the  body  dull  yellowish  brown.  When 
five-eighths  of  an  inch  long,  it  is  nearly  the  same  as  when  ma- 
ture ;  the  head  being  dark  green  and  slightly  downy,  with 
minute  hairs,  which  also  give  a  downy  appearance  to  the  whole 
body,  which  is  also  dotted  minutely  with  paler  points.  There 
is  a  yellowish  white  stripe,  on  each  side  close  to  the  under  sur- 
face. Beneath,  the  body  is  slightly  paler  than  above.  The  full 
grown  larva  is  an  inch  long,  and  differs  from  the  young  in  hav- 
ing an  irregular  streak  of  bright  red  running  through  the 
whitish  lateral  line.  It  feeds  on  the  clover  and  lupine,  and  on 
the  cultivated  pea.  It  is  not  unlike  a  saw-fly  larva  in  its  ap- 
pearance and  movements,  feeding  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
leaves  and  twisting  its  body  into  a  coil  when  disturbed.  The 
chrysalis  is  about  seven  lines  long,  girt  with  a  silken  thread 
across  the  greatest  diameter  of  the  body,  which  is  full  and  bulg- 
ing on  the  sides.  The  head  is  pointed  conically,  with  a  purplish 
red  line  on  each  side,  running  to  the  tip  and  margined  behind 
with  yellow.  The  body  is  pale  green,  with  a  yellowish  tinge, 
and  a  ventral  line  of  a  darker  shade  formed  by  a  succession  of 
minute,  yellowish  dots  ;  a  yellow  stripe  runs  along  the  side  on 
the  five  hinder  segments.  Beneath,  on  the  seventh,  eighth  and 
ninth  rings,  is  a  blackish  brown  line  on  each  side,  deepening 
in  color  about  the  middle  of  each  segment,  and  a  dorsal  line 
of  dark  green  about  the  same  length.  It  remains  in  the  chrys- 
alis state  about  ten  days."  (Saunders.) 

Mr.  Scudder  has  described  three  species  of  this  genus  from 
the  north.  Colias  Pelidne  we  have  taken  abundantly  in 


PAPILIONIMJ.  251 

Labrador.  It  represents  our  C.  Philodice.  C.  interior  lives 
north  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  C.  occidentalis  ranges  from 
Fort  Simpson  to  the  Gulf  of  Georgia. 

The  species  of  a  closely  allied  genus,  Terias  (T.  Lisa  and 
T.  Delia),  are  much  smaller  and  are  more  tropical. 

The  genus  Danais  has  antennae  with  a  long  and  curved  knob, 
the  head  and  thorax  are  spotted  with  white,  and  the  wings  are 
round  and  entire.  -  The  caterpillars  have  projecting,  thread-like 
horns,  arranged  in  pairs  on  the  top  of  the  second  and  eleventh 
segments,  and  the  body  (D.  Archippus)  is  banded  with  yellow, 
black  and  white.  The  oval  chrysalicls  are  short  and  thick  and 
decked  with  golden  spots.  The  larva  of  D.  Archippus  Harris 
feeds  on  the  silk-weed,  Asclepias,  and  matures  in  about  two 
weeks,  changing  its  skin  three  times,  while  the  chrysalis  state 
lasts  for  ten  or  twelve  days.  The  butterfly  appears  from  July 
to  September. 

A  very  beautiful  and  quite  aberrant  tropical  genus  is  Heli- 
conia,  in  which  the  wings  are  small,  very  narrow  and  often  very 
transparent,  while  the  antennae  are  nearly  as  long  as  the  body. 
The  larvae  are  either  long,  cylindrical  and  spinose  (Acraea 
violae),  or  furnished  with  several  pairs  of  long  fleshy  append- 
ages, and  the  chrysalids  are  often  brilliantly  spotted  with 
golden  and  suspended  by  the  tail. 

According  to  H.  W.  Bates  (Transactions  of  the  Entomolog- 
ical Society,  1857),  the  venation  of  the  wing  in  many  species 
of  Meclianitis  and  Ithomia,  which  are  allied  to  Heliconia,  varies 
in  different  individuals  of  the  same  species.  The  sexes  have 
the  closest  resemblance  in  color  and  markings.  They  are 
very  gregarious  in  their  habits.  The  Brazilian  tc  H.  Melpomone 
varies  in  a  curious  manner.  I  have  no  doubt  they  are  hybrids 
(i.  e.  the  varieties),  and  I  can  almost  point  out  the  species  with 
which  it  hybridates.  Strange  to  say,  the  hybrids  occur  in  one 
district  and  not  in  another,  and  one  style  of  hybrids  only  occur 
in  one  district  and  not  in  the  others,  the  species  being  equally 
abundant  in  all  the  districts." 

Argynnis  is  readily  recognized  by  the  numerous  round  and 
triangular  silver  spots  on  the  under  side  of  the  hind  wings-. 
The  very  spiny  caterpillars  have  a  round  head,  and  the  spines 
are  branched,  two  of  the  prothoracic  ones  being  the  largest  and 


252  LEPIDOPTERA. 

reaching  over  the  head.  The  angular  arched  chrysalids  have 
the  head  either  square,  or  slightly  notched,  with  a  smooth 
thorax,  while  on  the  back  of  the  abdomen  are  two  rows  of 
usually  gold  colored  tubercles.  They  usually  feed  on  violets, 
and  may  be  found  from  May  to  July.  Argynnis  Idalia  Drury 
is  found  the  last  of  summer.  A.  Cybele  Fabr.  is  found  in  the 
Middle  States,  and  A.  Atlantis  Edwards  in  the  White  Moun- 
tain valleys  and  the  colder  portions  of  New  England. 

Mr.  C.  A.  Shurtleff  discovered  the  larva  and  pupa  of  the  lat- 
ter, July  17th,  at  Eastport,  Maine,  and  being  with  him  at  the 
time,  we  made  the  following  description  of  them :  The  larva 
is  uniformly  cylindrical,  tapering  alike  towards  each  end  of  the 
body.  On  each  side  of  the  vertex  of  the  head  is  a  small  low 
spine,  giving  the  head  an  oblong  shape  when  seen  sidewise. 
The  front  is  broad,  somewhat  square,  flattened,  with  scattered 
hairs.  On  the  first  and  second  thoracic  rings  are  two  large 
subdorsal  spines  and  minute  lateral  warts  bearing  small  bris- 
tles, and  on  the  hind  edge  of  these  rings  are  two  large  spines. 
On  the  third  thoracic  ring  are  three  large  spines.  On  each 
abdominal  ring  are  six  stout  spines  of  the  same  size  and  placed 
equidistant  on  the  upper  surface.  The  bristles  on  the  spines 
are  nearly  one-half  as  long  as  the  spines  themselves.  Small  pa- 
pillae, giving  rise  to  bristles,  are  scattered  over  the  bocty,  with 
a  row  of  them  above  the  abdominal  feet.  The  triangular  anal 
plate  is  small,  papilliform  and  prominent.  The  larva  is  dark 
velvety  purple,  the  base  of  the  head  being  of  a  pale  horn  color  ; 
the  body  beneath  is  scarcely  paler  than  above  ;  the  spines  are 
pale  livid  on  the  basal  half.  They  were  full-fed  and  ready  to 
pupate  July  17th.  The  head  of  the  pupa  is  square  in  front. 
On  the  prothorax  are  two  subdorsal  spines,  and  an  elevated 
mesial  ridge  on  the  mesothoracic  ring,  rising  highest  behind. 
At  the  base  of  each  wing  is  a  sharp,  conical,  prominent  papilla, 
immediately  succeeded  by  a  broad,  thin-edged  dilatation,  con- 
stricted and  appressed  to  the  base  of  the  abdomen ;  this  is  the 
internal  angle  of  the  wings.  On  the  abdomen  are  two  lines  of 
subdorsal  sharp  papillae,  one  on  each  side.  The  wings  extend 
to  the  fifth  abdominal  ring,  and  from  this  point  the  abdomen 
rapidly  tapers  to  the  tip.  The  surface  of  the  body  is  wrinkled 
with  conspicuous  black  spiracles-.  Its  general  color  is  chest- 


PAPILIONIM:. 


253 


nut  brown,  mottled  with  black ;  the  wings  being  black  at  the 
base.  The  sexes  of  the  rare  and  superb  A.  Diana  Cramer  differ 
remarkably,  the  male  being  dark  velvety  brown,  with  a  deep 
orange  border,  while  the  female  is  blue-black,  with  lighter  blue 
spots  and  patches  on  the  border  of  the  wings.  It  has  been 
taken  in  West  Virginia,  Georgia  and  Arkansas. 

A.  Aphrodile  (Fig.  183*)  abounds  in  the  Northern  States. 
According  to  Scudder,  it  is  double-brooded,  appearing  about 
the  middle  of  June,  and  fresh  specimens  late  in  August.  A. 
Montinus,  a  more  diminutive  species,  was  discovered  by  Mr. 
Scudder  on  the  lower  half  of  the  barren  summits  of  the  White 
Mountains.  Allied  to  this  last  species  by  their  size,  are  A. 
Myrina  Cramer  and  A.  Bellona  Fabr.  found  in  damp  meadows 
late  in  summer. 
A.  Myrina  has 
tawny  wings  bor- 
dered with  black 
above,  and  ex- 
pands from  one 
and  three-fourths 
to  one  and  eight- 
tenths  of  an  inch. 
A.  Bellona  differs 
from  the  other 
species  by  not 

having  any  silvery  spots  on  the  under  side  of  the  wings.  Mr. 
Saunders  has  reared  A.  Myrina  from  eggs  deposited  June  24th, 
by  a  specimen  confined  in  a  box.  "The  egg  is  pale  green, 
elongated,  shaped  something  like  an  acorn,  with  the  base 
smooth,  convex  and  the  circumference  striated  longitudinally, 
with  about  fourteen  raised  striae  which  are  linear  and  smooth ; 
the  spaces  between  are  about  three  times  wider  than  the  striae, 
depressed,  concave  in  the  middle,  and  ribbed  by  a  number  of 
cross  lines,  fifteen  to  twenty  between  each  stria,  and  distinctly 
indented.  The  egg  is  contracted  at  the  apex,  the  striae  protrud- 
ing at  the  tip  all  around  a  little  beyond  the  body  of  the  egg. 
The  larva  hatched  in  six  or  seven  days,  and  when  fresh  from  the 

*  The  upper  side  of  the  wings  is  figured  on  the  left  side,  and  the  under  side 
on  the  right,  in  this  and  in  FIGS.  184  and  188. 


254  LEPIDOPTERA. 

egg  was  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long.  The  head  is  medium 
sized,  black,  and  shining ;  the  body  above  is  dark  brown,  with 
transverse  lines  of  a  paler  color,  especially  on  the  anterior  seg- 
ments ;  it  is  thickly  covered  with  stout  hairs  of  a  pale  brownish 
color ;  between  the  first  and  second  moult  it  is  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  long.  The  head  is  bilobed,  shining,  black  and  hairy,  and 
the  body  above  is  greenish  black,  the  greenish  tinge  most 
apparent  on  the  second  and  third  segments,  with  a  few  small 
yellowish  dots  along  each  side,  and  transverse  rows  of  strongly 
elevated,  black  tubercles,  emitting  numerous  short,  black  hair- 
like  spines. 

"The  under  surface  is  similar  to  the  upper ;  the  feet  are  black 
and  shining,  and  the  prolegs  are  black,  tipped  with  a  paler  hue. 
After  the  second  moult  there  are  two  fleshy  tubercles  on  the 
second  segment  much  longer  than  the  others,  being  three  or 
four  times  their  length,  which  are  covered  throughout  with 
small  hair-like  spines.  The  yellowish  spots  along  the  sides  of 
the  body  assume  more  of  an  orange  tint,  and  there  are  one  or 
two  faint,  longitudinal  streaks  of  the  same  color  along  the  sides 
close  to  the  under  surface,  and  between  the  rows  of  large,  raised 
tubercles,  are  many  smaller  ones  which  are  also  black  and 
appear  but  slightly  raised.  August  7th  the  larva  was  full- 
grown.  The  head  is,  at  this  period,  slightly  bilobed,  black, 
shining,  and  covered  with  short,  fine,  black  hairs. 

"The  body  above  is  dark  greyish  brown,  beautifully  spotted 
and  dotted  with  deep  velvety  black ;  the  second  segment,  has 
two  long,  fleshy  horns,  yellowish  white  at  base,  black  above, 
covered  with  minute,  blackish,  hair-like  spines.  The  third  and 
fourth  segment,  have  each  four  whitish  spines  tipped  with 
black,  those  on  the  sides  placed  on  the  anterior  portion  of 
the  segment,  those  above  about  the  middle.  All  the  other  seg- 
ments have  six  whitish  spines,  excepting  the  terminal  one, 
which  has  four.  All  the  spines  have  fine  branches  of  a  black 
or  brownish  black  color  and  are  about  one-third  the  length  of 
the  fleshy  horns  on  the  second  segment.  A  pale  line  extends 
along  each  side  from  the  fifth  to  the  terminal  segments  close  to 
the  under  surface.  The  under  surface  is  brownish  black,  darker 
on  the  anterior  segments ;  feet  black  and  shining ;  prolegs 
brown,  with  a  shining  band  of  brownish  black  on  the  outside. 


PAPILIONIDJE.  255 

The  duration  of  the  pupa  stage  was  ten  or  eleven  days."  The 
pupa,  received  from  Mr.  Saunders,  has  two  large,  conical  tuber- 
cles in  front  of  the  insertion  of  the  antennae,  and  two  acute 
tubercles  on  the  pro- 
thorax.  The  thorax  is 
acutely  bituberculated 
on  the  sides,  with  an 
acute  thin  dorsal  ridge, 
on  each  side  of  which 
are  two  small,  sharp 
tubercles.  Along  the 
back  of  the  abdomen  Fig.  184. 

are  two  rows  of  tubercles,  those  on  the  third  abdominal  ring 
being  much  larger.  It  is  half  an  inch  long,  and  pale  ash, 
with  black  dots  and  irregular  lines. 

Melitcea  differs  in  not  having  silver  spots  beneath,  while  the 

caterpillars  are  covered  with 
blunt  tubercles  which  give  rise 
to  short  stiff  bristles.  They 
feed  on  different  species  of 
rig.  185.  plantain.  The  clirysalids  are 

like  those  of  Argynnis,  but  spotted  with  black  or  brown,  and 
not  with  golden. 

Melitcea  Phaeton  Drury  (Fig.  184)  is  found  in  damp  bogs. 
We  have  taken  the  young  larva  less  than  one-half  of  an  inch 
long,  early  in  spring  under  leaves,  where  it  had 
doubtless  hibernated.  The  mature  larva  (Fig. 
185,  enlarged,  the  specimen  from  which  the 
drawing  was  made,  is  too  contracted,  the  head 
being  drawn  in  unnaturally ;  fig.  186,  pupa)  is 
cylindrical,  and  the  head  is  slightly  angulated. 
There  are  nine  rows  of  black  spines  which  are 
fleshy  and  surrounded  at  the  tips  with  rather 
long,  thickset  spinules.  The  head  and  thoracic 
and  last  three  abdominal  rings  are  black  ;  the  rest  Fis- 186- 
of  the  body  being  deep  orange,  with  black  lines  between  the 
spines,  and  dots  along  the  side.  Towards  the  last  of  May  and 
early  in  June  it  changes  to  a  chrysalis,  which  is  white  with  a 
slight  bluish  tinge,  with  yellow  papillae,  and  scattered  black 


256  LEPIDOPTERA. 

spots,  giving  it  a  gay  and  variegated  appearance.  The  butter- 
fly rises  from  cold,  swampy  places  the  last  of  June  and  early 
in  July.  Its  wings  are  velvety  black,  with  orange  red  cres- 
cents and  spots.  It  expands  from  two  to  two  and  a  quarter 
inches,  being  our  largest  species. 

M.  Tharos  Boisd.  and  Leconte  is  a  very  abundant  species  in 
New  England.  There  are  two  broods,  one  appearing  in  June 
and  early  in  July,  and  the  second  one  late  in  August  and  Sep- 
tember. It  has  short,  broad  wings  which  are  tawny  orange 
above,  with  black,  irregular  lines  and  spots  ;  it  expands  from 
one  and  three-tenths  to  one  and  a  half  inches. 

Mr.  Saunders  has  sent  us  a  remarkable  and  undescribed  but- 
terfly, under  the  name  of  Melitced  Packardii  Saunders,  with  the 
following  description:  "It  resembles  M.  Tharos  in  size,  and 
expands  1.42  of  an  inch.  The  palpi  are  pale  brown  above,  yel- 
lowish below;  antennae  black  above,  dotted  with  white  and 
tipped  with  red  ;  below  white  tipped  with  red.  Head,  thorax 
and  abdomen,  black  above,  clothed  with  brownish  hairs  ;  white 
underneath ;  feet  brownish  yellow  ;  wings  above  brown,  with  a 
cupreous  tinge,  sprinkled  with  fulvous  atoms,  with  a  wide  band 
of  dark  brown  on  the  outer  margin,  faintly  edged  on  each  side 
with  black.  The  primaries  have  a  fulvous  macular  band  a  short 
distance  from  the  base,  extending  nearly  across  the  wings,  and 
a  patch  of  the  same  hue  a  little  beyond  and  towards  the  front 
margin.  Beyond  the  middle  is  a  wide  band  of  the  same, 
divided  by  the  veins  into  a  series  of  seven  spots  ;  the  upper  one 
is  very  small,  a  mere  dot  with  a  whitish  hue  ;  the  second  is  much 
larger  ;  the  third  and  fourth  are  nearly  uniform  in  size,  larger 
and  more  elongated  than  the  second  ;  the  fifth  and  sixth  are  the 
largest  and  wider  and  longer  than  any  of  the  upper  ones  ;  the 
seventh  is  nearly  of  the  same  width  as  the  sixth,  but  not  more 
than  half  the  length ;  the  fringe  is  dotted  with  white,  especially 
about  the  tip. 

"On  the  secondaries  a  wide  fulvous  patch  covers  the  inner 
part  of  the  wing,  extending  from  near  the  base  to  near  the 
middle  of  the  wing,  and  bounded  towards  the  inner  margin  by 
a  brown  edging ;  within  this  patch  are  three  rounded  blackish 
spots,  one  most  distinct  about  the  middle,  the  others  near  the 
inner  margin  and  partly  lost  in  the  brown  edging  of  the  wing 


PAPILTONIDJE.  257 

Beyond  this  is  an  imperfect  band  of  fulvous  spots,  in  continua- 
tion of  those  on  the  primaries  ;  the  upper  ones  faint  and  indis- 
tinct, and  two  of  the  lower  ones  prominent  and  nearly  round  ; 
the  last  small  and  linear.  The  inner  margin  is  edged  with 
fulvous,  having  a  yellowish  tinge  which  encroaches  on  the  outer 
brown  marginal  band  at  the  anal  angle.  The  fringe  of  the 
secondaries  is  dotted  with  dull  white.  The  primaries  below 
are  fulvous,  with  a  single  wavy,  brown  line  across  the  wing  a 
short  distance  within  the  outer  margin  ;  base  yellowish,  costal 
margin  sprinkled  with  dark  brown  atoms,  and  a  streak  of  the 
same  along  the  middle  of  the  wing  near  the  hind  margin.  At 
the  tip  is  a  yellowish  patch,  occupying  the  space  between 
the  brown  line  and  the  margin,  and  within  this,  one  of  silvery 
white  nearly  equal  in  size.  Below  the  white  are  three  indis- 
tinct, yellowish  patches,  the  lower  one  extending  to  the  outer 
margin  ;  a  large  patch  of  yellow  at  the  lower  corner  where  the 
outer  and  hinder  margins  meet.  The  secondaries  below  are 
yellowish  from  the  base  to  near  the  middle,  with  streaks  and 
spots  of  brown  ;  the  yellowish  color  extending  down  the  inner 
to  the  hinder  margin.  Beyond  the  middle  the  wings  are 
silvery  white,  sprinkled  with  yellow  and  brown  scales,  divided 
by  the  brown  veins  and  partially  crossed  by  an  irregular  streak 
of  brown.  There  are  also  two  brown  patches  on  the  hind  mar- 
gin, the  smaller  one  nearly  round  and  occupying  the  space 
between  the  first  and  second  median  venules  ;  the  larger  being 
irregular  and  resting  on  the  median  vein,  and  extending  across 
the  third  to  the  second  subcostal  venule."  (Canada.)  This  is 
now  known  to  be  a  suffused  variety  of  M.  Tharos. 

Melitcea  Nycteis  Scudder  is  rarely  found  in  Maine  and  Mas- 
sachusetts ;  it  is  pale  fulvous  above,  with  blackish  brown 
markings,  and  expands  from  one  and  three-fifths  to  one  and 
four-fifths  inches.  M.  Harrisii  Scudder  may  be  readily  distin- 
guished from  M.  Nycteis  by  the  under  surface  of  the  hind  wings 
being  cinnamon-red,  with  bands  and  spots  of  white  margined 
with  black.  It  expands  one  and  three-fourths  inches  and  is 
found  in  New  England,  though  rather  a  rare  species.  The  larva 
has  been  reared  in  Norway,  Maine,  by  Mr.  S.  I.  Smith.  It  feeds 
on  Diplopappus  umbellatus,  pupating  from  the  middle  to  the 
last  of  June,  and  remaining  in  the  chrysalis  state  from  ten  to 
17 


258  LEPIDOPTERA. 

sixteen  days ;  the  butterfly  appears  from  June  20th  to  Aug. 
1st.  The  larva  (Fig.  187,  with  the  chrysalis,  after  Mr.  TV.  H. 
Edwards)  closely  resembles  that  of  Melitcea  Phaeton,  but, 
says  Mr.  Scudder  in  a  letter,  it  is 
smaller,  and  the  orange  color  pre- 
dominates over  the  black.  Like  that 
of  M.  Phaeton  the  caterpillar  lives  in 
swarms  on  its  food  plant,  covering 
the  whole  summit  of  the  plant  with  a 
web,  which  at  all  times  is  foul  with 
excrement,  and  presents  a  most  un- 
sightly appearance.  The  chrysalis,  he  also  states,  may  be  best 
described  by  saying  that  it  is  a  miniature  copy  of  that  of 
Phaeton. 

M.  Chakedon  Doubleday  is  found  in  California  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  while  M.  Anicia  Doubleday,  the  under  side 
of  which  is  much  like  that  of  Chalcedon,  occurs  not  only  in 
California  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  but  also  in  Kansas.  M. 
Texana  Edwards  is  a  Texan  species  expanding  one  and  one- 
half  inches. 

In  Vanessa  the  wings  are  notched  and  angulated  or  tailed  on 
the  hind  edges,  while  the  palpi  are  long  and  beak-like.  The 
larva  is  cylindrical  and  stoutly  spined,  the  spines  being  long 
and  branched.  The  caterpillars  are  gregarious  during  the  early 
stages.  "The  head  of  the  chrysalis  is  deeply  notched,  or  fur- 
nished with  two  ear-like  prominences  ;  the  sides  are  very  angu- 
lar ;  in  the  middle  of  the  thorax  there  is  a  thin  projection,  in 
profile,  somewhat  like  a  Roman  nose,  and  on  the  back  are  two 
rows  of  very  sharp  tubercles  of  a  golden  color."  (Harris.) 
Vanessa  Antiopa  Linn,  is  one  of  our  most  abundant  butterflies, 
being  much  more  common  in  this  country  than  in  Europe, 
whither  it  has  probably  been  carried.  Its  wings  are  purplish 
brown  above,  with  a  broad  buff  yellow  border  in  which  is  a  row 
of  pale  blue  spots.  The  butterfly  hibernates,  appearing  before 
the  snow  is  off  the  ground.  It  is  seen  until  June,  and  then 
not  until  the  middle  of  August.  The  larva  is  black,  spotted 
minutely  with  white,  with  a  row  of  eight  dark,  brick-red  spots 
on  the  back.  The  chrysalis  is  dark  brown,  with  large  tawny 
spots  around  the  tubercles  on  the  back.  The  caterpillar  defoli- 


PAPILIONID^E.  259 

ates  the  willow,  poplar  and  Balm  of  Gilead.  Vanessa  Mil- 
bertii  Godart  is  much  smaller  and  is  rather  rare.  It  occurs 
about  roadsides  in  May,  July  and  August.  The  larva  feeds 
on  nettles.  Mr.  Saunders  informs  me  that  "it  was  found  feed- 
ing on  the  nettle,  nearly  full  grown,  July  26th.  It  was  from 
one  to  one  and  one-eighth  inches  long.  The  head  is  black, 
thickly  covered  with  fine,  brownish  white  hairs,  and  sprinkled 
with  many  minute  whitish  dots.  The  body  is  black,  thickly 
sprinkled  with  whitish  dots  and  with  small,  fine,  white  hairs, 
each  segment,  excepting  the  second,  with  a  transverse  row  of 
branching  spines.  A  greenish  yellow  lateral  line  runs  close  to 
the  under  surface,  with  a  second  broken  line  of  a  brighter  yel- 
low color.  All  the  spines  and  their  branches  are  black,  except- 
ing the  lower  row  on  each  side  from  the  fifth  to  the  twelfth 
segment,  springing  from  the  greenish  yellow  lines  ;  these  are  of 
a  greenish  yellow  color.  Under  surface  dull  greenish,  minutely 
dotted  with  whitish  dots.  There  is  a  wide,  central,  blackish 
stripe  covering  anteriorly,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  under  sur- 
face." V.  Californica  Boisd.  is  bright  fulvous,  with  three  black 
bands  on  the  anterior  edge  of  the  fore-wings,  and  there  are  no 
black  crescents  in  the  black  border  of  the  wings. 

The  genus  Grapta  differs  from  the  preceding  in  its  deeply 
incised  wings,  its  smaller  size,  and  red  and  brown  colors. 
The  under  side  of  the  hind  wings  has  usually  a  silvery  or 
golden  dot  and  curved  line,  or  both,  imitating  different  punc- 
tuation marks.  Grapta  interrogationis  Doubleday  is  one  of  the 
largest  species,  and  has  a  golden  semicolon  beneath.  It  is  found 
in  May,  August,  and  in  autumn.  The  caterpillars  injure  the 
foliage  of  the  elm  and  lime  trees,  and  also  the  hop  vine,  some- 
times defoliating  the  whole  vine.  The  larva  has  been  found, 
by  Mr.  Saunders,  feeding  on  the  hop,  August  7th.  "When 
full  grown  its  length  is  one  and  one-fourth  inches.  The  head 
is  reddish  black,  flat  in  front  and  somewhat  bilobed,  each  lobe 
tipped  with  a  tubercle  emitting  five  single,  black,  pointed 
spines  ;  it  is  covered  with  many  small,  white,  and  several  black- 
ish tubercles.  The  body  is  cylindrical,  black,  thickly  covered 
with  streaks  and  dots  of  yellowish  white ;  the  second  segment 
is  without  spines,  but  with  a  row  of  yellowish  tubercles  in  their 
place  ;  the  third  segment  has  four  branching  spines,  all  black, 


260  LEPJDOPTERA. 

with  a  spot  of  dark  yellow  at  their  base ;  and  on  the  fourth 
segment  are  four  spines,  as  there  are  on  all  the  others,  except- 
ing the  terminal,  which  has  two  pairs,  one  posterior  to  the 
other.  The  spines  are  yellow,  with  blackish  branches,  except- 
ing the  terminal  pair  which  is  black ;  and  there  is  a  row  of 
reddish  ones  on  each  side.  The  under  surface  is  yellowish  grey, 
darker  on  the  anterior  segments,  with  a  central  line  of  blackish 
and  many  small,  black  dots."  The  chrysalis  state  lasts  from 
twelve  to  fourteen  days.  It  is  ash  brown,  with  the  head  deeply 
notched,  and  eight  silvery  spots  on  the  back.  Grapta  c-argen- 
teum  Kirby  (Fig.  188,  GL  Progne  Harris)  is  a  small  species 
with  a  silvery  L  in  the  middle  of  the  under  side  of  the  hind 
wings.  It  is  our  most  common  species  northward.  It  appears 
the  last  of  summer.  The  larva  lives  on  the  hop  and  elm. 

Grapta  comma  Double- 
day  is  more  common 
southward.  It  is  known 
by  having  a  silvery 
comma  in  the  middle 
of  the  hinder  wings. 
The  caterpillar  lives  on 
the  hop  and  elm.  Mr. 
W.  H.  Edwards  has 
Fig.  188.  found  the  larvae  on  the 

broad-leaved  nettle.  He  says  "my  attention  was  first  attracted 
by  observing  certain  leaves  drooping,  and  more  or  less  eaten. 
On  the  under  side  of  these  I  usually  found  the  caterpillar 
inactive,  and  never  more  than  one  upon  the  same  plant.  The 
half-grown  larvae  were  black,  with  a  3rellowish  stripe  along  the 
side  from  the  third  segment  to  the  tail,  and  with  yellow  stripes 
across  the  back,  and  spots  of  the  same  color  at  the  base  of 
the  dorsal  spines,  which  were  yellow,  tipped  with  black.  The 
mature  larvae  were  white,  mottled  or  striped  with  grey  or 
ashen,  and  with  red  spiracles." 

The  chrysalis  is  brownish  gray  or  white,  variegated  with 
pale  brown,  and  ornamented  with  gold  on  the  tubercles.  The 
fly  appears  in  May,  July,  August  and  September.  In  the  colder 
and  mountainous  portions  of  New  England  and  New  York, 
these  species  are  replaced  by  the  Ch-apta  Faunus  of  Edwards, 


PAPILIONID^.  261 

who  states  that  "comparing  Faunus  with  c-album,  the  former 
is  deeper  colored  by  many  degrees  ;  it  is  one-fifth  larger,  the 
black  spots  and  margins  much  heavier,  and,  owing  to  this  and 
the  depth  of  the  ground- color,  the  general  hue  of  the  surface  is 
much  darker  than  either  c-album  or  any  of  the  American  spe- 
cies." The  under  side  of  Gr.  Faunus  is  beautifully  marbled  in 
several  colors. 

The  genus  Pyrameis  differs  from  Vanessa  in  having  the 
wings  simply  scalloped,  not  notched ;  beneath,  they  are  not 
marked  with  metallic  colors,  and  the  long,  tapering  palpi  curve 
upward.  The  larvae  are  covered  with  branched  spines,  corre- 
sponding in  size,  and  often  wanting  on  the  first  and  last  seg- 
ments ;  the  head  is  heart-shaped.  They  are  solitary,  hiding 
under  a  rolled  leaf  or  spinning  a  slight  web,  and  hang  by  the 
hind  feet  alone  when  about  to  transform.  The  chrysalids  are 
angular  on  the  sides,  with  two  or  three  lateral  rows  of  sharp, 
golden  tubercles,  and  a  short,  thick  tubercle  on  the  top  of  the 
thorax.  P.  cardui  Linn,  feeds  on  thistles  and  the  sunflower, 
the  hollyhock,  burdock  and  other  rough-leaved  plants,  in  June 
and  July.  It  remains  in  the  pupa  state  twelve  days,  the  but- 
terfly appearing  in  Maine,  about  the  20th  of  July.  Pyrameis 
Santera  Fabr.  has  much  the  same  habits,  while  P.  Atalanta 
Linn,  feeds  on  the  nettle.  These  species  are  all  double- 
brooded,  first  appearing  in  May  and  then  in  July,  August 
and  September. 

Junonia  is  closely  allied  to  Vanessa.  J.  coenia  Boisd.  and 
Lee.  is  found  in  the  Southern  States,  the  West  Indies,  Mexico 
and  California. 

In  Limenitis  the  antennae  are  very  slender,  and  the  hind 
wings  are  scalloped,  while  on  both  wings  the  discal  area  is 
open.  The  caterpillar  and  chrysalis  are  like  those  of  Danais. 
L.  Misippus  Fal>r.  (Fig.  189)  is  tawny  yellow  above,  and  of  a 
paler  yellow  beneath,  with  a  broad,  black  border,  spotted  with 
white,  and  black  veins.  It  expands  from  three  to  three  and  a 
half  inches  and  flies  from  June  to  September.  The  larva  is 
pale  brown,  variegated  with  white  on  the  sides,  and  some- 
times with  green  on  the  back ;  the  prothoracic  ring  has  two 
slender,  blackish,  spinulated  horns,  and  on  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  rings  are  short  tubercles.  It  feeds  on  the  poplar  and 


262 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


willow.  The  pupa  is  known  by  a  thin,  almost  circular,  projec- 
tion standing  out  from  its  back.  The  young  larvae  winter  in 
cases  "composed  of  the  leaf  of  the  willow,  on  which  the  larva 
feeds,  neatly  joined  by  its  longest  opposite  margins,  so  as  to 
form  a  cylindrical  tube  closed  at  one  end  and  lined  with  silk." 
(Trouvelot.)  L.  Ephestion  Stoll  is  blue  black,  with  three  black 
lines  on  the  hind  edges,  and  just  within  the  outer  border  is  a 
row  of  orange  colored  spots.  It  lives  on  the  scrub-oak  (Quercus 
ilicifolia)  in  June,  and  also  on  the  whortleberry  and  the  cherry. 
Limenitis  Artliemis  Drury  is  smaller  and  has  an  oblique,  broad, 
white  band,  crossing  both  wings.  It  is  common  in  the  White 
and  Adirondack  Mountains,  where  it  is  double  brooded,  ap- 
pearing late 
in  June,  and 
again  late  in 
August. 

The  superb 
and  regal  ge- 
nus Morplio 
is  the  Atlas 
among  but- 
terflies. The 
broad  wings 

Fie.  189.*  -, 

spread  nearly 

six  inches,  and  are  usually  of  a  brilliant  blue  above,  and  brown 
beneath,  with  eye-like  spots.  Morplio  Menelaus  Linn.,  from 
Brazil,  expands  five  and  a  half  inches.  M.  Polyphemus  Chenu 
is  a  Mexican  species.  M.  Epistrophis  Hiibner  is  of  a  delicate 
pale  green,  with  two  rows  of  lunate  brown  spots  on  the  hind 
wings.  The  apex  of  the  fore-wings  is  brown,  and  the  discal 
spot  is  connected  with  the  brown  costa.  It  inhabits  Brazil. 

The  genus  Satyrus,  and  its  allies,  Chionobas,  HipparcMa  and 
Neonympha,  are  wood  brown  and  ornamented,  especially  be- 
neath, with  eye-like  spots,  and  have  the  wings  entire,  with  the 
veins  of  the  fore-wings  swelled  at  their  base,  and  the  discal 
area  open  on  the  hind  wings.  They  have  a  short,  quick,  jerky 
flight.  The  caterpillars  are  green  and  smooth,  spindle-shaped, 
or  cylindrical,  tapering  at  both  ends  ;  the  hind  end  is  notched, 

*FiG8. 189, 190  and  198,  are  from  Tenney's  Zoology. 


PAPILIONID^E. 


263 


and  the  head  entire  or  notched.  They  live  mostly  on  grasses. 
"The  chrysalis  is  either  oblong  and  somewhat  angular  on  the 
sides,  with  the  head  notched,  and  two  rows  of  pointed  tuber- 
cles on  the  back,  or  short  and  rounded, 
with  the  head  obtuse."  (Harris) .  Chio- 
nobas  is  found  on  Alpine  summits  and 
in  the  Arctic  regions  and  on  subarctic 
mountains.  C.  semidea  Say  (Fig.  190 ; 
Fig.  191,  hind  wing)  lives  on  the  summit 
of  Mount  Washington.  It  feeds  on 
sedges,  according  to  Scudder. 

Mr.  Scudder,  has  in  the  accompanying 
figures,  closely  exhibited  the  differences 
between  the  Alpine  and  Arctic  species 
of  Chionobas.  C.  Jutta  Moschler  (Fig. 
Northern  Labrador ;  it  extends  as  far  south  as  Quebec,  accord- 
ing to  Edwards.  C.  Chrixus  Doubleday,  (Fig.  193)  is  found 
on  Pike's  Peak,  Colorado  Territory ;  C.  Calais  Scudder  (Fig. 
194)  is  found  on  Albany  River,  Hudson's 
Bay ;  0.  Bore  Schiodte  (Fig.  195)  we 
have  collected  in  Hopedale,  Labrador, 
as  also  C.  (Eno  Boisd.  (Fig.  196). 

Satyrus  Alope  Fabr.  is  our  largest  spe- 
cies. It  is  dark  brown,  with  a  broad, 
lg'  '  ochre-yellow  band  beyond  the  middle. 
It  is  abundant  in  open  fields  in  July  and  August, 
green  larva  is  striped  with  dark,  the  head  is  round,  and  the  tail 
is  forked.  The  chrysalis  is  rather  long,  rounded  on  the  sides 
and  with  the  head  notched.  8.  Nephele  Kirby  is  the  more 


Fig.  190. 

192)   we  took 


in 


Fig.  192. 

The  pale 


Fig.  193.  Fig.  194.  Fig.  195.  Fig.  196. 

northern  form,  and  in  the  upper  Middle  States,  as  about  the 
Catskill  mountains,  occupies  higher  ground,  according  to  Mr. 
Edwards,  while  S.  Alope,  which  prevails  southward,  is  found 
in  the  lowlands  and  valleys.  S.  Nephele  is  smaller,  darker,  and 


264  LEPIDOPTERA. 

there  is  no  yellow  band  on  the  fore-wings,  though,  sometimes, 
each  eye-like  spot  is  surrounded  by  a  yellowish  diffuse  ring. 

Neonympha  Eurytris  Fabr.  flies  low,  with  a  jerky  sort  of 
motion,  in  thick  woods,  in  June  and  July.  The  larva  is  like 
that  of  S.  Alope,  while  the  chrysalis  is  shorter  with  the  head 
obtusely  rounded.  The  adult  is  dark  brown,  with  two  black 
eye-spots,  pupilled  with  a  lead-colored  dot,  and  surrounded 
with  an  ochre-yellow  ring.  On  the  hind  wing  is  a  smaller,  simi- 
lar spot.  It  expands  one  and  seven-tenths  of  an  inch. 

The  aberrant  ^enus  Libythea,  with  its  long,  snout-like  palpi, 
reminds  us  of  the  Pyralids.  It  is  small  and  the  wings  are 
irregularly  notched.  L.  Bachmanii  of  Kirtland  is  not  a  common 
butterfly.  It  occurs  southward,  and  in  Central  America  is  re- 
placed by  L.  Garment  a. 

The  small,  delicate  Theclas  and  Lycsenas  are  often  of  great 
beauty  and  interest.  The  palpi  are  elongated,  the  wings 
entire,  and  the  hind  pair  are  often  once  or  double  tailed. 
The  larvae  are  slug-like,  as  when  moving  on  their  short  feet, 
sixteen  in  number,  they  seem  rather  to  glide  than  walk.  They 
are  oval,  flat  below  and  rounded  above,  both  extremities  being 
much  alike,  with  the  small  head  retracted  within  the  body. 
The  short  and  thick  chrysalids  are  flat  beneath,  but  very  con- 
vex above  and  rounded  at  each  end.  Chrysophanus  Ameri- 
canus  Harris,  our  most  abundant  form,  is  coppery  red  above. 
Its  green  larva  feeds  on  the  sorrel,  and  there  are  three  broods 
of  butterflies  in  the  year.  The  chrysalis  is  usually  suspended 
under  a  stone.  One  sent  by  Mr.  Saunders,  is  smooth,  with 
no  fine  hairs.  The  head  and  thorax,  including  the  wings,  is 
dull  reddish  brown,  dotted  with  black ;  the  abdomen  is  much 
lighter  cinereous,  with  very  distinct,  and  irregular  black  dots, 
and  a  lateral  row  of  twin  black  dots,  one  dot  being  a  little 
behind  its  mate.  On  the  middle  of  the  back  are  three  rows  of 
smaller  black  dots.  It  is  .45  of  an  inch  in  length.  Chryso- 
phanus Thoe  Westwood  is  quite  a  rare  species.  Mr.  Saunders 
describes  the  eggs  as  being  "nearly  round,  a  little  flattened  at 
the  apex  and  flattened  also  at  the  base,  where  it  is  fastened  to 
the  box.  They  are  greenish  white,  and  thickty  indented  ;  at  the 
apex  is  a  considerable  depression ;  immediately  around  this, 
the  indentations  are  small,  growing  larger  towards  the  base." 


PAPILIONHXE.  265 

The  genus  Lyccena  is  azure  blue  throughout,  with  dark  mark- 
ings. Lyccena  neglecta  Edwards  (Polyommatus  pseudargiolus 
Harris)  is  very  common  about  the  Kalmia  and  Rhodora  in 
May,  and  a  new  brood  appears  in  June  and  July.  It  has  been 
reared  by  Mr.  Saunders,  from  whom  I  have  received  the  pupa, 
which  is  a  little  hairy,  being  much  smaller  than  in  Thecla 
Acadica  and  paler  ashy.  It  is  spotted  quite  thickly  with  black 
blotches,  and  on  each  side  of  the  abdomen  is  a  subdorsal  row 
of  rather  large,  black,  contiguous  blotches,  more  distinct  than 
in  T.  Acadica.  It  is  .30  of  an  inch  long. 

L.  comyntas  Harris  is  quite  common  southward.  It  differs 
from  the  other  species  in  having  a  little  tail  on  the  hind  wings, 
at  the  base  of  which  are  two  deep,  orange-colored  crescents. 
It  flies  in  July  and  August.  The  caterpillar  lives  on  the  Lespe- 
deza.  It  is  green  with  three  darker  stripes.  The  brown  chrys- 
alis has  three  rows  of  black  spots  on  the  back. 

Thecla  differs  from  the  two  preceding  genera,  in  its  conspic- 
uous tails  and  the  longer  clubs  of  the  antennae  and  its  dusky 
brown  hues.  The  larvae  are  longer  and  flatter,  and  they  usually 
live  on  trees.  Thecla  Immuli  Harris  feeds  on  the  hop-vine. 
It  flies  in  July  and  August.  .  Thecla  niplion  Godart,  a  dusky 
rust-red  butterfly,  feeds  on  the  pine.  The  larva  is  green,  with 
a  dorsal  yellow  stripe,  and  a  white  one  on  each  side.  It 
changes  to  a  short,  thick,  greyish  pupa,  with  two  rows,  of 
blackish  dots,  and  beyond  these  a  row  of  rust-red  ones.  Mr. 
Saunders  has  sent  us  the  following  description  of  the  cater- 
pillar and  chrysalis  of  Thecla  Acadica  Edwards,  found  by  him 
at  London,  Canada  West,  feeding  on  the  willow,  June  llth 
and  18th.  ult  was  .63  of  an  inch  in  length,  with  a  very  small, 
pale  brown  head,  withdrawn  within  the  prothoracic  segment, 
when  at  rest.  The  body  is  rather  dark  green,  and  is  thickest 
from  the  mesothoracic  to  the  sixth  abdominal  segment.  There 
is  a  darker  green,  dorsal  line,  the  dorsal  region  being  flat, 
rather  wide,  and  edged  on  each  side  with  a  raised,  whitish  yel- 
low line,  and  the  sides  of  the  body  are  inclined  at  almost  an 
acute  angle,  and  striped  with  faint,  oblique  lines,  of  a  greenish 
yellow.  A  whitish  yellow  line  borders  the  under  surface,  be- 
ginning at  the  anterior  edge  of  the  second  segment  (the  head 
is,  for  convenience,  counted  as  a  single  ring,  or  segment)  and 


266  LEPIDOPTERA. 

extending  entirely  around  the  body.  The  chrysalis  is  .32  of 
an  inch  long,  and  .15  wide.  It  is  fastened  with  a  silken 
thread.  The  abdomen  is  thickened  and  somewhat  raised.  It 
is  minutely  hairy,  pale  brown,  with  many  dots  and  patches  of 
a  darker  color ;  the  upper  edge  of  the  wings  being  quite  dark, 
with  a  dark  ventral  stripe,  and  four  or  five  short,  dark  lines  on 
the  side,  It  remains  in  the  chrysalis  state  eight  or  nine  days, 
the  caterpillar  turning  dark  July  3d,  just  before  pupating." 
The  body,  especially  the  abdomen,  is  thicker  and  fuller  than  in 
Chrysophanus  Americanus. 

TJiecla  Mopsus  Hiibner  is  found  in  New  England  and  Canada. 
Mr.  Saunders  sends  me  the  following  description  of  the  larva 
taken  June  9th,  by  beating  bushes,  at  London,  Canada.  "It 
was  .40  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  head  is  small,  of  a  shin- 
ing black  color,  with  a  pale  stripe  across  the  front  just  above 
the  mandibles,  and  is  drawn  within  the  second  ring  when  at 
rest.  The  body  above  is  green  along  the  middle  rings,  deep  rose 
color  at  each  extremity,  and  is  thickly  covered  with  short,  brown 
hairs.  The  second  segment  is  rosy  above,  greenish  yellow  at 
the  sides,  with  an  edging  of  the  same  color  in  front ;  the  third 
segment  is  entirely  rose  colored ;  from  the  third  to  the  tenth 
segments  is  a  dorsal  stripe  of  rose  which  is  wide  on  the  fourth, 
fifth,  eight  and  ninth  segments,  but  narrow  and  linear  on  the 
intermediate  ones  ;  on  the  tenth  segment  the  green  encroaches 
on  the  rose  color  on  the  sides  of  the  body,  extending  more  than 
half-way  upon  the  segment  behind  the  tenth.  The  body  is 
rose  colored  with  a  dorsal  streak  of  a  darker  shade.  The  rose 
color  at  each  extremity  is  united  by  a  rosy  line  along  each  side 
close  to  the  under  surface  which  grows  fainter  on  the  middle 
segments.  The  under  surface  is  dull  green,  with  a  yellowish 
tint;  the  feet  and  prolegs  (abdominal  legs)  are  yellowish 
green.  June  24th,  the  larva  has  now  become  quite  large  and 
will  probably  soon  go  into  the  chrysalis  state.  I  found  it 
would  readily  eat  the  plum  and  cherry. 

"Its  length  is  now  .70  ;  its  width  about  .20  of  an  inch.  The 
head  is  very  small,  bilobed,  black  and  shining,  with  a  streak  of 
dull  white  across  the  front  above  the  mandibles,  which  are 
reddish  brown.  The  body  above  is  dull  green,  with  a  yel- 
lowish tint,  especially  on  the  anterior  segments,  which  are 


PAPILIONIM;.  267 

thickly  covered  with  very  short,  brown  hairs,  scarcely  visible 
without  a  magnifier;  these  hairs  arise  from  small,  pale,  yel- 
lowish dots  which  appear  slightly  raised  ;  there  is  a  dorsal  streak 
of  dark  green  arising  from  the  internal  organs  showing  through 
the  semitransparent  skin.  There  is  a  patch  of  dull  pink,  or 
rosy  color,  on  the  anterior  segments  from  the  second  to  the 
fourth  inclusive ;  it  is  faint  on  the  second  ring,  and  covering 
but  a  single  portion  of  its  upper  surface,  and  nearly  covering 
the  dorsal  crest  on  the  third  segment,  and  reduced  again  to  a 
small,  faint  patch  on  the  fourth.  On  the  posterior  segments  is 
a  much  larger  rosy  patch,  extending  from  the  hinder  part  of  the 
ninth  segment  to  the  end  of  the  body.  The  hinder  part  of 
the  ninth  segment  is  merely  tinged.  On  the  tenth  segment  it 
becomes  a  rather  large  patch,  widening  posteriorly.  Behind 
this  the  body  is  entirely  covered  with  rosy  red.  The  sides  of 
the  tenth  segment,  close  to  the  under  surface,  have  a  streak  of 
the  same  color,  and  there  is  a  faint  continuation  of  this  on  the 
ninth  segment.  The  head  is  drawn  within  the  second  segment 
when  at  rest.  The  second  segment  is  smaller  than  the  third  ; 
there  is  a  wide  dorsal  crest,  or  ridge,  from  the  third  to  the  tenth 
segments  inclusive ;  behind  this  the  body  is  suddenly  flattened, 
the  sides  suddenly  sloping.  The  under  surface  is  yellowish 
green,  with  a  few  very  fine  brownish  hairs ;  the  feet  and 
prolegs  are  greenish,  semitransparent. 

"On  June  29th  it  fastened  itself  to  the  lid  of  the  box,  chang- 
ing to  a  chrysalis  July  1st,  which  was  .45  of  an  inch  in 
length,  and  its  greatest  width  .20  of  an  inch.  The  body  is 
pale  brown  and  glossy,  with  many  small,  dark  brown  or  black- 
ish dots  distributed  over  the  whole  surface ;  they  are  thicker 
along  the  middle  above,  with  a  faint,  imperfect,  ventral  stripe 
from  the  seventh  to  the  eleventh  segments ;  the  surface  is 
thickly  covered  with  very  short,  brown  hairs,  invisible  without 
a  magnifier.  The  imago  appeared  July  13th." 

Mr.  Saunders  has  found  the  larva  of  Theda  strigosa  Harris, 
a  rare  species  in  Canada  and  New  England,  feeding  on  the 
thorn,  Crataegus,  July  13th.  "The  head  is  small,  greenish,  with 
a  faint  tint  of  brown,  and  a  black  stripe  across  the  front  below 
the  middle,  and  a  patch  of  white  between  this  stripe  and  the 
mandibles,  which  are  brownish  black  above.  The  body  is  of  a 


268  LEPIDOPTERA. 

rich  velvety  green,  with  a  yellowish  tinge,  slightly  paler  be- 
tween the  segments,  and  a  dorsal  stripe  of  a  darker  shade, 
centred  along  the  middle  segments  with  a  faint,  j^ellowish 
line.  The  anterior  edge  of  the  second  segment  is  yellowish 
brown,  with  a  few  dots  of  a  darker  color.  The  body  is  thickly 
covered  with  minute  hairs  which  are  brown  above  and  white 
below,  being  scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  The  body  is 
flattened  above  (dorsal  crest  not  bordered  with  yellow  as  in  T. 
Acadica),  steeply  sloped  at  the  sides,  where  it  is  striped  with 
faint  oblique  line's  of  yellowish,  two  or  three  on  each  segment. 
The  two  last  segments  have  a  patch  of  yellowish  011  each  side, 
making  the  dark  dorsal  line  appear  much  more  prominent.  A 
faint  yellowish  line  close  to  the  under  surface  from  the  fifth  to 
the  terminal  segments.  The  under  surface  is  bluish  green, 
with  a  darker  patch  on  the  last  two  segments. 

"  The  chrysalis  changed  June  19th,  and  is  nearly  oval  in  form. 
The  head-case  is  rounded,  and  the  body  is  dark  reddish  brown, 
with  black  markings  thickly  covered  with  fine,  short,  whitish 
hairs,  rather  more  numerous  on  the  anterior  and  posterior 
segments.  Anterior  segments  with  many  thickly  set  patches 
of  blackish,  and  a  dark  ventral  line  from  the  sixth  to  the 
twelfth  segments.  It  is  bound  by  a  few  silken  threads  on 
the  anterior  portion  of  the  seventh  segment." 

The  accompanying  cut  (Fig.  197)  represents  the  pupa  of  a 

Thecla,  found  in  July  b}T  Mr.  Sanborn,  on  the  Glen  road  to 

Mount  Washington.     The  body  is  smooth  and  tapers  gradually 

from  the  mesothorax,  and  the  venation  of  the  wings  is 

§very  apparent.  Another  pupa,  probably  T.  niplion,  found 
by  Mr.  Sanborn,  is  very  different,  being  much  stouter, 
and  thicker  through  the  abdomen,  by  a  third  of  its 
Fig.  197.  Diameter,  than  the  chrysalis  figured.  It  is  rough  and 
covered  with  short,  fine,  stiff  hairs ;  the  tegument  is  so  thick, 
that  there  are  no  traces  of  the  veins  of  the  wing,  while  the 
sutures  between  the  segments  and  the  appendages  are  not 
nearly  as  distinct.  The  larva,  according  to  Mr.  Sanborn's 
notes,  was  found  feeding  upon  the  White  Pine,  July  13th. 
"It  was  .45  of  an  inch  long;  the  head  was  retracted,  yellow- 
ish, and  the  body  pale,  transparent  green,  with  four  longi- 
tudinal, white  stripes,  and  one  transverse,  lozenge-shaped 


PAPILIONID^.  269 

patch,  of  the  same  color,  on  the  eleventh  segment.  The  rings 
were  all  somewhat  elevated  in  the  middle  of  their  diameter  and 
thinly  covered  with  yellowish  brown,  short  hairs."  He  did  not 
succeed  in  rearing  the  butterfly,  but  this  description  will  be 
useful  to  any  entomologist  who  may  be  fortunate  enough  to 
rear  it  hereafter. 

The  Hesperians,  or  Skippers,  are  a  large  group  of  small, 
dark,  dun-colored  butterflies,  whose  antennae  have  the  knob 
curved  like  a  hook,  or  ending  in  a  little  point  bent  to  one  side, 
reminding  us  of  the  antennae  of  the  Sphinges.  *  They  are  moth- 
like  in  their  motions,  form,  and  larval  characters.  They  are 
stout  bodied,  with  large  heads  and  prominent  eyes,  and  thick 
palpi,  almost  square  at  the  end.  The  larvae  are  spindle-shaped, 
naked,  and  with  a  remarkably  large  head.  They  are  solitary, 
and  often  hide  in  folded  leaves  like  the  Tortricidce,  trans- 
forming in  a  rude  cocoon  of  dead  leaves  or  stub- 
ble, held  together  by  silken  threads.  The  pupae 
are  somewhat  conical,  like  those  of  moths, 
smooth  and  generally  covered  with  a  bluish 
white  powder.  They  are  fastened  by  the  tail 
and  a  slight  band  of  threads  within  their  rude  Fl&-  198> 
cocoons.  We  have  many  species  in  this  country ;  the  largest 
forms  occurring  southwards. 

Eudamus  Tityrus  Cramer  feeds  on  the  locust  and  is  our  largest 
species  northward.  E.  Bathyllus  flies  in  June  and  July.  It  feeds 
on  Glycine  and  Hedysarum  in  May  and  June.  In  Hesperia 
the  knobs  are  shorter,  and  end  in  a  point  turned  sidewise. 
The  upper  wings  are  raised,  and  the  lower  spread  out  flat  when 
at  rest.  The  chrysalis  has  a  long  tongue-case  free  at  the  end, 
in  this  respect  showing  a  transition  to  the  hawk-moths.  They 
are  snuff-brown,  with  dark  spots. 

Mr.  W.  Saunders  has  been  very  successful  in  raising  the 
larvae  of  H.  Hobomoc  Harris  and  other  butterflies  and  moths, 
by  watching  for  the  fertile  eggs  in  captured  specimens,  which 
are  often  deposited  on  the  sides  of  the  collecting  box.  The 
food-plant  of  the  larvae  can  usually  be  discovered  after  experi- 
menting with  those  plants  on  which  other  species  of  this  or 
allied  genera  are  known  to  feed.  "The  egg,  deposited  June 
17th,  is  nearly  round,  flattened  on  the  lower  side,  and  of  a 


270  LEPIDOPTERA. 

pale  green  color.  Under  the  microscope  it  appears  plainly 
reticulated,  with  fine,  six-sided  markings,  strongly  resembling 
the  cornea  of  a  fly's  eye.  The  larva  on  finding  its  way  out, 
June  27th,  began  to  eat  the  egg-shell  at  the  centre  above. 
It  feeds  on  grass,  on  the  inside  of  the  leaves  near  the  joints, 
drawing  portions  of  the  leaves  together  with  silken  threads. 
When  placed  on  a  strongly  ribbed  blade  of  grass,  it  spins  a 
few  threads  from  rib  to  rib,  and  stations  itself  behind  the 
threads.  By  the  14th  of  July  the  caterpillars  were  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch  long  and  resembled  those  of  H.  Mystic 
of  the  same  age."  Mr.  Saunders  did  not  succeed  in  raising 
the  caterpillars  to  maturity  as  they  were  unfortunately  lost. 

The  most  abundant  species  in  New  England  is  H.  Wamsutta 
Harris  (Fig.  198)  which  frequents  roadsides  throughout  the 
summer.  According  to  Mr.  Saunders'  notes,  from  "eggs  de- 
posited July  10th,  the  young  larva  was  hatched  July  24th,  the 
eggs  growing  darker  about  two  or  three  days  previous.  The 
egg  is  pale  greenish  yellow,  or  yellowish  green,  strongly  con- 
vex above,  and  flattened  at  the  place  of  attachment.  The  flat- 
tened portion  is  slightly  concave  and  very  faintly  reticulated 
under  a  power  of  forty-five  diameters. 

The  young  larva,  when  first  hatched,  is  about  the  same  as 
that  of  Mystic  and  Hobomoc,  probably  .10  of  an  inch,  and  is 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  them,  excepting  that  it  is  slightly 
darker  in  color.  The  head  is  large  and  prominent  and  of  a 
shining  black  color.  The  second  segment  has  a  ring  of  brown- 
ish black,  encircling  it  above.  The  body  is  dull  brownish  yel- 
low, very  faintly  dotted  with  black,  each  dot  emitting  a  single, 
rather  long,  brownish  hair.  The  under  surface  is  rather  paler 
than  the  upper. 

Mr.  Saunders  has  also  reared  the  larva  of  H.  Mystic  Edwards 
from  the  egg,  which  is  "strongly  convex  above, flattened  below 
and  depressed  in  the  centre  of  the  flattened  portion.  Under 
a  magnifying  power  of  eighty  diameters,  the  surface  is  seen 
to  be  faintly  reticulated  ;  it  is  pale  yellowish  green.  The  eggs 
were  deposited  about  the  20th  of  June  and  hatched  on  the 
28th  and  29th  of  June.  When  hatched  it  was  .10  of  an  inch 
long,  with  a  large,  black  head,  and  was  white,  becoming  yel- 
lowish brown,  especially  towards  the  end  of  the  body.  It  feeds 


SPHINGID^E.  271 

on  grass,  and  at  this  stage  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from 
the  young  larva  of  H.  Hobomoc.  When  an  inch  long  the  head 
is  not  large  in  proportion  to  the  body,  though  it  is  prominent 
and  wider  than  the  second  segment ;  it  is  dull  reddish  brown 
and  black  posteriorly.  The  body  above  is  semitransparent, 
dull  brownish  green,  with  minute,  whitish  hairs,  similar  to 
those  on  the  head,  with  a  dorsal  line  and  many  darker  dots 
over  the  surface.  The  second  segment  is  pale  whitish,  with  a 
line  of  brownish  black  across  the  upper  surface,  with  a  faint, 
pale,  lateral  line  close  to  the  under  surface :  the  terminal  seg- 
ments are  paler  than  the  rest  of  the  body.  The  feet  are 
whitish,  semitransparent.  This  species  is  found  from  Canada 
to  Maryland. 

SPHINGID^E  Latreille.  The  Hawk-moths  or  Humming-bird 
moths  are  among  the  largest  and  stoutest  of  Lepidoptera.  The 
body  is  very  stout,  spindle-shaped,  with  narrow,  powerful  wings. 
Their  flight  is,  consequently,  exceedingly  swift  and  strong. 
The  antennae  are  prismatic  in  form  and  thickened  in  the  mid- 
dle. The  tongue,  or  maxillae,  is  remarkably  long,  so  that  the 
insect  is  able,  while  on  the  wing,  to  explore  the  interior  of 
deep  flowers.  This  habit  of  remaining  for  a  considerable  time 
poised  in  the  air  on  their  rapidly  vibrating  wings,  causes  them 
to  be  mistaken  for  humming-birds.  At  rest  the  wings  are 
folded,  roof-like,  over  the  body.  The  larvae  have  sixteen  legs, 
and  on  the  last  segment  is  an  acute  horn,  sometimes  represented 
by  a  simple  tubercle.  At  rest  they  stand  with  the  forepart 
of  the  body  elevated  in  a  supposed  Sphinx-like  attitude.  The 
larvae  descend  into  the  earth  and  transform,  often  in  rude, 
earthen  cocoons,  moulded  into  form  by  the  pressure  of  the 
body.  The  tongue-case  is  usually  free. 

There  are  between  300  and  400  species  known,  a  large  part 
of  which  are  tropical  American.  Most  of  the  species  fly  in 
June  and  July.  The  larvae  transform  in  the  latter  part  of 
August  and  in  September. 

In  Ellema  the  body  is  small.  The  head  is  small,  narrow  and 
somewhat  tufted,  and  with  small  eyes.  It  might  be  passed  over 
on  a  hasty  'view  for  a  Noctuid.  The  larva  of  Ellema  Harrisii 
Clemens  is  green,  has  no  caudal  horn,  and  lives  on  the  pine. 


272  LEPIDOPTERA. 

Mr.  Saunders  writes  me  that  he  has  found  it  feeding  on  the 
pine,  about  the  middle  of  September.  "It  is  two  inches  long, 
the  body  being  smooth  and  nearly  cjdindrical  and  thickest  in 
the  middle  of  the  body.  The  head  is  large,  pointed  above,  flat 
in  front  and  green,  with  a  yellow  stripe  on  each  side.  The 
body  is  bright  green,  with  a  dorsal  row  of  dark  red  spots  on 
the  fifth  to  the  twelfth  segments  inclusive,  with  a  bright  yel- 
low stripe  on  each  side  of  the  reddish  spots  and  a  lateral 
white  stripe  mixed  with  yellow."  The  moth  is  a  very  small, 
ash  grey  species,  only  expanding  two  inches.  It  frequents 
flowers  at  dusk  in  June. 

The  genus  Sphinx,  as  now  limited  by  systematists,  is  much 
larger  bodied,  with  a  long  and  narrow  head,  small  eyes  and 
long  and  narrow  wings.  The  head  of  the  larva  is  rather 
large,  semi-oval  and  flattened  in  front.  The  body  is  C3^1in- 
drical,  smooth  and  obliquely  banded  on  the  side,  with  an 
arching,  caudal  horn.  It  transforms  in  a  subterranean  earthen 
cell.  The  tongue-case  of  the  pupa  is  short  and  free,  instead 
of  being  soldered  to  the  body.  Sphinx  gordius  Cramer  is  dark 
brown,  with  a  roseate  tinge,  and  the  thorax  is  blackish  brown 
above.  The  larva  feeds  on  the  apple. 

Sphinx  Jcalmice  Smith  is  hoary  and  rust-red,  and  on  the  hind 
wings  are  a  median  and  marginal  black  band.  The  caterpillar 
feeds  on  the  lilac  and  laurel.  It  is  pale  green,  with  seven 
oblique,  lateral,  pale  yellow  bands,  edged  above  with  black, 
which  is  again  bordered  with  pale  blue.  Sphinx  drupiferarum 
Smith  has  the  fore- wings  blackish  brown,  with  the  discal  dot 
and  outer  edge  of  the  wing  whitish  fawn-color.  The  larva 
feeds  on  the  different  species  of  plum.  The  body  is  pale  green, 
with  lateral  purple  bands,  edged  beneath  with  white.  Sphinx 
chersis  Hiibner  (S.  cinerea  Harris)  is  the  largest  species  we 
have,  and  is  pale  ashen,  and  reddish  gray  beneath.  The  larva 
feeds  on  the  lilac. 

The  large  "  potato  worm "  belongs  to  the  genus  Macrosila, 
containing  our  largest  species  of  the  family ;  the  head  is  pro- 
portionally large,  and  the  wings  are  rather  broad,  with  the 
interior  angles  dilated.  M.  cingulata  Fabr.  has  pink  hind 
wings  and  pink  spots  on  the  abdomen.  It  feeds  on  the  sweet 
potato.  M.  quinque-maculata  Haworth  (Fig.  199,  moth ;  a, 


SPHINGID^E, 


273 


18 


274 


LEPIDOPTEEA. 


larva ;  6,  pupa)  is  gray ;  the  fore-wings  are  immaculate  at  the 
base,  and  on  the  hind  wings  are  two  distinct  angulated  bands. 
The  larva  feeds  on  the  tomato  and  potato  vines.  It  is  dark 
green,  with  a  series  of  greenish  yellow  angular  bands  on  the 
side.  The  tongue-case  is  long  and  much  arched.  M.  Carolina 
Linn,  is  cinereous,  with  a  white  spot  at  the  base  of  the  fore- 
wing,  while  the  central  band  of  the  hind  wings  are  indistinct. 

The  larva  (Fig.  200) 
feeds  on  the  tobacco 
and  tomato.  It  is  dark 
green  with  lateral, 
oblique,  white  bands, 
edged  above  with  blu- 
ish and  short  trans- 
Fig.  200.  ,  ,  ,  ,  . 

verse   black    stripes. 

The  tongue-case  is  shorter  and  less  curved  than  in  M.  5-macu- 
lata.  The  tongue  of  a  Madagascar  hawk-moth,  M.  cluentius, 
Wallace  states,  is  nine  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  probably 
adapted  for  exploring  the  long  nectaries  of  some  Orchids. 

In  Ceratomia  the  body  is  thick,  with  the  head  and  eyes  small ; 
the  thorax  is  short  and  round,  while  the  abdomen  is  rather 
long.  The  larva  is  easily  known  by  the 
four  thoracic  horns,  besides  the  usual 
caudal  horn.  The  tongue-case  is  not 
free.  C.  Amyntor  Hiibner  (quadricornis 
Harris)  feeds  on  the  elm. 

We  now  come  to  the  more  aberrant 
forms  of  the  family.     Under  the  name 
of  Cressonia  Mr.  Grote  has  separated 
Fig.  201.  from  the  genus  Smerinthus,  a  species  in 

which  the  wings  are  more  notched  than  in  the  latter  genus,  and 
the  antennae  are  slightly  pectinated.  Cressonia  juglandis  Smith 
(Fig.  201,  venation)  is  of  a  pale  fawn-color,  and  has  no  e3^e-like 
spots  on  the  hind  wings,  as  in  Smerinthus.  The  larva  is  bluish 
green,  with  a  row  of  subdorsal  and  stigmatal  reddish  brown 
spots,  and  six  oblique,  lateral,  bright  yellow  bands.  It  lives  on 
the  wild  cherry. 

In  Smerinthus  the  body  is  stout,  the  head  sunken  and  the 
maxillae  are  only  as  long  as  the  palpi,  being  almost  obsolete. 


SPHINGID^.  275 

The  species  are  said  to  fly  heavily  and  only  in  the  night.  The 
head  of  the  larva  is  semi-oval  or  pyramidal,  acute  above,  and 
the  thoracic  rings  are  obliquely  banded  on  each  side.  The 
pupa  is  smooth,  cylindrical  and  somewhat  conical  in  form.  JS. 
modestus  Harris  is  a  very  large  species,  expanding  nearly  six 
inches.  It  feeds  on  the  Lombardy  poplar.  JS.  exccecatus  Smith 
has  the  hind  wings  rosy  on  the  inner  angle.  The  "ocellus"  or 
eye-like  spot  is  black,  with  a  large,  pale  blue  pupil.  The 
larva  is  apple  green,  with  seven  oblique,  yellowish  white  lines 
on  the  sides,  and  a  bluish  caudal  horn.  It  feeds  on  the  apple 
and  the  Rosa  Carolina.  JS.  geminatus  Say  (Fig.  202,  venation 
of  the  hind  wing)  is  so  called  from  the  two  sky-blue  pupils  in 
the  black  ocellus  on  the  roseate  hind  wings. 
The  pupa  has  been  found  at  the  roots  of 
willows. 

In  the  genus  Pliilampelus,  or  lover  of  the  vine, 
as  its  name  indicates,  the  tongue  is  again  as  long  Fis-  202- 
as  the  body.  The  antennae  have  a  long  hook  tapering  to 
the  end,  bearing  cilise  in  the  male.  The  abdomen  is  large  and 
thick,  and  the  wings  are  deeply  concave  on  the  inner  border. 
The  larva  has  a  tubercle  in  place  of  a  caudal  horn.  The 
tongue-case  of  the  pupa  is  not  free.  P.  vitis  Harris  is  olive 
greeii,  with  pale  green  hind  wings,  which  are  rose-red  towards 
the  inner  margin.  The  larva  is  flesh-colored  mixed  with  yel- 
low, and  with  short,  transverse,  black  lines,  and  lateral,  semi- 
oval,  yellowish  white  bands,  edged  with  black. 

In  Deilepliila  the  abdomen  tapers  suddenly  at  the  tip  and 
the  fusiform  antennae  end  in  a  minute  hook.  The  gaily  colored 
larva  has  a  straight  and  rather  short  caudal  horn.  There  are  no 
oblique  bands  on  the  sides  of  the  body,  but  a  row  of  subdorsal 
spots  on  each  side.  Clemens  states  that  the  anterior  segments 
are  much  attenuated,  and  are  capable  of  being  withdrawn  or 
shortened,  or  much  extended.  "  When  disturbed  they  fall  from 
their  food-plants,  shorten  the  anterior  segments  and  bend  the 
head  inwards."  They  transform  in  a  cell  excavated  from  the 
surface.  The  tongue-case  of  the  pupa  is  not  free.  D.  lineata 
Fabr.  is  olive  green,  with  six  white  lines  on  the  thorax.  The  hind 
wings  are  black  with  a  rose  colored  central  band.  The  larva  is 
yellowish  green  ;  the  subdorsal  -spots  consisting  of  two  curved, 


276 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


short,  black  lines,  with  yellow  above  and  beneath.  It  is  double 
brooded  in  Texas.  The  larva  feeds  on  the  purslane  and  turnip, 
and  will,  in  confinement,  eat  the  apple.  D.  chamceneni  Harris 
has  a  white  line  on  each  side  of  the  head  and  thorax.  The 
larva  feeds  on  the  willow-herb  (Epilobium  angustifolium) .  It 
is  bronze  green,  dull  red  beneath,  with  nine  round  cream- 
colored  spots,  pupilled  with  black,  and  a  dull  red  caudal  horn. 
The  genus  Thyreus  has  a  lateral  tuft  on  each  side  of  the  tip  of 
the  flattened,  oval  abdomen,  and  the  head  is  broad  and  obtuse, 
while  the  fore-wings  are  excavated  just  below  the  tips.  The 

body  of  the 
larva  tapers 
^  gently  from 
the  first  ab- 
dominal ring, 
and  the  last 
segment  has  a 
lenticular  tu- 
bercle instead 
of  a  true  horn. 
When  at  rest 
it  throws  its 
head  from  side 
to  side  thus 
producing  a 
Fis-203-  crepitating 

noise.  It  transforms  in  a  cell  on  the  surface.  T.  Abbotii 
Swainson  (Fig.  203  and  larva)  is  dull  chocolate  brown,  with 
dull  sulphureous  hind  wings,  with  a  dark  brown  terminal  band 
broken  up  into  short  lines  on  a  roseate  spot  at  the  inner  angle. 
The  larva  is  reddish  brown,  with  numerous  patches  of  light 
green.  The  tubercle  is  black,  encircled  at  base  by  a  yellowish 
line  and  a  blackish  cordate  patch.  It  feeds  on  the  wild  and 
cultivated  grape-vines  and  on  the  Ampelopsis  quinquefolia,  or 
woodbine. 

The  Bee-moth  or  Clear-wing,  Sesia,  is  smaller  than  the  fore- 
going genera,  and  the  body  is  flattened,  oval  and  gaily  colored 
with  yellow,  black  and  red,  while  the  wings  are  transparent  in 
the  middle.  The  larva  tapers  in  front,  has  a  dorsal  stripe  just 


277 

above  the  row  of  stigmata,  and  a  short  recurved  horn.  It 
transforms  in  an  imperfect  cocoon  at  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
Sesia  diffinis  Boisd.  is  pale  greenish  yellow,  with  the  abdomen 
black  beneath,  and  the  legs  black.  The  larva  is 
pale  green,  reddish  beneath.  Sesia  Tliysbe  Fabr. 
is  a  more  common  species  northward.  The  thorax 
is  deep  olive  green,  with  the  abdomen  reddish  be- 
neath, and  with  whitish  legs.  It  is  abundant,  flying  in  June 
in  the  hot  sun  about  the  lilac  and  Rhodora  Canadensis. 

Under  the  name  of  Lepisesia  Mr.  Grote  has  separated  L. 
flavofasciata  Barnston  (Fig.  204,  venation  of  fore-wing)  found 
in  Canada,  from  the  genus  Macroglossa,  repre- 
sented in  Europe  by  M.  stellatarum  Linn. 
Mr.  Grote  also  separates  from  the  latter 
genus,  under  the  name  of  Eupyrrlwglossum,  Fig  205. 
a  Cuban  moth,  which  has  larger,  fuller  eyes,  and  larger  hind 
wings  than  in  Macroglossa.  E.  Sagra  (Fig.  205,  venation  of 
fore-wing)  is  a  handsome  form  described  by  Professor  Poey. 


Harris.  These  elegant  and  gaily  colored  moths, 
which  by  the  arrangement  of  their  colors  and  their  clear  wings, 
look  like  bees  and  wasps,  are  readily  recognized  by  their  small 
size,  narrow  wings,  thickened  antennae,  and  by  the  tufts  at  the 
end  of  the  body,  which  they  can  spread  out  fan-like.  They  fly 
very  swiftly  in  the  hottest  sunshine.  The  larvae  are  borers, 
living  mostly  in  the  hollowed  stems  of  plants.  They  are  whit- 
ish, cylindrical,  with  sparse,  short,  inconspicuous  hairs,  and 
they  have  no  anal  horns.  They  transform  in  a  rude,  oblong, 
oval  cocoon,  constructed  of  the  chips  they  make  in  boring  out 
their  tunnels,  cemented  by  a  gummy  secretion.  The  pupae  are 
chestnut-brown,  with  transverse  rows  of  short  teeth  on  the 
abdominal  rings,  by  which  they  make  their  way  out,  partly 
through  the  hole  previously  made  by  the  larva  for  the  exit  of 
the  moth.  The  shell  of  the  chrysalis  is  often  left  protruding 
from  the  hole.  This  family  is,  therefore,  quite  injurious  to 
gardeners. 

uEgeria  exitiosa  Say  (Fig.  206,  $)  the  Peach-tree  borer,  has 
caused  the  death  of  many  peach  trees  and  also,  according  to 
Fitch,  occasionally  attacks  the  plum.  It  is  a  slender,  dark 


278  LEPIDOPTERA. 

blue  moth,  expanding  an  inch  and  a  half,  or  more.  The  male 
is  much  smaller  than  the  female  (Fig.  207),  expanding  one  inch. 
She  deposits  her  eggs  near  the  root  of  the  tree.  The  larvae  are 
hatched  and  bore  in  to  feed  upon  the  inner  bark  and  sap  wood. 
When  one  year  old  they  make  their  cocoon  under  the  bark  or 
at  the  root  of  the  tree.  Borers  of  all  sizes,  Harris  states,  will 
be  found  in  the  trees  throughout  the  year. 

The  trees  should  be  protected  by  wrapping  sheathing  paper 
around  the  bottom  of  the  trunk,  and  putting  fresh  mortar  around 
the  roots.     The  wounded  part  may  be  cov- 
ered with  clay.     ^Egeria  pyri  Harris  infests 
the  pear  tree.     It  is  purple  black  above  and 
golden  yellow  beneath,   with  three   yellow 
bands  across  the  abdomen,  the  middle  band 
Fig.  206.  being  the  larger. 

The  habits  of  the  Grape-root  borer,  ^.  polistiformis  Harris, 
resemble  those  of  the  Peach-tree  borer.  It  sometimes  de- 
stroys grape-vines  in  the  Middle  and  Western  States,  but  does 
not  attack  the  Scuppernong  variety.  The  larva  lives  under 
ground,  the  female,  according  to  Walsh,  "depositing  her  egg 
on  the  collar  of  the  grape-vine,  close  to  the  earth ;  the  young 
larvae,  as  soon  as  they  hatch  out,  immediately  descend  into 
the  roots."  They  attack  the  sap-wood  and  bark  of  the  roots, 
eating  irregular  furrows.  The  cocoons  are  oval,  and  covered 
with  bits  of  wood  and  dirt.  They  are 
found,  through  the  summer,  in  the  earth 
near  the  roots  of  the  grape,  and  the  moths 
fly  from  the  middle  of  June  until  the  mid- 
dle of  September,  according  to  Dr.  Kron. 
Harris  describes  the  moth  as  being  dark 
Fig.  207.  brown,  tinged  with  tawny  orange  on  the 

sides,  and  banded  with  bright  yellow  upon  the  edge  of  the 
second  abdominal  ring.  The  thorax  and  fourth  abdominal 
ring  are  faintly  tinged  with  yellow,  or  tawny  orange,  as  are 
the  palpi,  under  side  of  the  antennae,  and  the  legs.  The  female 
has  a  little  orange  colored  tuft  on  each  side  of  the  tail,  and 
the  males  have  two  tufts  on  each  side.  The  wings  expand 
from  one  to  one  and  a  half  inches.  Another  species,  ^E. 
caudata  Harris,  inhabits  the  wild  currant. 


ZYGJSNID.E. 


279 


The  currant  borer,  ^Egeria  tipuliforme  Linn.  (Fig.  208  ;  6, 
larva  ;  a,  pupa,  enlarged)  has  been  introduced  from  Europe,  and 

is  a  great  pest  in  our  gar- 
dens, injuring  the  currant 
bushes.  It  is  a  slender, 
agile,  dark  blue  moth,  found 
flying  in  July  in  the  hot  sun, 
about  the  currant  leaves. 
The  larva  bores  in  the  stems, 
and  by  splitting  them  open, 
in  the  fall  and  spring,  we 
shall  find  the  larva,  which 


quinque 


pupates  towards  the  last  of  May. 

Mr.    James   Ridings   describes  from  Virginia 

caudata  (Fig.  209)  which  has 

five  filaments   at  the  tip-  of 

the   abdomen.      Its  body  is 

blue  black,  with  a  transparent 

spot  at  the  base  of  the  hind 

wings,  while  the  third  abdom- 

inal segment  is  red  above. 

The     Squash-vine     borer,  rig.  210. 

Melittia  cucurbitce  Harris  (Fig.  210  ;  a,  larva),  often  kills,  very 

suddenly,  the  squash  plant.  The  moth  is  orange  colored, 
spotted  with  black,  and  its  hind  legs  are 
fringed  with  long,  orange  and  black  hairs. 
She  oviposits  on  the  vine  close  to  the  roots, 
from  the  tenth  of  July  to  the  middle  of  Au- 
gust. The  larva  eats  out  the  interior  of  the 
vine,  and  usually  transforms  in  a  rude  earthen 
cocoon  near  the  roots,  but  as  we  have  no- 

ticed, within  the  stem,  beginning  to  spin  its  cocoon  the  first 

of  October. 

ZYG.ENID.E  Latreille.  This  interesting  group  connects  the 
diurnal  with  the  nocturnal  Lepidoptera.  Some  of  the  forms 
(Castnia)  remind  us  strikingly  of  the  butterflies.  The  group 
may  be  recognized  by  the  rather  large  free  head,  and  the 
simple  antennae  which  are  slightly  swollen  in  the  middle,  or 


280  LEPIDOPTERA. 

partially  clavate,  as  in  Zygsena.  The  wings  are  long  and  nar- 
row in  the  typical  genera,  becoming  shorter  and  broader  in  the 
lower  genera,  such  as  Euremia,  from  India.  The  scales  are 
fine,  powdery  and  scattered  thinly  over  the  surface,  often  leav- 
ing naked  spots  on  the  wings.  The  species  are  usually  green 
or  deep  blue,  with  scales  of  purplish  black,  or  entirely  black, 
alternating  with  gay  colors,  such  as  golden,  bronze,  or  white 
and  red.  They  fly  in  the  hot  sunshine. 

The  sixteen-footed,  greenish  larvae  are  short,  cylindrical,  the 
body  being  obtuse  at  each  end.  The  head  is  veiy  small  and 
when  at  rest  is  partially  drawn  into  the  prothoracic  ring.  The 
segments  are  short  and  convex,  with  transverse  rows  of  un- 
equal tubercles  which  give  rise  to  thin  fascicles  of  very  short 
and  evenly  cut  hairs,  which  are  often  nearly  absent.  The 
larvae  are  either  naked,  as  in  Alypia,  Eudryas  and  Castnia,  or, 
as  in  the  lower  moth-like  species,  they  are  hairy,  like  those  of 
the  Lithosians  and  Arctians  in  the  next  family.  Before  trans- 
forming, the  larvse  usually  spin  a  dense,  silken  cocoon,  though 
Eudryas  and  Castnia  make  none  at  all,  and  Ctenucha  a  slight 
one  of  hairs.  The  pupa  of  Zygsena,  especially,  is  intermediate 
in  form  between  that  of  jEgeria  and  Arctia,  being  much 
stouter  than  the  first,  and  somewhat  less  so  than  the  last. 
The  head  is  prominent,  and  the  tips  of  the  abdomen  sub-acute. 
Ctenucha  is  more  like  Arctia,  while  Castnia  and  Alypia  are 
elongate,  slender,  with  the  head  made  especially  prominent  by 
a  tubercle  on  the  front  of  the  clypeus. 

In  common  with  the  Sphingidce,  and  ^Egeriadce,  the 
Zygsenidse  are  confined  to  the  temperate  and  tropical  regions. 
The  family  type,  Zygcena,  has  its  metropolis  about  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  and  thence  spreads  to  the  north  of  Europe,  and 
southward  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Zygcena  exulans  is 
found  as  far  north  as  Lapland,  and  in  vertical  distribution  rises 
6,000  to  7,000  feet  in  the  Alps  of  Styria. 

Castnia  is,  however,  a  tropical  American  genus.  Alypia  is 
the  most  northern  genus,  extending  into  the  Hudson  Bay  ter- 
ritories. Glaucopis  and  allies,  which  comprise  a  large  number 
of  species,  are  almost  exclusively  tropical  American.  In  Aus- 
tralia, as  Klug  observes,  Castnia  is  represented  by  Synemon. 
The  American  genus  Eudryas  is  represented  by  very  closely 
allied  South  African  genera. 


281 

Castnia  closely  resembles  the  Hesperians,  though  much 
larger.  The  species  are  of  large  size  and  of  brilliant  hues,  and 
fly  in  the  day  time,  like  the  butterflies.  The  head  is,  however, 
much  narrower  in  front,  and  the  antennae  inserted  higher  up. 
The  larva  is  a  borer,  living  in  the  stems  of  Orchids  ;  it  is  not 
known,  but  probably  has  the  usual  form  of  boring  caterpillars, 
and  the  pupa  is  said  by  Klug  to  resemble  that  of  Cossus. 

Alypia  comprises  black  moths,  ornamented  with  white  and 
yellow  patches  on  the  wings.  The  antennae  are  long,  and  a 
little  thickened  in  the  middle.  The  wings  are  short  and  broad. 
The  body  of  the  pupa  is  not  contracted  at  the  base  of  the 
abdomen  as  in  Euclryas.  The  larva  feeds  on  the  grape  and 
constructs  an  earthen  cocoon,  like  that  of  .ZEgeria,  according 
to  Harris.  A.  octo-maculata  Fabr.  is  black,  with  eight  spots, 
two  on  each  wing,  those  on  the  fore  wing  being  yellowish,  those 
on  the  hind  wing  white. 

The  genus  Psychomorpha  is  allied  to  Alypia,  but  differs  in 
the  broadly  pectinated  antennae,  and  the  shorter  palpi,  which 
do  not  pass  beyond  the  front  of  the 
head.  P.  epimenis  Drury  (Fig.  211)  is 
found  from  Connecticut  southwards. 
It  is  black,  with  a  broad,  yellow,  white, 
irregularly  lunate  patch  crossing  the 
outer  third  of  the  wing,  and  on  the  un- 
der side  is  larger,  being  triangular, 

with  two  square  black  spots  connected  with  the  costa ;  on  the 
hind  wings  is  a  little  larger,  mostly  regular  crescent-shaped 
brick-red  spot;  it  expands  1.10  inches.  Doubleday  (Harris 
Correspondence)  states  on  the  authority  of  Abbot,  that  the 
larva  feeds  on  Bignonia  radicans,  in  Georgia.  "It  is  pale, 
with  black  lines,  and  though  having  the  full  complement  of 
legs,  seems  to  be  a  semi-looper  in  its  walk,  like  Brephos." 

Eudryas  is  a  peculiar  form,  gaily  colored,  and  easily  known 
by  the  densely  tufted  forelegs,  and  the  short  tufts  of  metallic 
scales  on  the  thorax  and  abdomen.  The  antennae  are  filiform, 
and  the  abdomen  is  tipped  with  hairs.  The  larva  of  E.  grata 
F|ibr.  is  gaily  colored  with  orange  and  blue,  dotted  with  black. 
The  body  is  long  and  widens  towards  the  eighth  ring,  which  is 
humped,  from  which  the  body  rapidly  narrows  to  the  tip. 


282  LEPIDOPTERA. 

Across  each  segment  is  a  row  of  tubercles  which  give  rise  to 
three  fascicles  of  hairs.  The  pupa  is  rather  long,  with  a  promi- 
nent tubercle  on  the  front  of  the  head,  and  the  abdominal  tip 
ends  in  four  tubercles.  The  larva  feeds  on  the  grape  dur- 
ing midsummer  and  at  the  end  of  August  creeps  down,  bury- 
ing itself  three  or  four  inches,  without  making  any  cocoon. 
Mr.  L.  Mitchell  of  Norwich,  Connecticut,  has  had  the  kind- 
ness to  send  me  "a  piece  of  wood  burrowed  by  the  E.  grata 
with  one  of  the  pupae  in  position."  As  E.  unio  is  now  known 
to  burrow  in  the  stems  of  plants,  our  opinion  that  Eudryas  is 
allied  to  Castnia  would  seem  to  be  confirmed  by  the  habits  of 
the  larvae  which  seem,  at  least  occasionally,  to  bore  into  wood. 
Eudryas  unio  Hiibner  according  to  Mr.  Kirkpatrick,  burrows 
in  the  stems  of  Hibiscus,  thus  resembling  Castnia  in  its  habits. 
Mr.  Grote  establishes  the  genus  Euscirrhopterus  for  a  moth 
closely  allied  to  Eudryas.  E.  Poeyi  Grote  (Fig.  212,  fore 
wing  ;  the  venation  of  the  hind  wing 
being  "almost  identical  with  that  of 
Eudryas")  is  a  brown  and  yellow 
Cuban  species. 

Zygcena  is  a  European  genus,  and 
its   characters   have   been  indicated 

in  describing  those  of  the  family.  The  antennae  are  much 
thickened  towards  the  end,  the  wings  are  long  and  narrow, 
and  the  species  are  usually  entirely  blue  black,  or  green  with 
red,  or  white  and  red  bands  and  spots. 

Acoloithus  represents  the  Procris  (P.  vitis)  of  Europe,  but 
the  wings  are  longer  and  narrower,  and  the  hind  wings  are 
very  ovate.  The  gregarious  larva  of  A.  Americana  is  a  little 
over  half  an  inch  long,  being  short  and  thick.  It  is  yellow  with 
a  transverse  row  of  black  spots  on  each  ring.  Before  pupating 
it  spins  a  dense  cocoon  in  crevices.  The  moth  is  deep  blue 
black,  with  a  saffron  collar.  Riley  states  that  the  ueggs  are 
deposited  in  clusters,  and  in  twenty-five  to  thirty  days  from  the 
time  of  hatching,  the  worms,  which  then  measure  rather  more 
than  half  an  inch,  spin  dirty  white,  flattened  cocoons,  mostly 
in  clusters  on  the  leaf.  Three  days  afterwards  they  become 
chrysalids,  also  somewhat  flattened,  and  of  a  shiny  yellowish 
brown ;  while  in  ten  days  more  the  moths  issue." 


BOMBYCIDJE.  283 

The  genus  Pyromorpha  has  thin,  oblong  wings,  very  broad 
at  base,  the  hinder  pair  being  as  broad  as  the  fore-pair ;  with 
a  small,  slender  body.  P.  dimidiata  Herrich-Schaeffer  (after- 
wards described  by  Clemens  under  the  name  of  Malthaca  per- 
lucidula)  is  blackish  brown,  with  the  basal  half  of  the  costal 
region  of  both  wings  yellowish.  It  expands  one  inch,  and  is 
found  sparingly  in  the  Middle  States,  but  has  been  detected 
near  Boston  by  Mr.  Sanborn. 

The  species  of  Glaucopis  and  its  allies,  abounding  in  tropical 
America,  are  represented  in  the  Northern  States  by  Ctenucha, 
which  has  pectinated  antennae,  long,  slender,  acutely  pointed 
palpi,  and  rather  broad  wings  ;  the  apex  of  the  fore-pair  being 
much  rounded.  The  thick-bodied  larva  feeds  on  sedges  and 
grass,  and  is  very  hairy,  like  an  Arctian.  The  pupa  is  short 
and  thick,  and  much  like  that  of  Arctia.  Ctenucha  Virginica 
Charpentier  is  of  a  deep  indigo  blue,  with  a  smoky  tinge  on  the 
fore  wings,  a  lighter  blue  abdomen  and  a  saffron  collar.  It 
flies  in  the  hottest  sunshine.  The  female  lays 
her  smooth,  green,  spherical  eggs  in  a  broad  mass. 

Lycomorpha  has  dentated  antennae,  the  body 
is  unusually  slender,  and  the  wings  long  and  nar- 
row.    L.  Pholus  Drury  is  deep  blue,  the  wings 
being  saffron  at  base.     The  larva  feeds  on  lichens.     From  Mr. 
E.   Bicknell   I  have   received  the   eggs   of  this   moth.     The 
larvae  hatched  August  10th,  and  closely  resembled  the  larvae 
of  the  Arctians  when  of  the  same  age. 

The  genus  Callaluda,  according  to  Grote,  differs  from  its 
better  known  ally,  Ctenucha,  by  its  antennae  not  being  so 
broadly  pectinated,  its  shorter  palpi,  and  by  important  differ- 
ences in  the  venation  of  the  wings.  C.  vermiculata  Grote  (Fig. 
213,  hind  wing)  occurs  in  Colorado  Territory. 

BOMBYCID^;  Latreille.  This  large  and  handsome  family  com- 
prises some  of  the  largest  and  most  regal  of  moths.  Their 
thick  heavy  bodies,  and  small  sunken  heads,  and  often  obsolete 
mouth-parts  (the  maxillae  or  tongue  being  especially  short  com- 
pared with  other  moths),  and  the  broadly  pectinated  antennae, 
together  with  their  broad,  often  falcate  wings  and  sluggish 
habits,  notwithstanding  numerous  exceptions,  afford  good 


284  LEPIDOPTERA. 

characters  for  distinguishing  them.  The  clypeus  is  large,  the 
antennae  are  inserted  higher  up  than  in  other  moths,  so  that 
when  in  doubt  as  to  the  position  of  some  aberrant  forms,  a  ref- 
erence to  these  characters  enables  us  to  determine  quite  readily 
as  to  their  affinities.  The  larvae  are  thick,  usually  more  hairy 
than  other  moths,  or,  as  in  the  typical  forms,  Attacus,  etc.,  are 
thick,  fleshy  and  with  seven  longitudinal  rows  of  long  tubercles, 
crowned  with  spines.  The  hairs,  especially  of  the  Arctians, 
are  thickly  spinulated,  so  that  the  cocoons  of  the  hairy  species 
are  very  dense  and  made  with  but  little  silk,  while  the  naked 
larvae,  of  which  the  silk-worm  is  a  type,  spin  very  dense  co- 
coons of  the  finest  silk.  It  is  probable  that  the  caterpillars  are 
usually  developed  in  the  egg  soon  after  it  is  laid  in  autumn. 
Dr.  Burnett  has  noticed  that  the  embryos  of  the  American  Tent 
caterpillar  are  developed  before  winter  sets  in,  and  ' '  Guerin- 
Meneville  has  found  that  the  larvae  of  the  Japanese  silk- worm 
(Samia  Yama-ma'i)  are  developed  in  the  egg  within  a  few  days 
of  their  deposition  in  autumn,  although  they  are  not  hatched 
until  the  following  spring."  (Zoological  Record,  1864.) 

Several  moths  of  this  family  (Arctia  pudica,  Setina  aurita, 
Hypoprepia  fucosa,  etc.)  have  been  known  to  produce  a  stridu- 
lating  noise  by  rubbing  their  hind  legs  over  a  vesicular  expan- 
sion situated  on  the  sides  of  the  thorax,  and  the  Death's-head 
Sphinx  has  long  been  known  to  produce  a  creaking  sound. 
The  pupae  are  very  short  and  thick  and  easily  recognized  by 
their  plump  form.  "Bar  mentions  the  occurrence  in  Cayenne 
of  an  aquatic  caterpillar,  which  produces  a  moth,  resembling 
Bombyx  phazdima  of  Cramer.  This  larva  lives  at  the  bottom 
of  the  water,  and  feeds  on  the  roots  of  an  abundant  weed." 
(Bulletin  Societe  Entomologique  de  France,  1864.) 

Lithosia  and  its  allies  (Lithosiinae)  have  very  narrow  wings, 
the  antennae  filiform,  and  the  body  slender.  The  larvae  are 
cylindrical  and  covered  with  short,  spinulated  hairs.  Some  of 
them  do  not  spin  cocoons,  so  far  as  we  know,  the  pupa  of  Cro- 
cota  being  found  under  stones  with  the  dried  larva  skin  still 
adhering  to  the  tip  of  the  abdomen.  Lithosia  argillacea  Pack, 
is  slate- colored,  with  yellow  palpi  and  prothorax.  The  base  of 
the  wings  and  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  are  yellowish. 

Lithosia  casta  Sanborn  (Fig.  214)  is  an  undescribed  species 


BOMBYCIDJE.  285 

of  great  beauty,  discovered  by  Mr.  Sanborn  at  Berlin  Falls, 
N.  H.,  August  10th,  and  also  at  Ausable  Chasm,  N.  Y.  It  is 
pure  milk  white,  with  a  slight  slate-colored  tinge  on  the  hind 
wings,  and  is  slate-colored  beneath,  especially  on  the  fore 
wings,  and  white  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  hind  wings.  Just 
behind  the  middle  of  the  white  abdomen  are  tufts  of  tawny 
hairs,  and  the  tip  is  white.  It  ex- 
pands one  and  a  quarter  inches. 

Crambidia  has  still  narrower 
wings.  C.  pcdlida  Pack,  is  of  an 
uniform  drab  color  and  would  be 
easily  mistaken  for  a  Crambus. 
Nudaria  has  broad  wings  like  a  Fi#-  214- 

geometrid  moth,  with  hyaline  spots.  The  larva  is  hirsute  and 
makes  a  thin  cocoon  of  interwoven  hairs.  N.  mundana  is  a 
European  moth.  It  is  represented  in  this  country  by  Euplidj- 
nessa  mendica  Walk.,  which  has  broader  wings  and  longer 
palpi.  The  wings  have  two  rows  of  smoky  transparent  spots. 
Hypoprepia  has  rather  broader  wings  than  Lithosia.  H.  fu- 
cosa  Hiibner  is  deep  scarlet,  with  three  leaden  stripes  on  the 
fore  wings,  the  middle  stripe  situated  at  the  apex  of  the  wing. 
The  larva,  Mr.  Saunders  informs  me,  is  "spiny  and  black, 
sprinkled  lightly  with  yellow  dots  and  short  lines  ;  there  is  a 
dorsal  row  of  yellow  dots  from  the  fifth  to  the  twelfth  segments. 
The  head  is  black."  Early  in  May,  according  to  Harris,  it 

makes  its  cocoon,  which  is  thin 
and  silky,  and  the  moth  appears 
twenty  days  afterwards. 

Crocota  is  red,  or  yellowish  red, 
throughout,    with    black   margins 
and  dots  on  the  wings.     The  an- 
Fig.  215.  tennse  are  filiform  and  the  wings 

are  broad,  being  triangular  in  form.  Our  most  common 
species  is  Crocota  ferruginosa  Walk.,  which  is  pale  rust-red, 
with  two  dusky  broad  bands  on  the  outer  half  of  the  wing.  A 
much  larger  form  is  Utetlieisa  bella  Linn.  (Fig.  215),  a  beautiful 
moth,  whose  yellow  fore  wings  are  crossed  by  bands  of  white, 
encircling  black  dots,  while  its  scarlet  hind  wings  are  edged 
irregularly  with  black. 


286  LEPIDOPTERA. 

The  genus  Callimorpha  is  still  larger,  with  broad  wings. 
C.  Lecontei  Boisduval  is  white,  the  fore  wings  being  almost 
entirely  bordered  with  brown.  The  caterpillars  of  this  genus 
are  usually  dark  colored,  with  longitudinal  yellow  stripes.  By 
day  they  hide  under  leaves  or  stones  and  feed  by  night  on 
various  shrubby  and  herbaceous  plants.  C.  interrupto-marginata 
Beauv.  (Fig.  216,  fore  wing)  has  an  anchor-shaped  black  spot 
when  the  wings  are  folded,  one  side  of  the  anchor  being  seen 
in  the  figure. 

Arctia  and  its  allies  are  stout-bodied,  with  short,  moderately 
broad  wings,  and  simple  or  feathered  antennae.  The  hairy 
larvae  are  covered  with  dense  whorls  of  long,  spinulose  hairs. 
They  make  a  loose  cocoon  of  interwoven  hairs  under  the 
shelter  of  some  board  or  stone.  The  pupa  is  short  and  thick. 
Arctia  virgo  Linn,  is  an  exceedingly  beautiful  insect.  Its  fore 
wings  sometimes  expand  two  inches  and  a  half,  and  are  flesh- 
red,  streaked  thickly  with  broad,  black  slashes,  and  on  the 
vermilion-red  hind  wings  are  seven  or  eight  large  black  spots. 
The  caterpillar  is  brown.  A.  Anna  Grote 
is  allied,  but  differs  in  the  wholly  black  ab- 
domen and  black  hind  wings.  It  was  de- 
scribed first  from  Pennsj^lvania,  and  has 
been  detected  by  Mr.  B.  P.  Mann  on  the 
Alpine  summit  of  Mount  Washington,  N.  H. 

The  common  black  and  reddish,  very  hairy  caterpillar,  found 
feeding  on  various  garden  weeds,  is  the  young  of  Pyrrharctia 
Isabella  Smith,  a  stout-bodied,  snuff  colored  moth.  The  cater- 
pillar hibernates,  as  do  most  of  the  others  of  the  group  of 
Arctians,  and  we  have  kept  it  fasting  for  six  weeks  in  the 
spring,  previous  to  pupating  in  the  middle  of  June ;  it  re- 
mained twenty-seven  days  in  the  pupa  state,  the  moth  appear- 
ing early  in  June. 

Leucarctia  differs  from  Spilosoma  in  having  narrower  wings, 
and  the  outer  edge  much  more  oblique.  Leucarctia  acrcea  Smith 
is  white  and  buff  colored.  Its  caterpillar  is  the  salt-marsh  cat- 
erpillar, which  at  times  has  been  very  injurious  by  its  great 
numbers.  It  is  yellow,  with  long  hairs  growing  from  yellow 
warts,  and  it  makes  a  coarse,  hairy  cocoon. 

Hyphantria  textor  Harris  is  entirely  white.   The  caterpillar,  or 


BOMBYCHXE.  287 

"fall  web  worm,"  is  slender,  greenish  yellow,  dotted  with  black, 
with  thin,  silken  hairs.  It  spins  a  thin  and  almost  transparent 
cocoon,  or  almost  none  at  all.  H.  cunea  Drury  is  white,  spot- 
ted with  black  dots.  Mr*  Saunders  informs  me  that  the  larva 
"will  feed  on  Chenopodium  album.  The  head  is  small,  black, 
shining,  bilobate.  The  body  is  black,  with  a  slight  shade  of 
brown,  and  sprinkled  with  very  small,  whitish  dots.  Each  seg- 
ment has  a  transverse  row  of  shining  black  tubercles,  each 
giving  rise  to  a  tuft  of  hairs  of  the  same  color ;  on  each  side 
of  the  body  is  a  double  row  of  orange-colored  spots  from  the 
sixth  to  the  twelfth  segment  inclusive." 

The  "yellow  bear"  is  the  caterpillar  of  Spilosoma  Virginica 
Fabr.  The  moth  is  white,  with  a  black  discal  dot  on  the 
fore  wings  and  two  black  dots  on  the  hind  wings,  one  on  the 
middle  and  another  near  the  inner  angle. 

Halesidota  has  a  more  slender  body,  with  longer  antennae  and 
palpi,  and  longer  wings  than  Arctia,  being  thin  and  yellowish, 
crossed  by  light  brownish  streaks.  The  larva  is  very  short 
and  thick,  usually  white,  with  dark  pencils  and  tufts  of  hairs, 
arising  from  twelve  black  tubercles  on  each  ring, 
placed  as  seen  in  the  cut  (Fig.  217).  H.  tessel- 
laris  Smith,  the  "checkered  tussock  moth,"  is 
ochre -yellow,  with  its  partially  transparent  fore 
wings  crossed  by  five  rows  of  dusky  spots.  H. 
caryce  Harris  is  light  ochreous,  with  three  rows 
of  white  semitransparent  spots  parallel  to  the  very  oblique 
outer  margin.  "The  chrysalis,  according  to  Harris,  is  short, 
thick,  and  rather  blunt,  but  not  rounded  at  the  end  and 
not  downy."  Mr.  Saunders  writes  me,  that  the  larva  of  H. 
maculata  Harris  "feeds  on  the  oak.  It  is  1.30  inches  in 
length ;  the  body  is  black,  thickly  covered  with  tufts  of  bright 
yellow  and  black  hairs.  From  the  fourth  to  the  eleventh  seg- 
ments inclusive  is  a  dorsal  row  of  black  tufts,  the  largest  of 
which  is  on  the  fourth  segment."  The  moth  appears  early  in 
June ;  it  is  light  ochre-yellow,  with  large,  irregular,  light, 
transverse,  brown  spots  on  the  fore  wings. 

These  tufted  larvae  lead  to  the  tussock  caterpillars,  which,  as 
in  Orgyia,  have  long  pencils  of  hair  projecting  over  the  head 
and  tail.  The  pretty  larvae  of  this  genus  are  variously  tufted 


288  LEPIDOPTERA. 

and  colored,  and  feed  on  the  apple  tree  and  various  garden 
vegetables.  The  males  have  very  broad  wings,  with  very 
broadly  pectinated  antennae,  and  fly  in  the  hot  sunshine  in 
September.  The  females  are  wingless  and  often  lay  their  eggs 
on  the  outside  of  the  cocoon,1  and  then  die,  scarcely  moving 
from  their  eggs.  0.  antiqua  Och.  is  tawny  brown,  while  0.  leu- 
costigma  Smith  is  dark  brown,  with  a  lunate  white  spot  near 
the  outer  angle. 

The  thick  and  woolly -bodied,  pale  yellowish,  crinkled-haired 
Lagoa  is  an  interesting  genus.  The  tip  of  the  abdomen  is  very 
broad,  and  the  antennae  are  curved  and  broadly  pectinated, 
while  the  wings  are  short  and  broad.  The  larva  is  very  densely 
pilose  with  short,  thick,  evenly  cut  hairs,  those  at  the  end  being 
longer  and  more  irregular.  It  is  broadly  oval,  and  might  easily 
be  mistaken  for  a  hairy  Limacodes  larva,  for,  like  it,  the  head  is 
retracted  and  the  legs  are  so  rudimentary  as  to  impart  a  glid- 
ing motion  to  the  caterpillar  when  it  walks.  Lagoa  crispata 
Pack,  is  so  named  from  the  crinkled  woolly  hairs  on  the  fore 
wings.  It  is  dusky  orange  and  slate-colored  on  the  thorax  and 
low  down  on  the  sides.  Previous  to  the  last  moult  it  is  whitish 
throughout  and  the  hairs  are  much  thinner.  The  larva  (Fig. 
218)  feeds  on  the  blackberry,  and,  according  to  a  cor- 
respondent in  Maryland,  it  feeds  on  the  apple.  The 
cocoon  is  long,  cylindrical  and  dense,  being  formed  of 
the  hairs  of  the  larva,  closely  woven  with  silk.  The 
pupa  is  very  thin,  and  after  the  moth  escapes,  the 
thin  skin  is  found  sticking  partially  out  of  the  co- 
coon, as  in  Limacodes  and  its  allies  (Cochlidiae). 
rig.  218.  This  last  group  of  genera  is  as  interesting  as  it  is 
anomalous,  when  we  consider  the  slug-like,  footless  larvae, 
which  are  either  nearly  hemispherical,  boat-shaped,  or  oblong, 
with  large  fleshy  spines,  and  are  painted  often  with  the  gayest 
colors.  The  pupae  are  very  thin  skinned,  and  the  cocoons  are 
nearly  spherical.  The  moths  are  often  diminutive,  the  larger 
forms  being  stout,  woolly-bodied  and  with  short,  thick  antennae, 
pectinated  two-thirds  their  length,  while  the  smaller  genera 
with  slender  bodies  have  simple  filiform  antennae,  and  closely 
resemble  some  of  the  Tortrices. 

Eudea  is  a  very  stout  and  woolly  genus ;  the  antennae  are 


BOMBYCIM;.  289 

three-fourths  as  long  as  the  fore  wings  and  pectinated  on  their 
basal  half.  The  fore  wings  are  a  little  shorter  than  the  body  and 
the  hind  wings  reach  to  the  tip  of  the  broadly  tufted  abdomen. 
Eudea  Monitor  Pack,  is  cinnamon  brown,  with  a  large  irregular 
green  patch  in  the  middle  of  the  fore  wings.  We  named 
this  species  from  the  striking  resemblance  of  the  larva  to  the 
iron-clad  "Monitor."  It  is  very  regularly  elliptical,  flattened 
above,  and  a  broad  conspicuous  brown  spot  in  the  middle  of 
the  back  reminds  one  of  the  "cheese-box"  or  turret.  Long, 
fleshy,  bristling  spines  arise  from  each  end  of  the  larva. 

Empretia  stimulea  Clemens  (Plate  8  ;  Fig.  1  ;  1  a,  larva)  is 
our  largest  species  of  this  group.  The  moth  is  rarely  found  by 
collectors,  and  is  of  a  rich,  deep  velvety  brown,  with  a  reddish 
tinge.  There  is  a  dark  streak  along  the  basal  half  of  the  me- 
dian vein,  on  which  is  situated  a  golden  spot,  while  there  are 
two  twin  golden  spots  near  the  apex  of  the  wing.  It  expands 
an  inch  and  a  half.  The  larva  is  thick  and  elliptical,  the  body 
being  rounded  above,  but  flattened  beneath,  and  a  little  fuller 
towards  the  head.  There  is  a  pair  of  densely  spinulated  tuber- 
cles on  each  side  of  the  segments,  the  subdorsal  pair  on  the 
metathoracic  ring,  and  a  pair  on  the  seventh  abdominal  ring, 
being  two-thirds  as  long  as  the  body  is  wide.  There  are  three 
pairs  of  small,  but  well  developed  thoracic  legs,  while  there  are 
none  on  the  abdominal  segments.  The  body  is  reddish,  with 
the  upper  side  green  between  the  two  largest  pair  of  spines, 
centred  with  a  broad  elliptical  reddish  spot,  edged  with  white, 
as  is  the  green  portion  along  the  side  of  the  body.  According 
to  Mr.  S.  I.  Smith,  of  New  Haven,  from  whom  the  specimen 
figured  was  received,  the  larva  feeds  on  the  raspberry.  He 
states  that  the  hairs  sting,  as  its  specific  name  indicates.  The 
cocoon  is  rounded,  almost  spherical,  and  is  surrounded  with  a 
loose  web,  the  whole  structure  being  over  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  in  length.  The  moth  appeared  June  18th. 

Phobetrum  has  narrow  wings,  and  the  male  is  very  unlike  the 
female,  which  has  been  raised  by  Mr.  Trouvelot,  and  was  con- 
founded by  us  with  the  Thyridopteryx  ephemerceformis  of  Ha- 
worth.  Its  antennae  are  very  broadly  pectinated,  and  the 
remarkably  long,  narrow  fore  wings  are  partly  transparent. 
Thyridopteryx  nigricans  Pack,  must  be  considered  as  belonging 
19 


290  LEPIDOPTERA. 

to  this  genus.  The  cocoon  of  the  latter  species  is  tough,  leath- 
ery, brown,  and  nearly  spherical.  The  larva  of  P.  pithecium 
Smith  is  broad,  ovate,  flattened,  with  six  long,  tongue-like, 
fleshy  lateral  appendages.  It  feeds  on  the 
plum,  cherry  and  apple. 

In  Limacodes  the  fore  wings  are  oblong, 
the  costa  being  straight,  while  the  hind 
wings  scarcely  reach  to  the  tip  of  the  ab- 
Fig.  219.  domen.     The  fore  wings  are  often  crossed 

"by  straight  lines  forming  a  V.  L.  scaplia  Harris  (Fig.  219)  is 
light  cinnamon  brown,  with  a  dark  tan-colored  triangular  spot, 
lined  externally  with  silver,  which  is  continued  along  the  costa 
to  the  base  of  the  wing  and  terminates  sharply  on  the  apex. 
The  larva,  as  its  specific  name  indicates,  is  boat-shaped,  being 
of  the  form  of  a  castana  nut,  and  is  green,  spotted  above  with 
brown,  and  pale  beneath,  while  the  sides 
of  the  body  are  raised,  the  dorsal-  surface 
being  flattened.  It  constructs  a  dense,  oval, 
spherical  cocoon,  surrounded  by  an  outer 
thin  envelope.  Fig.  220. 

Callochlora  chloris  H-Sch.  (Fig.  220)  is  a  pale  brown  moth, 
allied  to  Euclea,  and  with  a  broad,  pea-green  band  crossing 
the  fore  wings. 

Lithacodes  (L.  fasciola  Boisd.  Fig.  221)  and  Tortricodes, 
strikingly  resemble  the  genus  Tortrix,  from  their  narrow 
wings,  slender  bodies,  and  filiform  antennae. 

The  subfamily  Psy chinas,  embraces  some  remarkably  diver- 
gent forms.  The  two  genera,  Phryganidia  and  Thyridop- 
teryx,  differing  so  much  in  the  breadth  of  their 
wings  and  thickness  of  their  bodies,  are,  how- 
ever, connected  by  many  intermediate  forms 
occurring  in  Europe.  Psyche  is  a  hairy-bodied 
Fig.  221.  moth,  with  broad  and  thin  wings,  the  female  of 
which  is  wingless  and  closely  resembles  the  larva,  and  inhabits 
a  case,  which  is  constructed  of  bits  of  its  food-plant.  The 
female  of  Psyche  helix  has  been  known  to  produce  young  from 
eggs  not  fertilized  by  the  male.  It  lives  in  a  case  of  grains  of 
sand  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  snail  shell,  thus  resembling 
some  Phryganeids  in  its  habits,  as  it  does  structurally. 


BOMBYCID^E. 


291 


The  male  of  Tliyridopteryx  (T.  ephemerceformis  Haworth), 
the  "basket-worm,"  is  stout-bodied,  with  broadly  pectinated 
antennae  and  a  long  abdomen ;  the  anal  forceps  and  the  adjoin- 
ing parts  being  capable  of  unusual  extension  in  order  to  reach 
the  oviduct  of  the  female,  which  is  wingless,  cylindrical,  and  in 
its  general  form  closely  resembles  its  larva,  and 
does  not  leave  its  case.  On  being  hatched  from 
the  eggs,  which  are,  so  far  as  known  by  us,  not 
extruded  from  its  case  by  the  parent,  the  young 
larvae  immediately  build  little,  elongated,  bas- 
ket-like cones,  of  bits  of  twigs  of  the  cedar,  on 
which  they  feed,  and  may  then  be  seen  walking 
about,  tail  in  the  air,  this  tail  or  abdomen  cov- 
ered by  the  incipient  case,  and  presenting  a 
comical  sight.  The  case  (Fig.  222)  of  the  full 
grown  larva  is  elongated,  oval,  cylindrical,  and 
the  fleshy  larva  transforms  within  it,  while  it 
shelters  the  female  through  life.  The  genus 
(Eceticus  comprises  large  species,  with  much 
the  same  habits,  growing  in  tropical  America 
and  in  Australia. 

A  basket- worm,  allied  to  (Eceticus^  has  been 
discovered  in  Florida,  by  Mr.  Glover,  feeding  upon  the  orange, 
and  we  give  the  following  account  of  it  from  the  study  of 
his  admirable  drawings.  With  much  the  same  habits^-it  be- 
longs to  quite  a  different  and  undescribed  genus.  The  body 
of  the  male  resembles  that  of  the  broad  winged  Psyche,  and 
indeed,  this  moth  may  be  regarded  as  a 
connecting  link  between  the  latter  genus 
and  CEceticuSo  It  may  be  called  the 
Platoeceticus  Gioverii  (Fig.  223).  Its 
body  is  slender,  with  pectinated  an- 
tennae ;  the  wings  very  broad,  irregular, 
and  the  hind  wings  are  broad  and 
much  rounded,  reaching  a  third  of  their  length  beyond  the  tip 
of  the  abdomen.  It  is  dark  brown  throughout,  and  expands 
three-fourths  of  an  inch.  The  wingless,  cylindrical,  worm-like 
female  (Fig.  223  5)  is  acutely  oval  in  form,  and  whitish.  The 
larva  (Fig.  223  c)  is  rather  flattened  and  resembles  that  of 


fc-lM 

M 


292  LEPIDOPTERA. 

Thyridopteryx.  It  constructs  an  oval  cocoon  (Fig.  223  d) 
which  hangs  to  the  edge  of  the  leaf. 

The  genus  Perophora,  another  sack-bearer  (P.  Melsheimerii 
Harris) ,  is  a  gigantic  Psychid,  being  about  the  size  of  the  silk- 
worm moth,  which  it  closely  resembles  in  the  imago  state.  It 
also  lives  in  a  case  during  the  larva  state,  formed  of  two  oblong 
pieces  of  leaf,  fastened  together  in  the  neatest  manner  by  their 
edges,  and  lined  with  a  thick  and  tough  layer  of  brownish 
silk.  The  larva  is  cylindrical,  as  thick  as  a  common  pipe-stem 

and  light  reddish  brown  in  color. 
The  head  has  extensible,  jointed 
feelers  which,  when  extended,  are 
kept  in  constant  motion,  while  be- 
hind is  a  pair  of  antenna-like  organs, 
broad  and  flattened  at  the  end.  The 
Fig.  224.  tail  is  widened  and  flattened,  form- 

ing a  circular  horny  plate,  which  like  the  operculum  of  a  whelk, 
closes  up  the  aperture  of  the  case.  Before  transforming  within 
its  case,  the*  larva  closes  each  end  with  a  circular  silken  lid. 
The  pupa  is  blunt  at  the  hinder  end  and  with  a  row  of  teeth  on 
each  abdominal  ring.  Both  sexes  are  winged.  Our  species, 
P.  Melsheimerii  Harris,  is  reddish  ash  grey,  sprinkled  with 
blackish  points,  and  with  a  common  oblique  blackish  line. 

Notodonta  and  its  allies  (Ptilodontes  Hiibner)  are  mostly 
naked  in  the  larva  state,  with  large  humps  on  the  back,  and  the 
hind  legs  often  greatly  prolonged,  as 
in  Cerura,  the  "fork-tail."  The  pupa 
and  moths  are  best  described  by  stat- 
ing that  they  bear  a  close  resemblance 
to  the  Noctuids,  for  which  they  are 
often  mistaken. 

Ccelodasys     (Notodonta)     unicornis  Fis- 225- 

Smith  derives  its  specific  name  from  the  horn  on  the  back  of 
the  caterpillar,  and  its  generic  name  from  the  large  conical  tuft 
of  hairs  on  the  under  side  of  the  prothorax.  The  moth  is  light 
brown,  with  irregular  green  patches  on  the  fore  wings.  The 
cocoon  is  thin  and  parchment-like,  and  the  caterpillars  remain 
a  long  time  in  their  cocoons  before  changing  to  pupae.  Nerice 
bidentata  Walker  (Fig.  224)  is  a  closely  allied  moth.  Edema 


BOMBYCID.E.  293 

albifrons  Smith  (Fig.  225)  is  known  by  the  costa  being  white 
on  the  outer  two-thirds.  It  feeds  on  the  oak,  to  which  it  is  oc- 
casionally destructive.  Mr.  Riley  (American  Entomologist, 
vol.  i,  p.  39)  describes  the  larva  as  being  of  a  "bluish  white 
ground-color,  marked  longitudinally  with  yellow  bands  and 
fine  black  lines,  with  the  head  and  a  hump  on  the  eleventh  seg- 
ment either  of  a  light  coral* or  dark  flesh  color."  It  generally 
elevates  the  end  of  the  body.  It  pupates  during  the  last  of 
September,  the  moth  appearing  about  the  middle  of  April,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Chicago. 

Platypteryx,  a  small  geometra-like  moth,  with  its  broad  fal- 
cate wings,  seems  a  miniature  Attacus.  Its  larva  is  slender, 
with  fourteen  legs,  and  naked,  with  several  little  prominences 
on  the  back,  and  the  tail  is  forked  like 
Cerura.  The  pupa  is  enclosed  in  a  co- 
coon among  leaves.  P.  geniculata 
Walker,  and  Dryopteris  rosea  Grote, 
represent  this  interesting  group.  We 
also  give  a  rude  sketch,  traced  from 
Abbot's  drawings,  from  the  advanced 
sheets  of  the  Harris  Correspondence,  of 
an  undescribed  species  of  Dryopteris 
(Fig.  226,  and  its  larva).  Doubleday  rig.  220. 

states  that  the  moth  is  rose-colored,  with  a  few  red  dots  in  the 
yellow  portion  of  the  hind  wings. 

'  The  Chinese  silk- worm,  Bombyx  mori  Linn.,  has  white  falcate 
fore  wings,  while  the  hind  wings  do  not  reach  to  the  tip 
of  the  abdomen,  and  the  antennae  are  well  pectinated.  The 
larva  is  naked,  rather  slender  compared  with  those  of  the  next 
group,  and  cylindrical ;  the  second  thoracic  ring  is  humped,  and 
there  is  a  long  horn  on  the  tail.  It  is  three  to  three  and  a  half 
inches  long.  It  is  of  an  ashy  or  cream  color,  but  "in  almost 
every  batch  of  wrorms  there  will  be  seen  after  the  first  moult 
has  occurred,  some  dark  colored,  which,  at  the  first  glance, 
appear  to  be  a  distinct  species,"  but  Captain  Hutton,  of  India, 
shows  that  "so  far,  however,  are  they  from  being  a  mere  pass- 
ing variety  .that  they  are  actually  types  of  the  original  species, 
and  merely  require  to  be  treated  according  to  the  established 
rules  of  breeding  in  order  to  render  them  permanent  and 
healthy." 


294  LEPIDOPTERA. 

"He  attributed  the  enormous  loss  of  silk- worms  by  mus- 
cardine  and  other  diseases,  and  the  consequent  diminution 
of  the  crop  of  silk,  to  the  combined  effects  of  bad  and  scanty 
food,  want  of  sufficient  light  and  ventilation,  too  high  a  tem- 
perature, and  constant  interbreeding  for  centuries  of  a  debili- 
tated stock.  He  asserted  that  there  was  no  such  thing  now  in 
existence  as  a  perfectly  healthy  -domesticated  stock  of  silk- 
worms ;  and  moreover,  that  it  was  useless  to  seek  for  healthy 
seed,  for  whether  in  Europe,  Persia,  India  or  China,  the  worms 
were  all  equally  degenerated,  or,  if  there  were  a  difference  at 
all,  it  was  in  favor  of  the  European  race.  He  had  for  several 
years  been  experimenting  on  Bombyx  mori,  with  a  view,  if 
possible,  to  reclaim  the  worms,  to  'restore  to  them  a  healthy 
constitution  and  to  induce  them  to  revert  from  their  present 
artificial  and  moribund  condition  to  one  of  vigor  and  perma- 
nent health.  The  occasional  occurrence  in  a  brood  of  one  or 
more  dark  grey  or  blackish-brindled  worms — the  'vers  tigres' 
or  'vers  zebres'  of  the  French — contrasting  strongly  with 
the  pale  sickly  hue  of  the  majority,  must  have  been  noticed  by 
all  who  have  had  experience  in  rearing  silk-worms  ;  such  occur- 
rences have  been  always  spoken  of  as  indicating  varieties  aris- 
ing from  domestication.  The  author  had  endeavored,  by  a  series 
of  experiments,  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  this  phenomenon,  his 
conviction  being,  either  that  the  species  had  at  some  time  or 
other  been  crossed  by  another  of  different  colors,  and  that  Na- 
ture, as  sooner  or  later  she  always  would  do,  was  making  an 
effort  to  separate  them,  or  that  the  original  color  of  the  worm 
had  been  dark,  and  an  effort  was  being  made  to  revert  from  a 
sickly  condition  to  the  original  healthy  starting  point.  He  ac- 
cordingly picked  out  all  the  dark  colored  worms  and  reared 
them  separately,  allowing  the  moths  to  couple  only  inter  se,  and 
the  same  with  the  white  worms.  In  the  following  spring  the  one 
batch  of  eggs  produced  nearly  all  dark  brindled  worms,  whilst 
the  other  batch  produced  white  worms,  sparingly  interspersed 
with  an  occasional  dark  one  ;  these  latter  were  removed  into  a 
dark  batch,  which  was  also  weeded  of  its  pale  worms.  In  the 
third  year  the  worms  were  still  darker  than  before,  and  were 
always  larger  and  more  vigorous  than  the  pale  ones,  giving 
larger  and  better  stuffed  cocoons.  He  finally  succeeded  in 


BOMBYCID.E.  295 

getting  an  entire  brood  of  dark  worms,  which  he  regarded  as 
a  sign  of  increased  health  and  strength  in  the  larvae,  thus 
proving  that  the  dark  worms  were  of  the  original  race,  which 
also  agrees  with  the  colors  of  the  numerous  species  of  the  genus 
of  which  he  has,  with  others,  made  known  nearly  twenty.  The 
author  also  considers  the  white  cocoons  as  a  strong  sign  of  de- 
generacy, arguing  that  the  good  quality  of  the  silk  produced, 
was  no  proof  of  the  general  health  of  the  insect,  as  the  mala- 
dies affected  rather  the  quantity  produced,  and  the  present  great 
fineness  was  due  likewise  to  the  di&ease."  (Proceedings  of  the 
Entomological  Society  of  London.)  The  silk-worm  is  an  an- 
nual, though  some  species  of  this  group  yield  two  and  three 
broods  in  the  warmer  parts  of  India.  It  moults  four  times,  but 
occasionally  only  three  times. 

The  cocoon  of  the  silk-worm  is  white  or  whitish  yellow  and 
is  over  an  inch  long  and  nearly  half  as  broad ;  360  cocoons 
weigh  a  pound  and  a  half.  In  France  and  Italy  about  thirty- 
six  days  elapse  between  the  hatching  of  the  larva  and  the  for- 
mation of  the  cocoon,  it  taking  four  days  for  the  spinning  of 
the  cocoon.  In  England  and  certain  parts  of  India  it  requires 
forty-six  days  for  its  formation. 

The  above  remarks  apply  to  Bombyx  mori  Linn.,  the  Chinese 
silk-worm,  which  feeds  on  the  mulberry,  originally  derived  from 
the  mountainous  provinces  of  China.  It  is  the  largest  and 
strongest  of  the  domesticated  species.  There  are,  however,  as 
shown  by  Captain  Hutton,  twelve  species  of  silk-worms,  most 
of  which  have  been  confounded  under  the  name  of  B.  mori, 
and  which  belong  to  the  genera  Bombyx  of  Schrank,  Ocinara 
of  Walker,  and  Triloclia  Moore.  There  are  six  domesticated 
species  of  Bombyx.  There  is  not  silk  enough  in  the  cocoon 
of  Ocinara  to  make  it  worth  cultivating  (Hutton) . 

Captain  Hutton,  speaking  of  the  larvae  of  B.  Huttoni,  re- 
marks that  it  "is  curious  to  observe  the  instinctive  knowledge 
which  these  worms  appear  to  possess  of  the  approach  of  a  hail- 
storm. No  sooner  are  the  peals  of  thunder  heard,  than  the 
whole  brood  seems  to  regard  them  as  a  warning  trumpet-call, 
and  all  are  instantly  in  motion,  seeking  shelter  beneath  the 
thicker  branches,  and  even  descending  the  trunk  of  the  tree  to 
some  little  distance,  but  never  proceeding  so  low  down  as  to 


296  LEPIDOPTERA. 

lose  the  protecting  shelter  of  the  boughs.  For  rain  they  care 
nothing,  but  appear  to  be  able  to  distinguish  between  the  com- 
ing of  a  heavy  shower,  and  the  more  pitiless  pelting  of  the  hail." 
Attacus  and  its  allies  (Attaci)  form  the  central  and  most 
typical  group  of  the  family.  They  are  among  the  largest  of 
insects.  The  genus  Attacus  is  found  in  China,  the  East  Indies 
and  the  South  Sea  Islands,  and  in  Brazil.  Its  immense  size, 
falcate  wings,  with  the  large  triangular  transparent  spot  in  the 
centre,  readily  distinguish  it.  A.  Atlas  Linn.,  from  China, 
expands  from  seven  to  nine  inches.  Samia  is  a  smaller  genus 
and  with  a  partially  transparent  lunate  spot  in  the  middle  of 
the  wings.  Samia  Cynthia  Linn,  has  been  introduced  from 
China  and  is  a  hardy  worm,  quite  easily  raised,  and  the  silk  is 


Fig.  227. 

of  a  good  quality.  Mr.  W.  V.  Andrews  urges,  in  the  American 
Naturalist  (vol.  ii,  p.  311),  the  cultivation  of  the  Cynthia  silk- 
worm in  this  country,  as  it  is  double-brooded,  our  native  spe- 
cies bearing  but  a  single  crop  of  worms.  It  feeds  on  the  ail- 
anthus,  and  can  be  reared  in  the  open  air.  Among  many  allied 
forms,  generally  referred  to  the  genus  Attacus  but  which  still 
need  revision,  are  the  A.  Mylitta  (Tussah  worm),  from  China 
and  India ;  A.  Pernyi,  from  Manchouria,  which  feeds  on  the  oak, 
and  which  has  been  raised  in  France,  and  the  Japanese  Anthercea 
Yama-mai,  all  of  which  produce  silk,  though  less  reared  in 
Europe  than  the  Cynthia  worm.  The  silk  of  the  Yama-mai 
moth  approaches  nearest  that  of  B.  mori,  and  as  it  feeds  on 


BOMBYCIDvE. 


297 


the  oak,  and  can  be  raised  in  the  open  air,  its  cultivation  has 
gained  much  attention  in  Europe.  A.  Aurota  Beauv.  is  com- 
mon in  Central  and  South  America.  In  Brazil  it  could  be 
raised  with  success  for  home  use,  but  is  too  delicate  for  a 
northern  climate. 

Telea  Polyphemus  (PL  6,  male ;  PL  7,  female)  is  brown,  with 
large  transparent  eye-like  spots  in  the  centre  of  the  wings. 
The  thread  of  which  the  cocoon  is 
spun  is  continuous,  and  is  readily 
unwound.  It  is  coarser  than  that 
of  the  Bombyx  mori,  but  has  a  rich 
gloss  and  can  be  used  very  exten- 
sively in  commerce.  Its  larva 
(Fig.  227),  which  feeds  on  the  Fig.  228. 

oak,  is  thick,  fleshy,  striped  obliquely  with  white  on  the  sides, 
with  -angulated  segments,  on  which  are  tubercles  giving  rise 
to  a  few  short  hairs.  The  pupa  (Fig.  228)  is  very  thick,  and 
the  cocoon  (Fig.  229)  is  regularly  oval  cylindrical. 

Mr.  L.  Trouvelot  gives  an  account  in  the  American  Natural- 
ist (vol.  i)  of  this  silk -worm,  which  is  our  most  hardy  native 
worm.  So  successful  was  he  in  rearing  them  that  in  a  single 
season  "not  less  than  a  million  could  be  seen  feeding  in  the 
open  air  upon  bushes 

ft 


covered  with  a  net." 
The  moths  leave  the  co- 
coons late  in  May,  ap- 
pearing until  the  middle 
of  June.  They  then  lay 
their  eggs,  generally 
singly,  on  the  under  side  Fig.  229. 

of  the  leaves.  In  ten  or  twelve  days  the  caterpillars  hatch  ;  the 
operation  usually  takes  place  early  in  the  day.  The  worm 
moults  five  times,  the  first  four  moultings  occurring  at  intervals 
of  ten  days,  while  about  twenty  days  elapse  between  the  fourth 
and  fifth  moults,  this  process  usually  occurring  late  in  the  after- 
noon. It  makes  its  cocoon  late  in  September,  and  in  six  or 
eight  days  after  beginning  its  cocoon  assumes  the  pupa  state, 
and  in  this  condition  passes  the  winter. 

The  genus  Actias  is  at  once  known  by  the  hind  wings  be- 


298  LEPIDOPTERA. 

ing  prolonged  into  a  long  tail  which  reaches  far  behind  the  tip 
of  the  abdomen.  Actias  Luna  Linn,  is  green  and  the  larva 
closely  resembles  that  of  Telea ;  it  is,  however,  banded  ob- 
liquely with  yellow  instead  of  white,  and  spins  a  cocoon  that  is 
of  much  the  same  shape.  It  is  not  so  hardy  a  worm  as  the 
Polyphemus  caterpillar.  It  lives  on  the  walnut,  hickory  and 
maple.  In  the  Museum 'of  the  Peabody  Academy  is  a  closely 
allied  and  undescribed  species  from  the  west  coast  of  Guate- 
mala, which  we  would  call  Actias  Azteca.  It  differs  from  A. 
Luna  in  its  much  smaller  size,  expanding  only  three  and  a  half 
inches,  and  in  the  shorter  fore  wings,  the  apex  being  much 
rounded  and  with  shorter  veins,  while  the  "tails"  on  the  hind 
wings  are  only  half  as  long  as  those  of  A.  Luna.  It  also  dif- 
fers in  having  the  origin  of  the  first  subcostal  venule  much 
nearer  the  dis'cal  spot  than  in  A.  Luna,  being  very  near  that 
of  the  second  subcostal  venule.  It  is  whitish  green,  with 
markings  not  essentially  differing  from  those  of  A.  Luna. 

Callosamia  is  a  genus  with  broader  wings  and  no  transpa- 
rent eye-like  spots.  The  larva  has  large  tubercles  and  is  very 
plump.  Its  characters  are  intermediate  between  those  of 
Sam-la  and  Platysamia.  C.  Promethea  Drury  is  a  smaller  spe- 
cies than  the  others.  Its  larva  is  pale  bluish  green,  with  the 
head,  tail  and  feet  3^ellow,  with  eight  warts  on  each  ring,  those 
on  the  two  first  thoracic  rings  being  the  largest,  much  longer 
than  the  rest  and  coral  red.  The  cocoon  is  hung  by  a  stout 
silken  cord  to  the  stem  of  the  leaf  which  is  then  wrapped 
around  it.  It  may  be  found  attached  to  the  twigs  of  the 
wild  cherry,  Azalea  and  Cephalanthus,  or  button  bush,  in 
winter  after  the  leaves  have  fallen. 

Our  most  common  species  of  this  group  is  the  Cecropia  moth, 
belonging  to  the  genus  Platysamia,  which  has  a  broader 
head  and  wings  than  the  foregoing  genera.  The  caterpillar  of 
P.  Cecropia  Linn,  is  longer,  with  long  spinulated  tubercles, 
especially  marked  on  the  thoracic  rings  ;  the  large,  very  dense 
cocoon  is  open  at  one  end  and  thus  the  silk  cannot  be  un- 
wound so  well  as  that  of  the  Polyphemus  worm,  but  it  is  still 
useful,  and  Platysamia  Euryale  Boisduval  is  cultivated  in  Cali- 
fornia for  its  silk,  though  the  cultivation  of  the  Chinese  silk- 
worm (B.  mofi)  is  carried  on  there  very  largely. 


BOMBYCID^E.  299 

The  next  group,  the  Ceratocampadse  of  Harris,  is  composed 
of  large  moths,  in  which  the  hind  wings  scarcely  extend  beyond 
the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  and  the  wings  are  often  ocellated. 
The  larvae  are  longer  than  in  the  Attaci  and  more  hairy. 

Eucronia  Maia  Drury  has  a  narrow,  lunate,  curved  white 
line  in  the  centre  of  each  wing  ;  it  expands  from  two  and  a 
half  to  three  inches,  and  is  black  with  a  common,  broad,  yel- 
lowish white  band.  The  caterpillar  is  elongated,  with  six 
long  branched  prickles  on  each  ring.  It  feeds  on  the  oak. 

Hypercliiria  lo  of  Walker  (Saturnia  lo  of  Harris)  is  a  little 
larger  than  the  preceding.     The  male  is  yellow  and  the  female 
reddish  brown,  with  a  faint  eye-like  spot  on  the  fore 
wing,  and  on  the  hind  wings  a  large  round  blue 
spot,  margined  with  black  and  pupilled  with  white. 
The  caterpillar  is   green,  with   spreading  tufts  of 
spines,  very  sharp,  stinging  severely  when  the  insect  Flg"  m 
is  handled,  and  arising  from  a  tubercle,  of  which  there  are  six 
on  each  ring  ;  the  fascicles  on  the  side  are  as  represented  in 
Fig.  230.     The  pupa  is  thick,  pointed  at  the  tip  of  the  abdo- 
men, and  the  cocoon  is  thin,  being  made  under  leaves  on  the 
ground.     It  feeds  on  the  corn  and  cotton,  to  which  it  is  very 
harmful  southwards,  and  also  on  the  maple,  elm,  etc. 

Citheronia  regalis  Hiibner  expands  from  five  to  six  inches, 
and  its  fore  wings  are  olive  colored,  spotted  with  yellow  and 
veined  with  broad  red  lines,  while  the  hind  wings  ate  orange 
red,  spotted  with  olive,  green  and  yellow.  The  caterpillar  is 
spiny,  having  four  large  acute  spinulated 
spines  on  the  anterior  thoracic  segments.  It 
feeds  on  the  walnut,  hickory  and  the  persim- 
mon tree,  and  spins  no  cocoon.  A  second  spe- 
cies, O.  Mexicana  Grote  and  Robinson,  has 
been  described,  as  its  name  indicates,  from  Mexico  :  it  is 
more  orange  and  less  red,  with  duller  yellow  patches.  Fig. 
231  is  a  rude  sketch  (from  the  Harris  Correspondence)  of  the 
young  larva,  with  two  of  the  peculiar  long  hairs  next  the  head 
magnified.  A  much  smaller  species,  which  expands  only  3.10 
inches,  is  the  C.  sepulcrcdis  G.  and  R.,  which  was  discovered 
at  Andover,  Mass.,  by  Mr.  J.  O.  Treat.  It  is  purplish  'brown, 
without  any  yellow  spots,  and  with  a  diffuse  discal  spot,  centred 


V 

|      I 


300  LEPIDOPTERA. 

with  reddish  scales.  Mr.  Treat  has  raised  this  fine  moth  from 
the  larva  found  on  the  common  pitch  pine  ;  it  resembles  that 
of  C.  regalis.  It  also  occurs  in  Georgia,  as  it  has  been  figured 
in  the  unpublished  drawings  of  Abbot,  now  in  the  possession 
of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History. 

Eacles  imperialis  Hiibner  has  broader  wings,  expanding  from 
four  and  a  half  to  over  five  inches.  The  wings  are  yellow  with 
purple  brown  spots.  The  larva  is  but  slightly  tuberculated, 
with  long,  fine  hairs.  Its  chrysalis  is  like  that  of  Anisota. 

The  genus  Anisota  is  much  smaller  than  the  foregoing,  with 
variously  striped  larvae,  which  are  naked,  with  two  long, 
slender  spines  on  the  prothoracic  ring,  and  six  much  shorter 
spines  on  each  of  the  succeeding  segments.  They  make  no  co- 
coons, but  bury  themselves  several  inches  deep  in  the  soil  just 
before  transforming,  and  the  chrysalids  end  in  a  long  spine, 
with  the  abdominal  rings  very  convex  and  armed  with  a  row  of 
small  spines.  The  species  have  much  smaller,  narrower  wings, 
with  less  broadly  pectinated  antennae  than  in  the  foregoing 
moths.  A.  rubicunda  Fabr.  is  rose  colored,  with  a  broad, 
pale  yellow  band  on  the  fore  wings.  Anisota  senatoria  Smith 
is  pale  tawny  brown,  with  a  large,  white,  round  dot  in  the  cen- 
tre of  each  fore  wing. 

The  next  group  of  this  extensive  family  embraces  the  Lach- 
neides  of  Hiibner,  in  which  the  moths  have  very  woolly  stout 
bodies,  small  wings,  with  stoutly  pectinated  antennae,  while  the 
larvae  are  long,  cylindrical  and  hairy,  scarcely  tuberculated,  and 
spin  a  very  dense  cocoon.  The  pupae  are  longer  than  in  the 
two  preceding  subfamilies.  Gasfropacha  (Fig.  159,  hind  wing) 
has  scalloped  wings,  and  a  singular  grayish  larva  whose  body 
is  expanded  laterally,  being  rather  flattened.  G.  Americana 
Harris  is  rusty  brown,  slightly  frosted,  and  with  ashen  bands 
on  the  wings. 

In  Tolype  the  wings  are  entire.  T.  Velleda  Stoll  is  a  curi- 
ous moth,  being  white,  clouded  with  blue  gray,  with  two  broad, 
dark  gray  bands  on  the  fore  wings.  The  larva  is  hairy  and  is 
liable  to  be  mistaken  for  an  excrescence  on  the  bark  of  the 
apple  tree,  on  which  it  feeds. 

The  American  Tent  Caterpillar  is  the  larva  of  Clisiocampa, 
well  known  by  its  handsome  caterpillars,  and  its  large,  con- 


BOMBYCID^E.  301 

spicuous  webs  placed  in  neglected  apple  trees  and  on  the  wild 
cherry.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  twigs,  in  bunches  of  from 
300  to  400,  placed  side  by  side  and  covered  with  a  tough 
gummy  matter ;  they  are  sometimes  infested  by  chalcid  para- 
sites. 

The  larvae  of  C.  Americana  Harris  hatch  out  just  as  the 
leaves  are  unfolding  and  soon  form  a  web,  under  which  the  col- 
ony lives.  They  may  be  destroyed  by  previously  searching 
for  the  bunches  of  eggs  on  the  twigs  before  the  tree  is  leaved 
out,  and  the  caterpillars  may  be  killed  with  a  brush  or  mop 
dipped  into  strong  soap-suds,  or  a  weak  solution  of  petroleum. 

The  larvae  become  full  grown  about  the  middle  of  June,  then 
spin  their  dense  white  cocoons,  under  the  bark  of  trees,  etc., 
and  the  moths  appear  about  the 
first  of  July.  The  larva  of  C. 
Americana  is  about  two  inches 
long,  hairy,  with  a  dorsal  white 
stripe,  with  numerous  fine  crin- 
kled black  lines  on  a  yellow 
ground,  united  below  into  a 
common  black  band,  with  a  blue 
spot  on  the  side  of  each  ring. 
The  moth  (Fig.  232,  and  larva)  F&  232- 

is  reddish  brown,  with  two  oblique,  dirty  white  lines  on  the 
fore  wings.  It  expands  from  an  inch  and  a  quarter  to  an  inch 
and  a  half.  The  Forest  Tent  caterpillar,  C.  disstria  Hubner 
(C.  sylvatica  Harris)  differs  in  the  apex  of  the  fore  wings 
being  much  longer,  with  two  transverse  rust  brown,  nearly 
straight,  parallel  lines.  It  is  sometimes  destructive  to  the 
apple  and  oak  trees. 

The  Hepiali  are  a  group  of  boring  moths,  the  larvae  boring 
in  the  stems  of  plants  or  in  trees.  The  wings  are  narrow,  both 
pairs  being  very  equal  in  size,  and  show  a  tendency  to  recur  to 
the  net-veined  style  of  venation  of  the  Neuroptera.  Xyleutes  is 
a  large  moth,  with  a  stout  vein  passing  through  the  middle  of 
the  discal  space,  and  the  short  antennae  have  two  rows  of  short 
teeth  on  the  under  side.  X.  robinice  Peck  is  gray,  with  irregu- 
lar black  lines  and  dots  on  the  wings,  and  a  black  line  on  the 
inside  of  the  shoulder  tippets.  The  hind  wings  of  the  male 


302  LEPIDOPTERA. 

(X.  crepera  Harris)  are  distinctly  triangular  and  yellow  on  the 
outer  half.  The  larva  is  nearly  three  inches  long,  is  reddish 
above  and  covered  with  sparse  long  hairs.  It  bores  in  various 
directions  through  the  red  oak  and  locust,  and  spins  a  dense 
cocoon.  The  pupa  is  much  elongated,  with  the  suture  between 
the  segments  well  marked,  and  the  head  and  thorax  rather  small. 
Sthenopis  is  a  gigantic  moth,  with  more  falcate  wings  than 
in  Hepialus.  S.  argenteomaculata-  Harris  expands  nearly 
three  inches,  and  is  ashy  gray,  variegated  with  dusky  clouds 
and  bands,  with  a  small,  triangular,  silvery  spot  and  round 
dot  near  the  base  of  the  fore  wings.  Hepialus  is  smaller,  with 
a  larger  head  and  straighter  wings.  H.  humuli  Linn,  is 
injurious  to  the  hop  vine  in  Europe.  Our  most  common  spe- 
cies, H.  mustelinus  Pack.,  is  sable  brown,  with  slight  silvery 
lines  on  the  fore  wings.  It  expands  a  little  over  an  inch  and 
a  quarter. 


Latreille  (Noctuidoe).  Owlet  moths.  There 
is  a  great  uniformity  in  the  genera  of  this  family,  which  are 
characterized  by  their  thick  bodies,  the  thorax  being  often 
crested,  by  the  stout  and  well  developed  palpi,  and  the  simple 
and  sometimes  slightly  pectinated  antennae.  The  fore  wings 
are  small  and  narrow,  and  the  rather  large  hind  wings  are 
when  at  rest  folded  under  them,  so  that  the  moth  looks  much 
smaller  than  when  frying.  They  fly  swiftly  at  night,  and  are 
attracted  by  light.  The  fore  wings  have  almost  invariably  a 
dot  and  reniform  spot  in  the  middle  of  the  wing,  and  the  moths 
are  generally  dark  and  dull  colored.  The  larvae  taper  towards 
each  end,  and  are  striped  and  barred  in  different  ways.  They 
have  sixteen  feet,  except  those  of  the  lower  genera,  such  as 
Catocala  and  other  broad-winged  genera,  which  have  fourteen, 
and  look  when  they  walk  like  the  Geometers.  They  make 
thin  earthen  cocoons,  and  the  pupae  generally  live  under 
ground.  In  these  and  other  more  essential  characters,  this 
family  is  intermediate  between  the  Bombycidse  and  the  Phalae- 
nidae.  There  are  about  2,500  species  known. 

These  moths  can  be  taken  at  dusk  flying  about  flowers,  while 
they  enter  open  windows  in  the  evening,  and  during  the  night 
are  attracted  by  the  light  within.  When  alighted  on  the  table 


303 

under  a  lamp  a  slight  tap  with  a  ruler  will  kill  them  without 
injuring  the  specimens.  In  warm,  foggy  evenings,  they  enter 
in  great  numbers.  The  moths  fly  in  July  and  August,  but 
many  species  occur  only  in  autunin,  while  others  hibernate  and 
are  taken  early  in  the  spring.  An  English  writer  says,  "  moths' 
are  extremely  susceptible  of  any  keenness  in  the  air ;  a  north 
or  east  wind  is  very  likely  to  keep  them  from  venturing  abroad. 
Different  species  have  different  hours  of  flight." 

An  English  entomologist  states,  that  "  after  dusk  the  flowers 
of  the  willow  are  the  resort  of  several  species  of  moths  (Noo 
tuidas),  some  of  which  have  hibernated,  and  others  have  just 
left  their  pupa  state.  It  is  now  some  fifteen  years  since  the 
collectors  first  took  moths  in  this  way,  that  were  likely  long  to 
have  remained  deficient  in  the  collections  but  for  the  discovery, 
by  Mr.  H.  Doubleday,  of  the  attractive  powers  of  the  sallow 
blossoms.  I  believe  it  was  the  same  gentleman  who  found  out 
about  the  same  time  that  a  mixture  of  sugar  and  beer  [or  rum 
and  sugar  or  molasses,  etc.],  mixed  to  a  consistence  somewhat 
thinner  than  treacle,  is  a  most  attractive  bait  to  all  the  Noc- 
tuidce.  The  revolution  wrought  in  our  collections,  and  our 
knowledge  of  species  since  its  use,  is  wonderful." 

"The  mixture  is  taken  to  the  woods,  and  put  upon  the 
trunks  of  trees  in  patches  or  stripes,  just  at  dusk.  Before  it  is 
dark  some  moths  arrive,  and  a  succession  of  comers  continue 
all  through  the  night,  until  the  first  dawn  of  day  warns  the 
revellers  to  depart.  The  collector  goes,  soon  after  dark,  with 
a  bull's-eye  lantern,  a  ring  net,  and  a  lot  of  large  pill  boxes. 
He  turns  his  light  full  on  the  wetted  place,  at  the  same  time 
placing  his  net  underneath  it,  in  order  to  catch  any  moth  that 
may  fall.  The  sugar  bait  may  be  used  from  March  to  October 
with  success,  not  only  in  woods,  but  in  lanes,  gardens,  and 
wherever  a  tree  or  post  can  be  found  to  put  it  upon.  The  best 
nights  will  be  those  that  are  warm,  dark  and  wet ;  cold,  moon- 
light, or  bright,  clear  and  dry  nights  are  always  found  to  be 
unproductive.  It  is  also  of  no  avail  to  use  sugar  in  the  vicinity 
of  attractive  flowers,  such  as  those  of  the  willow,  lime  or  ivy. 
Sometimes  one  of  the  Geometridce  or  Tineidce  comes,  and 
occasionlly  a  good  beetle."  The  virgins'  bower,  when  in  blos- 
som, is  a  favorite  resort  of  Noctuse.  Many  can  be  taken  by 


304  LEPIDOPTERA. 

carrying  a  kerosene  lamp  into  the  woods  and  watching  for 
whatever  is  attracted  by  its  light. 

Tliyatira  and  Cymatophora  are  allied  by  their  small,  hairy 
heads,  to  the  Notodontae  in  the  preceding  family.  In  Thyra- 
tira  the  palpi  are  long  and  depressed,  and  the 
fore  wings  are  dark,  with  five  or  six  large  light 
spots,  and  the  larva  is  like  that  of  the  Noto- 
Fig.  233.  dontae,  the  segments  being  humped,  and  the 
anal  legs  raised  while  at  rest,  while  Cymatophora  is  pale  ashen, 
the  fore  wings  being  crossed  by  four  or  five  waved  lines.  The 
larva  is  smooth,  rather  flattened  beneath,  with  a  large  head. 
It  feeds  on  trees,  between  two  leaves  united  by  silk.  C.  cani- 
plaga  talker  describes  from  Canada.  Gramatophora  trisig- 
nata  Doubleday  (Fig.  233,  fore  wing)  is  a  gaily  colored  spe- 
cies, greenish,  marbled  with 
black,  with  three  large,  round, 
brown  spots  on  the  fore  wings. 
The  larva  (Fig.  234)  is 
humped,  giving  it  a  zig-zag 
outline,  and  is  brown  with  the 
third  to  the  sixth  abdominal  Fie-  234. 

rings  much  paler.  It  has  the  unusual  power  of  boring  very 
smooth,  cylindrical  holes  in  solid  pine  wood.  We  have  re- 
ceived specimens  of  its  tunnels  from  Mrs.  J.  Brigham.  We 
have  found  the  larvae  just  moulting  on  the  leaves  of  the  lilac. 
September  12th. 

In  Acronycta  the  head  becomes  large  and  broad,  the  fore 
wings  are  broad  and  short,  with  dark  streaks  and  a  dark  mark, 

like  the  Greek  letter  Psi  on  the 
inner  margin.     The  larvae  vary 
in  being  humped  or  cylindrical, 
-  235-  downy,   slightly  hairy,  or  very 

hairy,  and  feed  exposed  on  shrubs.  The  pupa  lies  in  a  co- 
coon made  in  moss  or  in  crevices  of  bark.  A.  oblinita  Smith 
(Fig.  235,  larva)  is  whitish  gray,  with  darker  streaks  on  the 
fore  wings. 

Apatela  Americana  Harris  is  a  large,  pale  gray  moth,  without 
black  streaks,  whose  woolly,  yellowish  caterpillar,  with  long, 
slender  pencils  of  black  hairs,  feeds  on  the  maple. 


305 

We  have  received  from  Mr.  Sanborn  a  singular  caterpiller 
allied  to  this  genus  (Fig.  236),  which  is  figured  in  the  Harris 
Correspondence  as  Acronycta  acris?  var.  Americana.  "It  is 
greenish  brown,"  according  to  Harris,  "each  segment  above 
with  a  transverse  oval  greenish  yellow  spot ;  the  body  is  beset 
with  a  few  long  black  bristles,  dilated  at  the  end,  which  do  not 
grow,  as  usual,  from  small  warts  ; 
there  are  no  long  bristles  on 
the  second  and  third  thoracic, 
or  on  the  tenth  abdominal  rings. 
It  moves  very  quickly,  and  rests 
with  the  fore  part  of  the  body  Fig.  236. 

bent  sideways.  The  chrysalis  was  found  under  a  log  fastened 
to  another  with  a  few  threads.  The  moth  appeared  June  28th." 
In  Leucania  the  fore-wings  are  short,  the  outer  margin  nearly 
straight,  while  the  hind  wings  are  usually  white.  Leucania 
unipuncta  Hawofth  (Plate  8,  fig.  2;  a,  larva)  is  the  "Army- 
worm"  of  the  Northern  States.  Its  larva  is  smooth,  cylindri- 
cal, tapering  rapidly  towards  each  end,  and  striped  with  fine, 
dark,  longitudinal  lines.  It  feeds  on  grasses,  and  in  certain 
years  has  greatly  ravaged  wheat  fields.  It  hides  by  day  among 
tufts  of  grass.  The  moth  is  rusty,  grayish  brown,  peppered 
with  black  scales,  and  with  an  oblique  row  of  about  ten  black 
dots  running  towards  the  apex,  and  a  white  discal  spot.  It 
expands  a  little  over  one  and  a  half  inches.  It  constructs,  in 
the  middle  of  August,  a  rude  earthen 
cocoon,  or  cell  of  dry  grass.  The  moth* 
appears  the  last  of  August  northwards. 
Six  species^  of  Ichneumon,  and  one  of 
Tachina,  prey  upon  this  species.  To  pre- 
vent  the  too  great  accumulation  of  this 
Fig.  237.  yery  Destructive  caterpillar,  the  grass  land 

should  be  burnt  over  in  autumn.  When  on  the  march  their 
armies  may  be  kept  out  by  ditching,  and  hogs  and  fowl  should 
be  turned  into  fields  during  the  middle  of  August,  while  they 
are  transforming,  to  prevent  their  attacks  the  succeeding  year. 
Agrotis,  the  Dart-moth,  is  known  by  its  crested  thorax; 
the  palpi  are  broad  and  truncated,  level  with  the  front,  and 
the  antennae  are  either  somewhat  pectinated  or  distinctly  cili- 


306 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


ated.  The  dot  and  reniform  spot  are  very  distinct,  being  sit- 
uated on  a  black  ground,  and  there  is  a  basal,  median,  black 
streak  on  the  fore  wing.  The  apex  of  the  hind  wings  is  much 

produced.  The  larvae, 
called  "cutworms,"  are 
thick,  with  a  distinct, 
horny,  prothoracic 
plate,  like  that  in  the 
Tortrices,  or  leaf-rol- 
lers ;  they  are  marked 
with  shining  and  warty, 
or  smooth  and  coiicolor- 
Mgt  238>  ous  spots,  and  often  lon- 

gitudinal dark  lines,  and  live  by  day  hidden  under  sticks  and 
the  roots  of  low  plants ;  feeding  by  night.  The  pupa  is  found 
living  under  ground.  Agrotis  tessellata  of  Harris  (Fig.  237) 
is  dark  ash  colored ;  the  two  ordinary  spots  bn  the  fore  wings 
are  large  and  pale,  and  alternate  with  a  triangular  and  a  square, 
deep,  black  spot.  It  expands  an  inch  and  a  quarter.  Agrotis 

devastator  Harris  is  the  moth  of 
the  cabbage  cut-worm.  Another 
very  abundant  species,  often  seen 
flying  over  the  blossoms  of  the 
I  Golden-rod  in  autumn  is  the  Agro- 
tis subgothica  (Fig.  238).  Mr. 
Riley  states  that  this  moth  is  the 
"parent  of  a  cut-worm  which  very 
closely  resembles  that  of  A.  Coch- 
rani,  but  which  has  the  dark  side 
divided  into  two  stripes.  The 
Fig.  239.  chrysalis  remains  somewhat  longer 

in  the  ground  ?  and  the  moth  makes  its  appearance  from  four 
to  six  weeks  later  than  A.  Cochrani." 

A.  suffusa  Den.  and  Schief.  (A.  telifera  of  Harris,  fig.  239) 
is  so  named  from  the  lance-like  streaks  on  the  fore  wings.  It 
appears  late  in  July,  and  probably  attacks  corn,  as  Mr.  Uhler 
has  found  the  chrysalids  at  the  roots  of  corn  in  Maryland. 
Riley  describes  the  larva  under  the  name  of  the  Large  Black 
Cut-worm.  It  is  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length  when  crawling. 


NOCTU^ELITJE.  307 

"Its  general  color  above  is  dull,  dark,  leaden  brown,  with  a 
faint  trace  of  a  dirty  yellow  white  line  along  the  back.  The 
subdorsal  line  is  more  distinct,  and  between  it  and  the  stigmata 
are  two  other  indistinct  pale  lines.  There  are  eight  black, 
shiny,  piliferous  spots  on  each  segment ;  two  near  the  subdorsal 
line,  the  smaller  a  little  above  anteriorly  ;  the  larger  just  below 
it,  and  a  little  back  of  the  middle  of  the  segment,  with  the  line 
appearing  especially  light  above  it.  The  other  two  are  placed 
each  side  of  the  stigmata,  the  one  anteriorly  a  little  above, 
the  other  just  behind,  in  the  same  line  with  them,  and  having  a 
white  shade  above  it." 

While  cut-worms  have  usually  been  supposed  to  feed  upon 
the  roots  of  grasses  and  to  cut  off  the  leaves  of  succulent 
vegetables,  Mr.  Cochran,  of  Calumet,  111.,  has  discovered  that 
one  species  ascends  the  apple,  pear  and  grape,  eating  off  the 
fruit;  buds,  thus  doing  immense  damage  to  the  orchard.  Mr. 
Cochran,  in  a  letter  published  in  the  "Prairie  Farmer,"  states 
that  "they  destroy  low  branched  fruit  trees  of  all  kinds  except 
the  peach,  feeding  on  the  fruit  buds  first,  the  wood  buds  as  a 
second  choice,  and  preferring  them  to  all  things,  tender  grape 
buds  and  shoots  (to  which  they  are  also  partial)  not  excepted  ; 
the  miller  always  preferring  to  lay  her  eggs  near  the  hill  or 
mound  over  the  roots  of  the  trees  in  the  orchard,  and  if,  as  is 
many  times  the  case,  the  trees  have  a  spring  dressing  of  lime 
or  ashes  with  the  view  of  preventing  the  operations  of  the  May 
beetles,  this  will  be  selected  with  unerring  instinct  by  the  mil- 
ler, thus  giving  her  larvae  a  fine  warm  bed  to  cover  themselves 
with  during  the  day  from  the  observation  of  their  enemies. 
They  will  leave  potatoes,  peas  and  all  other  young,  green 
things,  for  the  buds  of  the  apple  and  the  pear.  The  long, 
naked,  young  trees  of  the  orchard  are  almost  exempt  from 
their  voracious  attacks,  but  I  found  them  about  midnight,  of  a 
dark  and  damp  night,  well  up  in  the  limbs  of  these.  The 
habit  of  the  dwarf  apple  and  pear  tree,  however,  just  suits 
their  nature,  and  much  of  the  complaint  of  those  people  who 
cannot  make  these  trees  thrive  on  a  sandy  soil,  has  its  source 
and  foundation  here,  though  apparently,  utterly  unknown  to 
the  orchardist.  There  is  no  known  remedy ;  salt  has  no  prop- 
erties, repulsive  to  them ;  they  burrow  in  it  equally  as  quick  as 


308  LEPIDOPTERA. 

in  lime  or  ashes.  Tobacco,  soap  and  other  diluted  washes  do 
not  even  provoke  them ;  but  a  tin  tube,  six  inches  in  length, 
opened  on  one  side  and  closed  around  the  base  of  the  tree,  fit- 
ting close  and  entering  at  the  lower  end  an  inch  into  the 
earth,  is  what  the  lawyers  would  term  an  effectual  estoppel  to 
further  proceedings. 

"  If  the  dwarf  tree  branches  so  low  from  the  ground  as  not  to 
leave  six  inches  clear  of  trunk  between  the  limbs  and  ground, 
the  limbs  must  be  sacrificed  to  save  the  tree,  as  in  two  nights 
four  or  five  of  these  pests  will  fully  and  effectually  strip  a  four 
or  five  year  old  dwarf  of  every  fruit  and  wood  bud,  and  often 
when  the  tree  is  green  utterly  denude  it  of  its  foliage.  I  look 
upon  them  as  an  enemy  to  the  orchard  more  fatal  than  the  can- 
ker worm  when  left  to  themselves,  but  fortunately  for  man- 
kind, more  surely  headed  off." 

Mr.  Riley  has  named  this  cut-worm  Agrotis  Cochrani  (Fig. 

240,  and  larva)  and  de- 
scribes the  larva  which, 
according  to  the  obser- 
vations of  J.  Townley 
of  Marquette,  Wis., 
also  ascends  standard 
trees,  not  confining 
Fig.  240.  j^  injurieg  to  dwarf 

trees.  The  cut-worm  is  1.07  inches  in  length.  "It  is  slightly 
shagreened  and  the  general  color  is  of  a  dingy  ash  gray,  with 
lighter  or  darker  shadings.  The  back  is  light,  inclining  to  flesh 
color  with  a  darker  dingy  line  along  the  dorsum.  The  sides, 
particularly  along  the  subdorsal  line,  are  of  a  darker  shade. 
On  each  segment  there  are  eight  small,  black,  shiny,  slightly 
elevated  points,  having  the  appearance  of  black  sealing-wax, 
from  each  of  which  originates  a  small  black  bristle.  The  stig- 
mata are  of  the  same  black  color  and  one  of  the  black  spots  is 
placed  quite  close  to  them  anteriorly.  The  head  is  shiny  and 
of  the  same  dingy  color,  with  two  darker  marks ;  thick  and 
almost  joining  at  the  upper  surface,  becoming  thinner  below 
and  diverging  towards  the  palpi.  The  upper  surface  of  the 
first  segment  is  also  shiny  like  the  head.  The  ventral  region  is 
of  the  same  dingy  color,  but  lighter,  having  a  greenish  tinge 


NOCTU^ELIT^.  309 


anteriorly  and  inclining  to  yellow  under  the  anal  segment. 
Prolegs  and  feet  of  the  same  color.  It  has  a  few  short  bristles 
on  the  anterior  and  lateral  segments. 

"The  head  is  light  brown,  with  a  dark  brown  spot  on  each 
side  and  dark  brown  above,  leaving  the  inverted  Y  mark  in  the 
middle  light  brown,  and  having  much  the  appearance  of  a 
goblet,  as  one  looks  from  tail  to  head.  The  cervical  shield  is 
dark  brown,  except  a  stripe  above  and  on  each  side.  There 
are  sparse,  short,  white  bristles  laterally  and  posteriorly. 
The  venter  and  legs  are  of  a  glaucous  glassy  color,  and  the 
feet  are  light  brown." 

"The  moth  in  its  general  appearance  bears  a  great  resem- 
blance to  Hadena  chenopodii,  but  the  two  are  found  to  differ 
essentially  when  compared.  From  specimens  of  H.  chenopodii, 
kindly  furnished  me  by  Mr.  Walsh,  and  named  by  Grote,  I  am 
enabled  to  give  the  essential  differences,  which  are:  1.  In 
A.  Cochraniy  as  already  stated,  the  middle  area  exceeds  some- 
what in  width  either  of  the  other  two,  while  in  H.  chenopodii 
it  is  but  half  as  wide  as  either ;  2.  In  the  Agrotis  the  space 
between  the  spots  and  between  the  reniform  and  transverse 
posterior  is  dark,  relieving  the  spots  and  giving  them  a 
light  appearance,  whilst  in  the  Hadena  this  space  is  of  the 
same  color  as  the  wing,  and  the  reniform  spot  is  dark.  The 
claviform  spot  in  the  Hadena  is  also  quite  prominent,  and  one 
of  its  distinctive  features  ;  while  in  the  Agrotis  it  is  just  about 
obsolete. 

Another  larva  is  called  by  Mr.  Riley  the  W-marked  cut- 
worm. "It  measures  one  and  an  eighth  inches,  and  its  gen- 
eral color  is  ash  gray,  inclining  on  the  back  and  upper  sides 
to  dirty  yellow :  it  is  finely  speckled  all  over  with  black 
and  brown  spots.  Along  the  back  there  is  a  fine  line  of  a 
lighter  color  shaded  on  each  side  at  the  ring  joints  with 
a  darker  color.  Subdorsal  line  light  sulphur  yellow,  with  a 
band  of  dirty  brownish  yellow  underneath.  Along  the  stig- 
matal  region  is  a  wavy  line  of  a  dark  shade  with  flesh  colored 
markings  underneath  it ;  but  the  distinguishing  feature  is  r 
row  of  black  velvety  marks  along  each  side  of  the  back,  on  al 
but  the  thoracic  segments,  and  bearing  a  general  resemblance 
(looking  from  tail  to  head) ,  to  the  letter  W.  The  ventral  region 


310  LEPIDOPTEEA. 

is  greenish  gray ;  prolegs  of  the  same  color ;  thoracic  feet  brown 
black.  Head  black  with  white  lines  in  front,  resembling  an  in- 
verted Y,  and  white  at  the  sides.  The  thoracic  segments  fre- 
quently have  a  greenish  hue."  It  is  the  Noctua  dandestma. 

Still  another,  of  which  the  moth  is  unknown,  is  described 
by  Mr.  Riley  under  the  name  of  the  Pale  Cut- worm.  "It 
is  of  the  same  length  as  Cochran's  cut- worm,  and  the  general 
color  is  pale  gray,  with  a  lilac  colored  hue,  caused  by  innumer- 
able light  purplish  markings  on  an  almost  white  ground. 
There  is  no  particular  shading  on  the  back,  and  it  is  very  slight 
along  the  subdorsal  line.  The  stigmatal  line,  however,  being 
destitute  of  the  above  mentioned  markings,  is  almost  white. 
Above  this  line  there  is  a  band  of  a  darker  shade  than  the  rest 
of  the  body.  At  first  sight  this  worm  appears  quite  smooth  and 
uniform  in  color,  the  most  striking  feature  being  the  second 
segment,  which  is  shiny  black,  with  three  white  lines.  One  of 

these  lines  is  on  the 
top,  and  continues 
to  some  extent  on 
the  head  ;  the  others 
are  placed  on  each 
side  of  this  and  do 
not  run  down  as  far. 
Fig.  2tt.  a  The  anal  segment 

has  also  two  black  shiny  marks  on  its  surface.  The  stigmata 
are  black  and  the  head  is  gray,  below  light  shiny,  and  brown 
above.  Legs  and  feet  of  the  same  color  as  the  under  side  of 
the  body  which  is  nearly  white  with  a  glaucous  tinge.  There 
are  a  few  scattering  hairs  near  the  tail.  This  worm  is 
smoother  than  the  others." 

In  Gortyna  the  antennae  are  crenulated  in  the  male,  and  the 
fore  wings  are  yellow  with  darker  markings.  The  larva  is  dull 
colored  with  warty  spots.  That  of  G.  Jlavago,  an  European 
species,  feeds  in  the  stems  of  thistles  and  the  burdock,  chang- 
ing to  a  pupa  inside  the  stem.  G.  leucostigma  attacks  the  colum- 
bine (Harris) .  The  habits  of  the  Dahlia  and  Aster  stalk  borer 
(Gortyna  nitela  Guenee)  have  been  described  by  Mr.  Riley, 
who  states  that  the  fore  wings  of  the  moth  (Fig.  241 ;  a,  larva) 
are  lilac  gray,  speckled  with  minute  yellow  dots,  with  a  dis- 


311 

tinct  white  band  running  across  them.  The  caterpillar  is  gen- 
erally of  a  livid  or  purplish  brown,  though  varying  much  as  to 
depth  of  shading  and  is  darker  before  than  behind.  "The 
young  worm  hatches  about  the  first  of  July  and  immediately 
commences  its  work  of  destruction.  It  works  in  such  a  sur- 
reptitious manner  as  to  be  too  often  unnoticed  till  the  vine  is 
destroyed.  The  plant  does  not  generally  show  any  signs  of 
decay  until  the  cocoon  is  about  fully  grown,  when  it  wilts  and  is 
past  recovery.  This  occurs  about  a  month  after  the  worm  is 
hatched,  and  it  then  crawls  just  under  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
fastens  a  little  earth  together  around  itself  by  a  slight  web  and 
changes  to  a  chrysalis  of  a  very  light  mahogany  brown  color, 
and  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long.  The  moth  comes  forth  the 
fore  part  of  September.  The  careful  culturist  need  fear  nothing 
from  this  troublesome  insect,  as  an  occasional  close  inspection 
of  the  plants  about  the  first  of  July  will  reveal  the  hole  where 
the  borer  has  entered,  which  is  generally  quite  a  distance  from 
the  ground,  and  by  splitting  downwards  one  side  of  the  stalk 
with  a  penknife  it  may  be  found  and  killed.  If  this  inspection 
be  made  at  the  proper  time  the  worm  will  be  found  but  a  shott 
distance  from  the  hole  and  the  split  in  the  stalk  will  heal  by 
being  kept  closed  with  a  piece  of  thread."  (Prairie  Farmer.) 

Achatodes  differs  from  Gortyna  in  not  having  the  fore  wings 
falcate.  A.  zete,  described  by  Harris,  is  rust-red  with  gray 
clouds  and  bands  on  the  fore  wings  and  yellowish  gray  hind 
wings  ;  it  expands  an  inch  and  a  half.  The  larva  feeds  inside 
the  stalks  of  corn,  within  which  it  transforms ;  it  is  a  little 
over  an  inch  long,  smooth  and  naked,  with  the  head  and  the 
top  of  the  first  and  last  rings  of  the  body  black,  and  with  a 
double  row  of  small,  smooth,  black  dots  across  each  of  the 
other  rings.  It  also  infests  the  dahlia  and  elder. 

The  genus  Mamestra  comprises  rather  large  moths  in  which 
the  antennae  are  rather  long  and  simple  in  the  male  ;  the  front 
of  the  head  is  smooth  and  convex,  and  the  reniform  dot  is 
very  distinct,  while  the  outer  margin  of  the  fore  wings  is  rather 
oblique.  The  larva  is  longer  than  usual  and  feeds  on  the 
leaves  of  low  plants,  remaining  concealed  by  day.  The  pupa 
is  subterranean,  the  cocoon  being  made  of  earth. 

Mamestra  arctica  Boisd.  (Hadena  arnica)  is  common  north. 


812  LEPIDOPTERA. 

•ward,  and  is  found  in  the  colder  subarctic  regions  of  America 
and  Europe.  It  cuts  off  the  leaves  of  roses  and  other  shrubs. 
Fitch  states  that  the  larva,  late  in  May  in  New  York,  cuts  off 
the  young  shoots  of  the  currant.  It  is  an  inch  and  a  half  long, 
of  a  shining  livid  color,  with  faint  dots,  from  which  arise  a  very 
short,  fine  hair.  It  remains  in  the  pupa  state  about  a  month  be- 
neath the  ground,  the  moth  appearing  in  July.  It  is  found  also 
in  Labrador  and  in  Europe.  The  moth  expands  an  inch  and 
three  quarters  and  is  of  a  deep  Spanish  brown,  variegated  with 
gray,  with  a  very  conspicuous  reniform  dot ;  the  outer  edge  is 
bordered  with  blue  gray.  Harris  also  describes  M.  picta,  a  red- 
dish brown  species,  with  a  conspicuous  white  Z  on  the  outer 
edge  of  the  fore  wing.  The  larva  is  yellow,  gaily  variegated 
with  three  longitudinal  stripes.  It  feeds  on  garden  vegeta- 
bles, and  Mr.  Fish  informs  me  that  it  feeds  on  the  cranberry. 

The  genus  Plusia  is  quite  unlike  the  foregoing  genera,  as 
the  palpi  are  long  and  slender,  and  the  fore  wings  are  acute, 
with  silver  marks  and  lines,  usually  a  dot  and  dash,  like  a 
semicolon ;  the  inner  angle  is  tufted,  and  the  hind  wings  are 
tiiangular. 

Our  most  common  species  is  Plusia  precationis  Guenee, 
the  larva  of  which,  according  to  Mr.  Saunders,.  feeds  on  the 
hollyhock  in  August.  "It  is  one  and  a  half  inches  long, 
the  body  tapering  anteriorly  and  thickening  in  the  middle 
and  towards  the  end.  The  head  is  small,  smooth,  shining 
green,  with  a  black  stripe  on  each  side.  The  body  is  green 
with  dull  whitish,  longitudinal  lines  above  and  a  whitish  stripe 
somewhat  more  distinct  on  each  side  near  the  spiracles.  It 
changed  to  a  chrysalis  August' 9th."  A  species  of  Plusia,  like 
P.  prsecationis,  is  figured  by  Mr.  Glover  in  his  unpublished 
plates  of  insects  injurious  to  the  cotton  plant.  It  has  a  much 
curved,  semicircular  discal  spot,  with  a  distinct  dot  just  beyond, 
the  two  spots  arranged  thus  *" .  The  caterpillar  is  pale 
green,  the  body  increasing  in  size  from  the  head  to  the  tail  and 
with  a  lateral  row  of  brown  dots.  "It  was  found  eating  the 
cotton  flower  in  Georgia  the  last  of  October."  It  forms  a  loose, 
thin  cocoon  among  the  leaves,  and  the  pupa  is  pale  green, 
spotted  above  with  irregular  brown  spots.  Mr.  Glover  also 
figures  quite  a  different  species  of  Plusia,  which  has  the  same 


313 

habits  as  the  species  just  mentioned.  It  belongs,  however,  to 
a  different  section  of  the  genus,  and  on  the  discal  area  is  an 
oblique,  golden,  irregular  oval  patch,  containing  two  unequal 
dots.  The  larva  is  pale  green  and  has  a  broad,  lateral,  white 
stripe.  The  chrysalis  is  brown  and  protected  by  a  thin,  loose 
cocoon.  P.  divergens  Fabr.  lives  on  the  Alps,  in  Finmark,  and 
in  Labrador.  Mr.  F.  G.  Sanborn  found,  July  6th,  a  closely  allied 
species  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Washington,  N.  H.,  which  dif- 
fers from  P.  divergens  in  the  forked,  golden,  discal  spot  being 
a  third  smaller,  while  the  two  branches  of  the  spot  go  off  at 
right  angles  to  each  other.  On  the  fore  wings  the  second  line 
from  the  base  is  acutely  dentate  on  the  submedian  vein,  where 
in  P.  divergens  it  is  straight,  and  the  outer  line  is  also  den- 
tate, not  being  so  in  P.  divergens.  The  hind  wings  are  yel- 
lowish at  base,  with  a  wide  black  margin.  It  may  be  called 
Plusia  montana.  Mr.  Grote  has  described  P.  ignea  (P.  alticola 
of  Walker)  from  Pike's  Peak,  which  is  closely  allied 
to  P.  divergens.  Plusia  cerea  Hiibner  (Fig.  242,  side 
view)  is  a  reddish  brown  moth,  with  obscure  markings, 
and  without  the  usual  metallic  spots.  It  expands  a 
little  over  an  inch,  and  is  not  uncommon  in  the  North- 
ern States. 

Anomis  is  a  slender-bodied  genus,  with  triangular  Fig.  242. 
fore  wings.  A.  xylina  Say  feeds  upon  the  cotton.  It  is  a 
brown  moth  with  a  dark  discal  oval  spot  centred  by  two 
pale  dots.  She  deposits,  according  to  Mr.  Glover,  a  low,  much 
flattened,  vertically  ribbed  egg  upon  the  surface  of  the  leaf. 
The  larva  is  a  looper,  whence  it  can  be  readily  distinguished 
from  the  army  and  boll  worms,  and  its  body  is  thickest  in  the 
middle,  very  hairy,  green,  dotted  with  black  along  a  subdorsal 
yellowish  line,  and  with  black  dots  beneath.  It  matures  early 
in  the  season,  and  a  second  brood  becomes  fully  grown  in  Sep- 
tember and  October.  When  about  to  transform  it  gathers  a 
leaf  together  by  a  web,  thus  forming  a  rude  cocoon.  (Glover.) 

Like  our  northern  army  worm  (Leucania  unipuncta)  the 
Army  worm  of  the  South  (Fig.  243,  egg  and  larva,  Riley), 
makes  its  appearance  in  great  numbers  in  a  single  day, 
committing  the  greatest  havoc  in  a  few  hours.  Professor  J. 
Darby,  of  Auburn,  Ala.,  writes  me  that  "Saturday,  Septem- 


314  LEPIDOPTERA. 

ber  19th,  I  was  in  the  field  examining  the  forms  (buds  before 
flowering)  and  the  young  bolls  (fruit  after  the  floral  organs 
have  fallen  off) .  I  examined  all  carefully,  with  no  signs  of  eggs 
or  worms.  On  Sunday  I  did  not  see  it.  On  Monday  I  passed 
it  as  usual  and  observed  nothing  unusual.  On  Tuesday  morn- 
ing I  passed  it  and  noticed  nothing  unusual.  On  Tuesday  noon 
every  plant  in  the  field  was  stripped  of  all  its  upper  leaves ; 
not  one  remaining  as  far  as  could  be  seen,  and  the  plants  were 
covered  with  millions  of  worms.  I  counted  on  one  plant  forty- 
six  worms.  They  commence  at  the  top  of  the  plant,  eating 
every  leaf.  When  the  leaves  were  gone  they  attacked  the 
young  bolls,  eating  through  the  perianth  and  consuming  the 
young  cotton.  In  the  course  of  four  days  the  work  was  done. 
They  did  not  touch  the  grape,  nor  any  other  plant  in  the  field. 

Many  left  the  field  and  thousands 
were  in  the  road  and  on  the  fences, 
but  not  one  in  a  thousand  thus 
escaped.  To-day,  September  23d, 
there  is  scarcely  one  to  be  seen. 
Their  disappearance  is  as  myste- 
rious as  their  coming.  They  have 
left  no  signs  that  I  can  see,  either 
243.  oa  the  stalks  or  in  the  ground. 

They  have  extended  over  hundreds  of  miles,  and  nothing 
has  proved  a  barrier  to  them,  having  been  as  destructive 
on  islands  in  the  river,  as  elsewhera.  One-third  of  the 
cotton  crop  has  been  destroyed.  Nothing  of  the  kind  has 
occurred  in  thirty  years  past  to  my  knowledge."  The  larva 
is  reddish  brown,  with  distinct  black  spots,  the  dorsal  line 
being  streaked  with  yellow  and  black.  It  hibernates  as  a 
moth.  The  presence  of  this  caterpillar  in  the  "West  Indies 
caused  the  cultivation  of  cotton  to  be  abandoned.  The  same, 
or  another  species,  also  appears  often  in  Guiana  and  other  parts 
of  South  America.  A  good  remedy  against  the  worm  is  a  mix- 
ture of  two  parts  of  carbolic  acid  with  100  of  water,  to  be 
sprinkled  on  the  leaves  of  the  plant.  Heliotliis  has  pubescent 
antennae,  the  thorax  and  abdomen  are  smooth,  and  the  fore 
wings  slightly  acute  at  tip.  The  larva  is  elongated,  but  not 
attenuate,  with  a  large  head  and  distinct  lines  along  the  body. 


NOCTUJELIT^. 


315 


It  feeds  exposed  on  low  plants,  preferring  the  flowers.  The 
pupa  is  conical  and  subterranean.  H.  armigera  Linn.  (Fig. 
244;  a,  larva)  is  the  "boll 
worm"  of  the  Southern  States, 
so  destructive  to  cotton  crops. 
Riley  states  that  it  also  feeds 
on  the  fruit  of  the  tomato,  and 
in  Southern  Illinois  on  the  silk 
and  green  kernels  of  corn  and 
also  the  phlox,  tomato  and 
corn-stalks,  and,  according  to 
Mr.  T.  Glover,  it  bores  into  the 
pumpkin.  Mr.  Riley,  in  the  Fig- 2M- 

"Prairie  Farmer,"  describes  H.  phloxiphaga  Grote  under  the 
name  of  the  "Phlox  worm"  (Fig.  245,  and  larva).  He  states 
that  there  are  two  broods  in  a  year,  the  first  appearing  in  July, 
and  becoming  moths  by  the  middle  of  August, 
the  second  passing  the  winter  in  the  ch^salis 
state.  The  eggs  are  deposited  singly  on  all 
rig.  246.  portions  of  the  plant,  and  the  caterpillar, 
when  about  to  become  a  chrysalis,  enters  the  ground,  and  in- 
terweaves grains  of  sand  with  a  few  silken  theads,  forming  a 
very  slight  elastic  cocoon."  The  genus  Helioclieilus  differs 
from  Heliothis  in  its  broader  and  shorter  wings  and  its  vena- 
tion. H.  paradoxus 
Grote  (Fig.  246,  vena- 
tion of  fore  wing)  is  a 
pale  testaceous  moth, 
with  the  fore  wings 
darker.  It  inhabits 
Colorado  Territory. 

Anarta  is  rather  a 
small  moth,  with  a 
hairy  body  and  small 
head  ;  the  fore  wings  Fig.  245. 

are  thick  and  velvety,  with  confused  markings,  and  the  hind 
wings  are  yellow  or  white,  often  bordered  with  black.  The 
larva  is  short  and  smooth  in  repose,  with  the  anterior  portion 
of  the  body  bent  under  the  breast.  The  pupa  is  enclosed  in  a 


316  LEPIDOPTERA. 

cocoon  of  silk  mixed  with  earth.  The  genus  is  arctic  or  sub- 
arctic, and  inhabits  Alpine  summits.  A.  algida  Lefebvre  in- 
habits Labrador  and  Lapland.  A  closely  allied  and  undescribed 
species,  seems  to  be  peculiar  to  the  summit  of  Mount  Wash- 
ington, N.  H.,  where  it  has  been  detected  by  Mr.  Sanborn. 

Xanthoptem  semicrocea  Guenee  (Plate  8,  fig.  3  ;  a,  larva)  is 
brown,  with  the  base  of  the  wings  saffron  yellow ;  it  expands 
a  little  less  than  one  inch.  Dr.  A.  W.  Chapman,  of  Appalachi- 
cola,  Fla.,  states  in  a  letter  to  Mr.  Sanborn,  that  the  larva 
feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  Pitcher  plant,  Sarracenia.  It  is  red 
and  cylindrical,  with  short  black  tubercles  on  the  top  of  each 
segment,  and  a  black  cylindrical  spine  on  each  side  of  the 
four  basal  rings  of  the  abdomen,  surmounted  by  fine  hairs. 
It  does  not  spin  a  cocoon  but  hangs  loosely  by  a  few  silken 
threads  within  the  pitcher-like  leaf,  and  the  moth  is  the  only 
insect  that  can  get  out  of  the  bristly  and  narrow  opening  of 
the  "pitcher." 

The  little  slender-bodied  genus  Erastria  has  filiform  antennae 
and  a  slender  crested  abdomen,  with  the  usual  lines  and  dots 
quite  distinct.  The  larva  is  smooth  and  slender,  with  only 
three  pairs  of  abdominal  legs.  The  pupa  is  enclosed  in  a  co- 
coon among  leaves  or  moss.  E.  carneola  Guenee  is  a  common 
species,  with  the  outer  edge  of  the  fore  wings  flesh  colored. 

In  Breplws  the  hind  wings  are  bright  orange,  the  body  is 
hairy  and  the  antennae  are  ciliated ;  the  abdomen  is  slender, 
and  the  wings  are  broader  than  usual.  The  larva  is  smooth, 
elongate,  with  sixteen  legs,  though  the  first  two  abdominal 
pairs  are  useless  for  walking,  hence  the  larva  has  a  semi- 
looping  gait.  It  feeds  on  trees  and  makes  a  slight  cocoon 
in  moss  or  under  bark.  B.  infans  Moschler  inhabits  Labrador 
and  New  England.  It  flies  early  in  April  before  the  snow  has 
left  the  ground. 

Catocala  is  a  beautiful  genus,  the  species  being  numerous 
in  this  country  and  of  very  large  size,  often  expanding  three 
inches  or  more ;  the  wings  are  broad,  and  in  repose  form  a 
very  flat  roof.  The  larva  is  elongate,  slender,  flattened  beneath 
and  spotted  with  black,  attenuated  at  each  end,  with  fleshy 
filaments  on  the  sides  above  the  legs,  while  the  head  is  flat- 
tened and  rather  forked  above.  It  feeds  on  trees  and  rests 


317 

attached  to  the  trunks.  The  pupa  is  covered  with  a  bluish 
efflorescence,  enclosed  in  a  slight  cocoon  of  silk,  spun  amongst 
leaves  or  bark.  C.  piatrix  Grote  is  brown  on  the  anterior 
wings  and  varied  with  black,  while  the  hind  wings  are  yellow 
with  a  broad  median  and  marginal  band.  It  is  common  in  the 
Middle  and  Eastern  States. 

C.  ultronia  Hiibner  (Plate  8,  fig.  4 ;  a,  larva)  expands  two 
and  a  half  inches  and  is  of  a  rich  umber  color,  with  a  broad 
ash  stripe  along  the  middle  of  the  wings,  not  extending  to- 
wards the  apex,  which  is  brown.  The  hind  wings  are  deep  red, 
dusky  at  base,  with  a  median  black  band,  and  beyond  is  a  red 
band  a  little  broader  than  the  dark  one,  while  a  little  less  than 
the  outer  third  of  the  wing  is  blackish.  The  larva  feeds  on 
the  Canada  plum.  It  is  gray  with  black  punctures,  and  the 
head  is  edged  with  black.  The  segments  are  transversely 
wrinkled,  and  on  each  one  are  two  whitish  and  two  brownish 
papillae ;  the  two  brown  ones  on 
the  eleventh  ring  are  much  en- 
larged,  and  on  the  ninth  ring  is  a 
small  brownish  horn.  On  the 
sides  of  the  body,  before  the  spir- 
acles is  a  line  of  light  pink  fila-  Fi£-  247- 
ments  fringing  the  scalloped  sides.  On  July  15th  the  larva 
changed  to  a  chrysalis  in  an  earthen  cocoon,  and  the  moth  ap- 
peared on  the  2d  of  August. 

Drasteria  is  a  small,  grayish  moth,  with  two  gemmate  black 
dots  near  the  apex,  and  a  broad  diffuse  line  on  the  fore  wing. 
The  larva  is  a  looper,  and  the  body  is  attenuated  at  each  end. 
D.  erechtea  Cramer  flies  very  abundantly  in  grass  lands  in  May 
and  early  summer.  Mr.  Saunders  informs  me  that  the  larva 
(Fig.  247)  is  "one  and  a  quarter  inches  long  and  walks 
like  a  geometer ;  the  body  is  thickest  in  the  middle,  being 
somewhat  smaller  towards  the  head,  but  tapering  much 
more  posteriorly,  while  the  head  is  not  large  and  is  rather 
flattened  in  front  and  is  pale  brown,  with  darker  longi- 
tudinal lines.  The  body  above  is  reddish  brown,  with  many 
longitudinal  darker  lines  and  stripes ;  there  is  a  double  whitish 
dorsal  line,  with  a  stripe  on  each  side  of  the  darker  shade, 
another  stripe  of  the  same  hue  on  each  side  close  to  the  stig- 


318  LEPIDOPTERA. 

mata,  and  between  these  stripes  are  faint  longitudinal  lines. 
It  fed  on  clover  and  went  into  the  chrysalis  state  Sept.  21st." 

The  two  remaining  genera  have  broad  wings,  and  are  black- 
ish, with  numerous  transverse  waved  lines.  The  edges  of  the 
wings  are  scalloped,  the  palpi  are  very  long,  and  the  head  nar- 
row between  the  eyes,  thus  showing  their  affinities  to  the 
Phalcenidce.  The  species  of  Homoptera  are  of  a  dark  ash 
color.  H.  lunata  Drury  has  a  lunate  discal  spot. 

Erebus  is  a  gigantic  moth,  with  the  outer  margin  very 
oblique  and  a  large,  incised,  discal  spot  and  sublunate  margi- 
nal spots.  Our  large,  blackish  species,  dark  as  night,  is  Ere- 
bus odora  Drury  ;  it  expands  about  five  inches.  The  magnifi- 
cent, pale  gray  Erebus  Agrippina  Cramer  (E.  strix  of 
Fabricius)  inhabits  Brazil  ;  it  expands  nearly  ten  inches. 


Latreille  (Gfeometridce)  .  The  Geometrids  are 
easily  known  by  their  slender,  finely  scaled  bodies  and  broad 
thin  wings,  which  in  repose  are  not  folded  roof-like  over  the 
body,  but  are  spread  horizontally  and  scarcely  overlap  each 
other.  The  antennae  are  usually  pectinated.  They  are  deli- 
cate, pale,  often  greenish  or  yellowish  moths,  and  fly  more  by 
day  than  the  Noctuids.  The  palpi  are  short  and  slender,  and 
the  tongue,  or  maxilla?,  is  weak  and  short. 

The  larvae  rarely  have  more  than  ten  legs,  some  having  four- 
teen, and  a  few  (Metrocampa  and  Ellopia)  twelve.  Thus  from 
the  absence  of  legs  on  the  basal  rings  of  the  abdomen,  the  larvae 
are  loopers,  or  geometers,  as  grasping  the  object  on  which  they 
are  walking  with  their  fore  legs,  they  bring  the  hind  legs  close 
up  to  the  fore  legs,  thus  making  a  loop  like  the  Greek  letter 
Omega.  They  usually  let  themselves  down  by  spinning  a 
silken  thread,  hence  they  are  sometimes  called  "Drop-worms." 
When  about  to  pupate,  the  larva  either  spins  a  slight,  loose, 
silken  cocoon,  or  conceals  itself  under  a  covering  of  leaves 
fastened  together  with  silk,  or  buries  itself  in  the  ground 
without  any  cocoon,  while  Harris  states  that  a  very  few  fasten 
themselves  to  the  stems  of  plants  and  are  changed  to  chrysa- 
lids,  which  hang  naked  and  suspended  by  the  tail.  The  pupa 
is  long,  slender,  conical,  generally  smooth,  sometimes  with 
lateral  protuberances  on  the  head,  and  usually  dark  brown,  but 


PHAI^GNIM).  319 

often  variegated.  The  species,  of  which  there  are  about  1,800 
described,  are  widely  distributed,  and  more  are  found  in  the 
arctic  regions  than  of  the  preceding  family. 

We  place  at  the  head  of  this  family  the  genus  Urania  and 
its  allies.  From  their  large  size,  splendid  colors,  swallow- 
tailed  wings,  the  fore  pair  of  which  are  elongated  towards  the 
tips,  while  the  outer  edge  is  very  oblique,  as  in  Papilio ;  their 
habit  of  flying  by  day  and  other  resemblances  to  the  butter- 
flies Latreille  placed  them  among  the  butterflies  immediately 
after  the  Hesperians.  They  have  also  been  supposed  to  belong 
to  the  same  group  as  Castnia,  but  the  shape  of  the  head,  the 
long  geometriform  antennae,  the  palpi  and  the  conical  pupa  and 
other  characters  ally  them  with  the  Urapteryx  and  the  higher 
Phalsenidae.  Urania  Leilus  is  velvet  black,  the  fore  wings 
crossed  by'  emerald  green  striae,  and  the  hind  edge  of  the  hind 
wings  are  banded  with  light  blue  and  golden,  while  the  fringe 
and  long  tail  are  white.  It  is  found  in  Surinam  and  Brazil. 

Urapteryx  is  a  true  Geometrid,  with  very  square  hind  wings 
extending  beyond  the  abdomen,  with  their  outer  margin  pro- 
longed into  a  short  tail.  U.  politia  Cramer  is  a  yellow  species 
found  in  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies.  The  larva  of  the 
European  U.  sambucaria  feeds  on  the  oak,  elder,  bramble, 
etc.,  and  is  elongate,  with  projections  from  the  eighth  and 
twelfth  segments.  The  pupa  is  elongate  and  enclosed  in  a  net- 
like  cocoon  suspended  by  threads. 

In  Choerodes  the  hind  wings  are  still  angulated,  the  angle 
reaching  beyond  the  tips  of  the  abdomen ;  the  falcate  apex  of 
the  fore  wings  is  acute,  and  the  outer  margin  is  entire  and 
angulated  just  above  the  middle.  The  species  are  usually  pale 
ochreous,  with  short  transverse  strigae  and  two  darker  lines, 
the  outer  one  of  which  is  obtusely  angulated  just  before  the 
apex.  G.  transversata  Drury  is  a  pale  ochreous  species,  which 
we  have  found  resting  on  red  maple  leaves. 

The  genus  Angerona  comprises  the  single  species  A.  croca- 
tana  Fabr.,  the  larva  of  which  (Plate  8,  fig.  5  a)  we  have  found 
feeding  on  the  cultivated  strawberry  during  the  last  of  June. 
It  is  an  inch  and  a  half  long  and  when  at  rest  extends  itself 
straight  out.  The  body  gradually  increases  in  size  to  the  first 
pair  of  abdominal  legs.  The  head  is  flattened  so  as  to  be 


320  LEPIDOPTERA. 

square  above,  and  whitish  green,  with  three  longitudinal  brown 
lines.  The  prothoracic  ring  is  concolorous  with  the  head,  from 
which  two  brown  lines  extend,  forming  an  inverted  V  on  the 
hinder  edge.  The  body  is  pale  grass  green  above,  with  the 
sides  bulging.  There  are  four  minute  black  dots  on  each  ring, 
a  whitish,  indistinct  subdorsal  line,  and  a  lateral  white  line  ex- 
tending to  the  sides  of  the  anal  legs.  The  body  is  greenish 
white.  The  moth  (Plate  8,  fig.  5,  male)  is  of  a  rich  yellow, 
with  brown  patches  on  the  wings,  and  appears  in  July. 

In  Endropia,  which  is  closely  allied  to  Choerodes,  the  outer 
edge  of  the  wings  is  deeply  notched.  E.  tigrinaria  Guenee 
is  dirty  ochreous,  the  wings  being  sprinkled  with  black ;  the 
outer  line  is  nearly  straight,  ferruginous,  paler  within,  with 
some  submarginal  spots,  and  the  basal  line  on  the  fore  wings 
is  angulated,  while  the  apex  is  pale  and  margined'  externally 
with  blackish. 

Metrocampa  is  pearly  white,  with  the  wings  a  little  bent  in 
the  middle.  M.  perlata  Guen.  is  pure  white,  with  two  darker 
oblique  lines  not  angulated  ;  it  is  found  not  uncommonly  north- 
ward. The  larva  of  the  English  M.  margaritata  has  twelve 
legs,  and  like  Catocala  has  fleshy  filaments  on  the  sides  just 
above  the  legs.  The  pupa  lives  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

Ellopia  has  pectinated  antennae  and  exceedingly  thin  trans- 
parent wings,  which  are  angulated  in  the  middle  of  the  outer 
edge,  and  with  an  inner  and  outer  line,  the  latter  bent  nearly 
at  right  angles.  The  larva  has  twelve  legs,  but  is  smooth. 
The  English  E.  fasdaria  feeds  on  firs.  Ellopia  flagitiaria 
Guenee  is  pale  ashen  ochreous,  with  the  speckles  and  two  bands 
pale  brown.  It  expands  from  six  to  eighteen  lines. 

In  Caberodes  the  antennae  are  broadly  pectinated,  and  the 
apex  of  the  fore  wings  is  nearly  rectangular.  The  species 
are  pale  ochreous  with  thick  wings,  and  the  outer  line  termi- 
nates near  the  apex.  C.  metrocamparia  Guenee  is  common 
northwards;  with  a  blackish  discal  dot  and  outer  dusky  line 
arcuated  and  margined  with  white. 

The  genus  Nematocampa  is  characterized  by  the  four  fila- 
ments on  the  back  of  the  larva.  N.  Jilamentaria  Guen.  (Plate 
8,  fig.  7 ;  7  a,  larva)  is  a  small  moth  of  a  pale  ochreous  color, 
with  reddish  brown  lines  and  dots,  a  ring  in  the  discal  space, 


PHAL^NIDJS.  321 

and  just  beyond  a  dark  lead-colored  band  which  becomes  a 
broad  squarish  patch  on  the  inner  angle,  and  which  is  continu- 
ous with  a  broad  band  of  the  same  color  on  the  hind  wings. 
It  expands  three  quarters  of  an  inch.  Its  singular  larva  we 
have  found  feeding,  late  in  June,  on  the  strawberry.  It  is  .70 
of  an  inch  long,  cylindrical  and  with  two  pairs  of  long  curled 
filaments,  situated  on  the  third  and  fifth  abdominal  rings  re- 
spectively ;  its  general  color  is  wood  gray,  and  the  pupa  is 
pale  reddish  gray.  The  moth  appeared  on  the  27th  of  July. 

The  genus  Abraxas,  to  which  our  currant  worm  belongs,  may 
be  known  by  the  whitish  or  ochreous  wings  being  covered  with 
dark,  often  partially  transparent  blotches,  and  the  larva  being 
gaily  speckled  with  black  and  golden  spots.  A.  ribearia  Fitch 
is  ochre-yellow,  with  two  rows  of  dark  spots,  the  inner  row  be- 
ing incomplete  and  the  outer  row  with  a  large  blotch  in  the 
middle  of  the  wings.  As  soon  as  the  leaves  of  the  currant 
and  gooseberry  are  fairly  expanded,  late  in  May  or  early 
in  June,  the  young  caterpillar  may  be  found  busily  eating 
them.  In  about  three  weeks  after  hatching  it  becomes 
fully  grown,  being  about  an  inch  long,  and  bright  yellow 
with  black  dots.  The  chrysalis  may  be  found  under  the 
bushes,  either  upon  the  ground  or  just  under  the  surface. 
In  two  weeks  after  pupating  the  yellowish  moth  may  be  seen 
flying  about  the  garden.  Riley  states  that  by  sprinkling 
powdered  hellebore  upon  the  leaves,  or  applying  a  solution  of 
eight  or  twelve  ounces  to  a  bucket  of  water,  the  larvae  will 
be  killed,  while  hand-picking  and  shaking  the  bushes  will  also 
reduce  their  numbers. 

The  genus  Ennomos  is  stouter  and  much  more  hairy  than 
any  of  the  preceding  genera  ;  the  antennae  are  well  pectinated 
in  the  male,  the  wings  are  not  so  broad  as  usual  and  are  den- 
tate. The  larva  is  rather  long  and  twig-like,  either  smooth  or 
humped,  and  spins  a  cocoon  consisting  of  leaves  drawn  to- 
gether by  silk.  E.  magnaria  Guen.  is  yellow,  punctured  with 
black,  with  two  dusky  lines,  and  the  fringe  is  partly  blackish. 
E.  subsignaria  Hiibner  (Fig.  248,  moth ;  Plate  8,  fig.  6,  larva) 
is  a  delicate,  white,  widely  distributed  species,  and  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  where  it  is  free  from  the  attacks  of  its  natural 
enemies,  it  is  very  destructive  to  the  elm  trees. 
21 


322  LEPIDOPTEKA. 

A  writer  in  the  "Practical  Entomologist"  (vol.  i,  p.  57)  states 
that  the  caterpillars  are  hatched  as  soon  as  the  leaves  unfold, 
and  live  unobserved  for  a  week  or  so  in  the  young  shoots  in 
the  tree-tops,  and  when  half  grown  are  seen  crawling  about  the 
tree.  Towards  the  end  of  June  they  pupate,  and  in  about  a 
week  after  the  moth  appears.  The  importation  of  the  English 
sparrow  is  said  to  have  very  effectually  checked  the  ravages  of 
this  caterpillar,  which  may  be  recognized  by  its  resemblance  to 
the  twigs  of  the  tree  on  which  it  feeds,  while  its  rather  large 
head  and  the  terminal  ring  of  the  body  are  bright  red. 

In  Amphidasys  the  body  is  very  stout  and  the  triangular 
wings  are  inclined  to  be  small  (in  Nyssia,  an  European  genus, 
the  female  has  minute  rudimentary  wings)  and  narrow,  while 
the  antennae  are  broadly  pectinated.     The  larva  is  stout,  twig- 
like,   being    dark    brown    and 
warted ;   it  is  swollen  at  each 
end,  and  the  head  is  often  bifid. 
The  pupa  is  subterranean.  Such 
are  the  habits  of  A.  cognataria 
Guen.  which  is  white  and  very 
thickly    sprinkled    with    ashy 
black.       We  have   found    the 
larva  feeding  on  the  ' '  Missouri 
Figt  248<  currant,"   the  gooseberry,  and 

the  red  Spiraea.     It  went  into  the  pupa  state  on  the  22d  of 
September. 

Boarmia  has  pectinated  antennae,  the  tip  being  generally 
simple,  while  the  abdomen  is  rather  slender  and  the  wings  are 
dusky  gray  and  crossed  by  dentate  lines.  The  larva  is  twig- 
like,  elongate,  with  small  humps  and  lateral  projections,  and 
lives  on  trees.  The  pupa  is  subterranean.  B.  gnopharia  Guen. 
is  ashen,  the  wings  clouded  with  fuscous,  and  dusted  with  black 
scales,  with  four  black  dentate  lines.  A  species  of  Boarmia, 
figured  by  Mr.  Glover,  "eats  the  flowers  of  the  cotton,  being 
found  early  in  October."  The  larva  is  of  the  same  thickness 
throughout,  with  a  rather  large  head  angulated  above,  and  two 
tubercles  near  the  tip.  It  is  brown,  with  a  double  lateral 
pale  stripe.  The  chrysalis  is  brown  and  enclosed  in  an  under- 
ground cocoon.  The  moth  expands  nearly  an  inch  and  a  half, 


and  is  ash  colored,  sprinkled  densely  with  brown  speckles,  with 
three  angulated,  transverse,  black  stripes. 

Geometra  and  its  allies  (Nemoria,  lodis,  and  Racheospila) , 
have  smooth,  round  or  angular,  entire  wings,  which  are  green, 
often  with  whitish  lines.  Geometra  is  the  largest  genus;  "it 
has  pectinated  antennae,  and  the  larva  is  rather  short,  downy, 
with  several  dorsal  humps.  The  pupa  is  enclosed  in  a  trans- 
parent cocoon  amongst  moss."  (Stainton.)  G.  iridaria  Guen. 
is  pea  green,  with  two  broad  bands,  and  the  costa  of  the  fore 
wings  is  white  sprinkled  with  rust  red. 

A  great  many  species,  often  difficult  to  identify  from  the 
sameness  in  their  markings,  are  comprised  in  the  genus  Adda- 
lia,  which  is  known  by  its  rather  thin  wings,  with  the  edges 
usually  entire,  and  with  stripes  and  bands  and  other  markings 
common  to  both.  The  hind  wings  are  often  slightly  angulated. 
The  larva  is  smooth,  slender,  and  feeds  concealed  under  low 
plants.  The  pupa  is  subterranean,  or  lives  in  a  cocoon  among 
leaves.  A.  nivosaria  Guen.  is  pure  white.  A.  enudeata  Guen. 
is  whitish  yellow ;  its  wings  are  speckled  with  brown,  and 
with  pale  lines  and  submarginal  spots. 

Macaria  is  easily  recognized  by  its  falcate  wings,  which 
have  a  rounded  excavation  below  the  hooked  tip,  and  there  is 
a  rather  prominent  angle  on  the  hind  wings. 
There  are  usually  two  large  blotches,  one  in 
the  middle  of  the  wing,  and  the  other  on  the 
outer  third  of  the  costa.  The  larva  is  rather 
short  and  smooth,  and  feeds  on  trees  and  Fig.  249. 
shrubs.  The  pupa  is  protected  by  a  cocoon.  M.  granitoid. 
Guen.  is  gray,  with  indistinct  darker  bands  and  minute  black 
speckles,  with  a  rust  red  costal  spot  in  front  of  a  black  discal 
spot.  ';-4h: 

Zerene  is  a  beautiful  genus,  with  feathery  antennae  and  broad, 
thin,  white  wings.  Z.  catenaria  Drury  is  white  with  black 
discal  dots,  and  two  black  scalloped  lines.  The  larva  is  a  gen- 
eral feeder,  eating  sedges,  the  goldenrod,  blueberry,  waxwork, 
and  according  to  Mr.  Fish,  is  injurious  to  the  cranberry.  It  is 
a  pretty  caterpillar  (Fig.  249)  and  is  straw  colored,  the  seg- 
ments being  wrinkled  and  thickened,  with  two  subdorsal  darker 
threads  ;  the  head  is  yellow  with  six  black  dots  ;  the  spiracles 


824  LEPIDOPTERA. 

are  black,  situated  in  a  white  field,  and  with  a  black  dot  on 
each  side.  In  Maine  it  pupates  about  the  middle  of  August, 
making  a  thin  gauzy  cocoon,  consisting  of  yellowish  green 
silken  threads.  The  pupa  is  white,  with  scattered  black  dots 
and  black  stripes ;  it  remains  thirty-two  days  in  the  pupa 
state,  the  moth  appearing  during  the  middle  of  September. 

In  Anisoptery'x  the  male  antennae  are  simply  pubescent,  the 
wings  are  ample,  and  rounded  at  the  tip,  while  the  hind  wings 
are  rounded.  The  female  is  wingless,  the  head  small  and  the 
body  is  oval.  The  male  of  A.  vernata  Peck  (Plate  8,  fig.  9 ; 
9  a,  female ;  9&,  larva),  the  moth  of  the  Canker  worm,  is  ash 
colored,  with  a  whitish  costal  spot  near  the  tip  of  the  fore 
wings  which  are  crossed  by  two  jagged  whitish  bands  dotted 
with  black  on  the  outside  ;  they  expand  about  one  inch  and  a 
quarter.  In  the  early  spring  and  late  in  autumn  the  male  flies 
about  and  couples  with  the  wingless  female,  which  lays  a  patch 
of  short,  cylindrical  eggs,  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  or  more, 
arranged  in  rows,  and  glued  to  the  surface  of  the  bark.  The 
larvae  hatch  from  the  first  to  the  middle  of  May,  or  as  Harris 
states,  about  the  time  of  the  flowering  of  the  red  currant,  and 
the  leaving  out  of  the  apple  tree.  Almost  before  the  presence 
of  the  larvae  is  known  they  often  nearly  strip  an  orchard  of  its 
leaves.  They  also  attack  the  cherry,  plum,  elm,  and  other 
trees  and  shrubs.  The  canker  worm  (Plate  8,  fig.  96)  when 
mature  is  about  an  inch  long,  ash  colored  on  the  back,  black 
on  the  sides,  and  beneath  yellowish.  It  varies  greatly  in  the 
intensity  of  its  markings.  It  ceases  eating  when  four  weeks 
old,  and  late  in  June  creeps  down,  or  lets  itself  down  by  a 
thread,  and  burrowing  from  two  to  six  inches  in  the  loose  earth, 
there  forms  a  rude  earthen  cocoon,  fastening  the  grains  of  earth 
together  with  silk.  Twenty-four  hours  after  the  cocoon  is  fin- 
ished the  worm  becomes  a  chrysalid,  which,  in  the  male,  is 
slender,  rather  pointed  in  front  and  light  brown  in  color.  Com- 
ing forth  in  the  autumn  and  following  spring,  its  progress  up 
the  tree  can  be  arrested  by  the  application  of  coal  oil  or  prin- 
ter's ink,  by  the  well  known  methods,  around  the  trunk,  while 
the  bunches  of  eggs  should  be  picked  off  and  burnt.  The  A. 
pometaria  Harris  is  as  abundant  as  A.  vernata ;  it  has  thinner 
wings,  wanting  the  whitish  bands  and  spot,  and  having  an 


325 

oblique,  dusky,  apical  line.  We  are  inclined  to  think  that  it  is 
simply  a  variety  of  A.  vernata.  Harris  has  detected  an  ich- 
neumon parasite  which  preys  upon  the  canker  worm,  and  a 
species  of  Tachina  also  attacks  the  caterpillars,  and  we  have 
noticed  a  minute  species  of  Platygaster  (Fig.  134),  first  dis- 
covered by  Herrick,  ovipositing  in  its  eggs.  The  Calosomas 
also  devour  them,  and  probably  other  ground  beetles  ;  and  cer- 
tain wasps  (Eumenes)  store  their  nests  with  them.  (Harris.) 

Allied  to  the  canker  worm  is  the  Hybernia  tiliaria  Harris,  the 
male  of  which  is  much  larger  and  has  feathered  antennae.  The 
female  is  larger  and  slenderer  than  that  of  the  canker  worm, 
and  along  the  back  are  two  rows  of  black  dots  on  a  pale  gray- 
ish ground.  The  moth  flies  late  in  the  autumn.  The  larva  is 
bright  yellow,  with  ten  crinkled  black  lines  along  the  top  of  the 
back,  and  is  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  length.  It  feeds  on  the 
lime,  apple  and  elm,  and  is  sometimes  very  destructive. 

Eupithecia  is  a  diminutive  form,  with  very  small  rounded 
hind  wings,  while  the  fore  wings  are  much  elongated  towards 
the  apex,  and  at  rest  both  pairs  are  spread  out  and  pressed 
closely  to  the  surface  on  which  the  moth  rests.  The  larva  is 
rather  short,  stiff,  often  marked  with  dorsal  lozenges,  and  the 
head  is  small  and  rounded.  It  feeds  on  trees  or  low  plants ; 
sometimes  on  seeds  of  plants.  The  pupa  is  slender,  conical  and 
pointed.  E.  miserulata  Grote  is  clear  silky  grayish,  with  a 
black  interrupted  outer  line  and  a  grayish  fringe,  interrupted 
with  black. 

Cidaria  numbers  many  species  in  which  the  antennae  of  the 
male  is  simple  or  slightly  pubescent,  and  the  fore  wings  are 
rather  pointed  at  the  tip,  while  the  hind  wings  are  rounded. 
The  larva  is  elongate  and  slender,  with  the  head  often  notched. 
It  feeds  on  trees  or  shrubs,  and  the  pupa  is  of  variegated 
colors.  Cidaria  diversilineata  Hiibn.  (Plate  8,  fig.  10,  10a, 
larva)  is  yellowish  ochreous,  with  brownish  angular  lines,  and 
at  rest  the  abdomen  is  curved  over  the  back.  Mr.  Saimders 
has  found  the  larva  feeding  on  the  woodbine.  According  to 
his  notes  "the  body  above  is  dark  brown,  with  a  slightly 
reddish  tint,  and  patches  of  a  darker  shade  along  the  dorsal 
region,  being  the  color  of  the  twigs  of  its  food  plant.  It 
remains  in  the  pupa  state  about  a  week."  We  have  also 


326  LEPIDOPTERA. 

found  both  brown  and  green  specimens  feeding  on  the  grape 
vine  in  midsummer.  The  worms  can  be  removed  by  hand-pick- 
ing as  they  are  rather  conspicuous  objects.  A  larva,  probably 
of  Cidaria,  has  been  found  by  Mr.  W.  C.  Fish,  stripping  the  cran- 
berry plants  in  Harwich,  Mass.,  late  in  August.  Mr.  Fish 
writes,  "I  have  never  met  them  that  I  am  aware  of  before,  but 
on  one  bog  in  this  place  they  destroyed  nearly  two  acres  of 
cranberry  vines,  eating  off  all  the  green  leaves,  the  bog  being 
as  black  in  spots  as  though  a  fire  had  been  over  it."  They 
were  not  numerous  elsewhere  in  that  town,  but  may  prove  at 
times  to  be  a  great  pest  to  cranberry  growers.  We  failed  to 
rear  the  larvae  sent  by  Mr.  Fish.  They  are  about  the  size  of 
the  canker  worm.  The  head,  which  is  no  wider  than  the  rest 
of  the  body,  is  deeply  indented,  on  each  side  rising  into  a  tu- 
bercle ;  the  anal  plate  is  long,  acute,  and  beneath  it  are  two 
minute  acute  tubercles,  tinged  with  reddish.  It  is  dull  reddish 
brown,  simulating  the  color  of  the  twigs  of  the  cranberry,  and  is 
finely  lineated  with  still  darker  lines.  The  head  is  speckled  with 
brown,  with  a  conspicuous  transverse  band  across  the  vertex, 
and  two  rows  of  pale  spots  across  the  front.  Just  above  the 
spiracles  is  a  broad  dusky  band.  Beneath,  the  bod}^  is  paler, 
with  a  mesial  clear  line  edged  with  brown.  It  is  .80  of  an  inch 
in  length.  Mr.  Fish  states  that  the  owner  of  the  bog  flowed'  it 
with  water  so  that  it  was  completely  covered  and  the  worms 
were  killed.  This  is  a  rapid  and  the  most  effectual  way  to  ex- 
terminate insects  ravaging  cranberry  lots. 

PYRALID^E  Latreille.  The  Snout-moths,  so  called  from  their 
very  long  and  slender  compresse'd  palpi,  are  very  easily  recog- 
nized by  this  character  alone.  The  more  typical  forms  have 
triangular  fore  wings,  and  a  slender  abdomen  and  long 
slender  legs,  the  front  pair  of  which  are  often  tufted.  They 
are  usually  dull  ash  gray,  with  a  marked  silken  lustre.  The 
larger  genera,  Hypena  and  Herminia,  etc.,  are  called  Deltoids, 
as  when  at  rest  the  wings  form  a  triangle  of  the  form  of  the 
Greek  letter  Delta.  Their  antennae  are  sometimes  pectinated 
in  the  male.  They  are  usually  gregarious  in  their  habits,  and 
often  extremely  local.  They  haunt  moist  grassy  places,  are 
readily  disturbed  by  day,  and  fly  before  dusk,  while  some  are 


PYRALIDJ3.  327 

true  day-fliers.  The  larvae  are  generally  known  by  their  remark- 
ably glassy  appearance,  and  the  few  hairs  on  them  have  an  un- 
usually bristly  look.  Many  spin  a  cocoon.  The  pupa  is  long, 
slender,  and  conical. 

The  largest  form  is  Hypena,  in  which  the  male  antennae  are 
hairy,  and  the  palpi  are  long,  ascending,  and  the  fore  legs  are 
not  tufted,  and  there  are  often  slight  tufts  of  raised  scales  on 
the  fore  wings.  The  larva  is  elongate,  cylindrical,  with  four- 
teen legs,  and  feeds  on  low  or  climbing  plants,  making  a  slight 
cocoon  among  leaves. 

The  Hop  vine  moth,  H.  humuli  Harris  (Fig.  250 ;  a,  larva 
and  pupa)  is  very  destructive  to  the  hop.  It  is  marbled  with 
gray  beyond  the  middle  of  the  fore  wings,  with  a  distinct 
oblique  gray  spot  on  the  tip ;  they  are  crossed  by  two  wavy 
blackish  lines  formed  of  elevated  black  tufts,  and  there  are  two 
similar  tufts  in  the  middle  of  the  wings  ;  it  expands  one  inch 
and  a  quarter.  The  ^^  ^  ^  ,  /^^ 
larva  is  glassy  pea- 
green.  The  body  is 
long  and  slender, 
with  rather  convex 
rings,  and  with  long 
sparse  hairs.  The  head  is  rather  large  and  deeply  divided  inta 
two  lobes  by  the  median  suture ;  it  is  a  little  more  yellowish 
green  than  the  body,  which  tapers  gradually  towards  the  tail, 
while  the  anal  legs  are  long  and  slender,  there  being  but  two 
pairs  of  abdominal  legs,  so  that  the  caterpillar  walks  with  a 
looping  gait.  The  body  is  striped  with  a  narrow  whitish  line, 
edged  broadly  below  with  dusky,  and  with  two  white  lines  on 
the  sides  of  the  body,  though  specimens  vary  in  the  number  of 
lines,  some  having  no  lateral  whitish  stripes.  It  is  .45  of  an 
inch  in  length.  When  half  grown  the  larva  is  pale  livid  flesh 
color,  not  greenish,  with  a  broad  dark  dorsal  line,  bounded  on 
each  side  by  a  whitish  line.  It  is  double-brooded,  the  first  lot 
of  caterpillars  appearing  in  May  and  June,  the  moths  coming 
out  late  in  June  and  early  in  July ;  while  the  second  brood  of 
larvae  appear  in  July  and  August,  the  moth  flying  in  Septem- 
ber. It  is  very  active,  leaping  off  the  leaf  to  the  ground  when 
disturbed.  When  fully  grown  it  forms  a  loose  silken  cocoon 


icicue  01  tne  wings ;  it 


328 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


within  a  folded  leaf  or  any  crevice,  the  moth  appearing  in  three 
•weeks.  We  have  raised  a  species  of  Tachina  from  the  pupa. 
The  vine  ghould  be  showered  with  a  solution  of  whale  oil,  and 
soapsuds,  and  the  plants  shaken  to  rid  them  of  these  pests. 
Herminia  differs  from  Hypena  in  its  tufted  fore  legs ;  the 
larva  is  short,  slender  towards  each  end,  covered  with  small 
spots ;  it  has  sixteen  legs,  and  feeds  concealed  among  dry 
leaves,  making  a  narrow  cocoon  among  them.  H.  jucchusi- 
alis  Guenee  is  one  of  our  most  common  species. 

Pyralis  has  narrow  wings,  the  fore  wings  being  oblong,  with 
distinct  lines,  and  the  palpi  are  short,  ascending.  The  Meal 
moth,  P.  farinalis  Harris,  is  reddish  gray  at  the  base  and  hind 
edge  of  the  fore  wings,  becoming  more  reddish  towards  the  tip, 

with  two  whitish  cross 
lines,  the  space  between 
being  ochreous.  The 
larva  is  dull  whitish,  with 
a  reddish  brown  head, 
and  having  reddish  pro- 
thoracic  and  anal  plates. 
It  feeds  on  straw  and 
corn,  and  Mr.  Riley  has 
found  it  feeding  on  clover. 
The  Clover  worm, 
or  Asopia  costalis  Fabr. 
(Fig.  251 ;  1,  2,  larva  in 
different  positions;  3,  7,  cocoon;  4,  pupa;  5,  6,  moth),  ac- 
cording to  Riley,  "  attacks  and  spoils  clover  for  feeding  pur- 
poses, both  in  the  stack  and  mow,  by  interweaving  and 
covering  it  with  abundant  white  silken  webs  and  black  excre- 
ment that  much  resembles  coarse  gunpowder.  The  parent  of 
these  clover  worms  is  a  pretty  little  lilac-colored  moth,  with 
wide  golden  fringes,"  and  has  been  introduced  from  Europe. 
The  moths  fly  late  in  June  and  in  July,  and  they  creep  into  all 
parts  of  the  stack,  as  the  larvae  have  been  found  eight  feet  from 
the  ground,  though  they  are  mostly  found  at  the  bottom.  The 
larva  is  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long  and  is  dull  dark  brown, 
with  an  olivaceous  hue.  Mr.  Riley  thinks  there  are  several 
broods  through  the  year,  and  suggests  as  a  preventative  to 


PYRALID^.  329 

stack  the  clover  on  a  good  log  or  rail  foundation  so  as  to  allow 
the  air  to  pass  up  through  from  beneath. 

In  Aglossa  pinguinalis  Harris,  the  Grease  moth,  the  palpi  are 
rather  long,  the  fore  wings  are  grayish  brown  clouded  with  a 
darker  hue,  and  are  crossed  by  two  indented  lines.  The  larva 
is  of  an  uniform  dark  brown,  with  a  darker  head  and  protho- 
racic  plate,  and  feeds  on  greasy  horse  clothes,  etc. 

Another  species  of  Aglossa  (perhaps  A.  cuprealis)  has  been 
sent  me  by  Prof.  A.  E.  Verrill,  who  writes  me  that  the  larva  does 
great  damage  to  the  old  leather  -bound  volumes  in  the  library 
of  Yale  College,  by  eating  out  great  patches  and  galleries  in 
the  leather  covers,  and  also,  in  some  cases,  some  of  the  glue 
and  pasteboard.  It  spins  a  silken  cocoon.  The  moth  (Plate  8, 
fig.  20)  differs  from  A.  pinguinalis  by  the  hind  wings  being 
pale  whitish  gray,  instead  of  grayish  brown.  The  palpi  have 
the  third  joint  one-third  as  long  as  the  second.  It  is  pale 
brown,  with  a  slight  reddish 
tinge,  and  the  wings  are 
crossed  by  two  pale  bands, 
with  several  pale  costal 
spots.  The  outer  band  is 
heaviest  on  the  costa  and 
inner  angle,  and  faint  in  Fig.  252. 

the  middle  of  the  wing.     The  hind  wings  are  pale,  shining 
whitish,  with  no  bands.     It  expands  .90  of  an  inch. 

In  Europe,  Mr.  Curtis  states,  the  Apliomia  colonella  Linn. 
(Fig.  252)  which  also  occurs  with  us,  is  a  formidable  foe  of  the 
humble  bee,  feeding  upon  its  honey.  When  fully  fed  it  spins  a 
tough  web  of  a  close  woolly  texture,  in  which  the  caterpillar 
turns  to  a  chrysalis  (a).  "The  female  moth  creeps  into  the 
nest  in  June  to  deposit  her  eggs,  and  the  caterpillars  live  in 
families  sometimes  of  five  hundred,  to  the  total  destruction  of 
the  progeny  of  the  poor  humble  bees.  The  moths  are  of  a  dirty 
white,  the  upper  wings  have  a  greenish  and  rosy  tinge,  with  a 
line  of  black  dots  round  the  margin,  a  whitish  space  near  the 
base,  and  two  black  lines  near  the  costa  in  the  male.  The  fe- 
male has  two  distinct,  indented,  transverse  bars,  and  two  black 
spots  on  the  disc." 

Hydrocampa  and  its  allies  are  exceedingly  interesting  from 


330  LEPIDOPTEEA. 

the  aquatic  habits  of  the  larvae,  which  remind  us  of  the  Caddis 
worms.  Cataclysta  is  at  once  known  by  its  slender  body  and 
narrow  wings,  the  hinder  pair  of  which  have  a  row  of  eye-like 
spots  along  the  hind  margin.  The  larva  is  elongate,  with  a  pale 
head,  and  is  aquatic,  feeding  beneath  the  leaves  of  the  Duck 
weed,  living  in  a  cylindrical  silken  case  covered  with  leaves. 
The  pupa  has  a  long  ventral  projection,  and  is  enclosed  in  the 
case  of  the  larva.  C.  fulicalis  Clemens  has,  on  the  outer  mar- 
gin of  the  hind  wings,  a  row  of  five  black  lunules  connected 
by  intermediate  metallic  violet  blue  spots,  and  behind  them  a 
row  of  orange  yellow  dots. 

•  The  larva  of  Paraponyx  is  provided  with  branchiae  and  spira- 
cles ;  the  pupa  residing  in  a  cocoon  among  leaves  under  water. 
Hydrocampa  has  large  white  spots  on  the  outer  edge  of  the 
fore  wings.     The  larva  is  rather  thick,  attenuated  at  each  end, 
with  a  black  head.     It  is  aquatic,  living  in  a  flat  case  under 
the  leaves  of  water  lilies.     The  pupa  resem- 
bles that  of  Cataclysta. 

The   genus   Botys    (Fig.    253)    includes 
many  species,  in  which  the  conical  abdomen 
is  longer  than  the  wings,  and  the   tip  of 
Fig.  253.  the  front  pair  is  often  prolonged.   The  larva 

is  said  by  Stainton  to  be  lively,  attenuated  at  each  end  and 
semitransparent,  with  warty  spots.  It  feeds  in  rolled  up 
leaves.  The  pupa  is  elongate,  smooth,  enclosed  in  a  slight  co- 
coon among  leaves.  B.  verticalis  Albin  is  whitish,  with  the 
outer  edge  of  the  fore  wings  dark  grayish.  The  larva  feeds  on 
the  nettle.  B.  citrina  G.  and  R.  is  a  bright  yellow  species. 

The  genus  Desmia  is  at  once  known  by  its  resemblance  to 
Botys,  and  by  its  black  body  and  wings,  spotted  with  broad 
white  patches,  while  the  male  antennae  are  swollen  in  the  middle. 
D.  maculalis  Westwood,  the  Grape  leaf  folder,  is  shiny  black, 
with  a  white  fringe  on  its  wings,  which  are  spotted  in  the  mid- 
dle with  white  patches,  and  with  two  white  bands  on  the  abdo- 
men of  the  female.  It  is  found  chiefly  in  the  Southern  States, 
where  it  attacks  the  grape.  The  larva,  according  to  Riley,  who 
observed  the  moth  in  Southern  Illinois,  is  "glass-green,  and 
folds  a  leaf,  or  attaches  two,  that  may  be  close  together,  by  aid 
of  a  few  silken  threads.  It  is  very  active,  jumping  and  jerk- 


PYRALID^.  331 

ing  at  the  least  touch.  It  acquires  a  flesh-colored  hue 
prior  to  changing  to  a  chrysalis,  which  it  usually  does  just 
within  the  leaf.  Many  which  thus  changed  with  me  on  the 
21st  of  July,  became  moths  on  the  29th  of  the  same  month." 

To  the  genus  Pliycita  belongs  the  Apple  leaf  crumpler,  or 
P.  nebulo  of  Walsh,  which  in  the  West  is  known  to  strip  the 
trees  of  their  early  leaves.  It  draws  the  leaves  together  by  a 
web,  and  about  the  middle  of  June  becomes  fully  grown, 
when  it  closes  up  its  horn-like  case,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
same  month  and  early  in  July  appears  as  a  long,  narrow-winged 
moth,  somewhat  like  Nephopteryx,  but  with  broader  fore  wings. 

Nepliopteryx  is  a  genus  with  very  narrow  wings,  with  the 
male  antennae  sinuous  at  the  base.  It  feeds  on  various  trees, 
while  the  larva  of  N.  Edmandsii  Pack.  (Plate  3,  fig.  2;  2  a, 
larva ;  2  6,  pupa) ,  feeds  on  the  cells  of  the  humble  bee. 

The  genus  Myelois  closely  resembles  Nephopteryx.  Our 
most  injurious  species  is  the  Gooseberry  worm,  which  is  very 
common.  It  may  be  called  the  M. 
convolutella  (Fig.  254 ;  a,  cocoon) 
and  is  an  importation  from  Europe 
(Zeller) .  Though  familiar  with  the  in- 
sect, and  having  raised  the  moth,  our  a  Fig.  254. 
specimens  were  too  much  rubbed  for  identification,  and  we  are 
indebted  to  Mr.  Saunders  of  London,  Canada,  for  very  perfect 
specimens  of  the  moth,  and  notes  regarding  its  habits,  confirma- 
tory of  our  own  observations.  The  moth  is  pale  gray,  with  a 
dark,  transverse,  diffuse  band  on  the  inner  third  of  the  wing, 
enclosing  a  zig-zag  white  line  not  reaching  the  costa.  There  is 
a  discal  discoloration,  and  beyond,  a  white  zig-zag  line  with  a 
long,  very  acute  angle  on  the  internal  margin,  and  a  row  of 
marginal  black  dots,  while  the  apex  is  white,  and  the  veins  and 
their  branches  white ;  it  expands  nearly  an  inch.  As  soon 
as  gooseberries  and  currants  are  well  formed,  many  turn  pre- 
maturely red  and  dull  whitish,  which  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  a  pale  green,  smooth  worm,  which,  after  eating  out  the  inside 
of  one  berry,  leaving  a  hole  for  the  passage  of  the  excrement, 
enters  another  berry  making  a  passage-way  of  silk  until  it 
draws  together  a  bunch  of  currants,  or  two  or  three  gooseber- 
ries. During  the  last  of  June  it  pupates,  while  the  moth  does 


332  LEPIDOPTERA. 

not  appear  until  the  spring  of  the  following  year,  Mr.  Saun- 
ders'  specimens  having  left  the  chrysalis  May  8th. 

CrambuSj  so  abundant  throughout  the  summer  in  grass,  is  at 
once  known  by  1»he  long  narrow  wings  being  rolled  around  the 
body  in  a  tubular  form.  The  larva  has  sixteen  legs,  is  whit- 
ish or  dull  colored,  with  large  shining  spots,  and  feeds  on  moss 
in  silken  galleries.  Mr.  Saunders  has  hatched  the  larvae  from 
the  eggs.  "They  feed  readily  on  grass,  the  blades  of  which 
they  fasten  together  with  silken  threads,  under  which  they  live 
concealed  ;  they  will  also  feed  on  clover."  Crambus  mutabilis 
Clemens  is  grayish  fuscous,  the  palpi  a  little  darker,  while  the 
fore  wings  have  a  grayish  median  stripe,  not  extending  bejTond 
the  disk,  and  the  discal  dot  is  dark  brown.  It  is  a  variable  and 
a  common  species.  Other  kinds  are  variously  streaked  with 
silvery  white. 

The  Bee  moth,  Galleria,  has  rather  broad  wings,  which  are 
indented  on  the  outer  edge.  G.  cereana  Fabr.  (Plate  8,  fig. 
11)  is  dusky  gray,  streaked  with  purple  brown  on  the  outer 
edge,  with  a  few  dark  brown  spots  on  the  inner  margin.  The 
larva  is  yellowish  white,  with  brownish  dots.  It  constructs 
silken  galleries  running  through  the  comb,  in  which  it  feeds. 
It  spins  a  thick  white  cocoon.  Two  broods  of  moths  appear, 
one  in  April  and  May,  the  other  in  August.  They  lay  their 
eggs  at  evening  while  the  bees  are  resting.  The  caterpillars 
mature  in  about  three  weeks. 

TORTRICID^E  Leach.  The  "Leaf-rollers"  are  best  character- 
ized by  the  shortness  of  the  palpi,  which  project  beak-like,  and 
are  rarely  long  enough  to  be  curved  in  front  of  the 
head  ;  and  by  the  oblong  fore  wings.  They  are  of  small 
size,  rarely  expanding  over  an ,  inch,  and  are  folded 
roof-like  (Fig.  255)  over  the  body.  The  fore  wings  are 
Fig.  255.  broa(j?  compared  with  those  of  the  Tin ei dee ,  and 
are  much  rounded  on  the  costa.  They  are  variegated  with 
bands  and  spots,  often  of  brilliant  metallic  hues,  while  the  hind 
wings  are  dull  colored  like  the  body,  the  inner  edge  being  folded 
fan-like  against  the  body.  The  antennae  are  filiform  and  the 
legs  are  much  shorter  than  in  the  Pyralids.  They  fly  mostly  by 
night,  resting  during  the  day  upon  the  plant  on  which  the  larva 


TOETRICID^E.  333 

feeds.  They  most  abound  in  summer,  though  a  few  species 
are  found  in  the  spring  and  autumn. 

The  larvae  are  cylindrical,  usually  transversely  wrinkled,  and 
nearly  naked.  The  pupa  is  slender,  and  the  rings  of  the 
abdomen  armed  with  transverse  rows  of  teeth.  Many  of 
the  larger  species  roll  up  the  leaves  of  trees,  or  gather  them 
into  a  rude  tent,  with  silken  threads ;  others  devour  the  inte- 
rior of  fruit  buds  and  seeds,  or  live  in  the  tender  shoots,  or 
under  the  bark,  or  in  the  roots,  while  some  live  exposed  on  the 
leaves  of  plants. 

In  Antithesia  the  palpi  are  longer  than  the  head,  and  the 
thorax  is  tufted  behind  ;  the  fore  wings  are  more  than  twice  as 
long  as  broad,  the  costa  being  regularly  arched,  while  the  apex 
is  obtuse,  and  the  apical  third  of  the  costa  is  white  or  ochreous. 
A.  bipartitana  Clem,  has  white  fore  wings,  with  a  dark  brown 
basal  patch,  and  a  central  concolorous  band,  with  two  or  three 
dark  brown  spots  on  the  outer  third  of  the  costa.  The  tip  of 
the  wing  is  spotted  with  brown,  and  there 
is  a  pale  brownish  spot  in  the  middle  of 
the  white  apical  third  of  the  wing.  It  is  <as'7a  r  "^  9tt 
not  uncommon  northwards. 

Another  species  has  been  detected  on 
the  rose  by  Mr.  F.  W.  Putnam.    The  larva  Fig.  256. 

is  yellowish  green  with  a  jet  black  head  and  prothoracic  shield, 
and  pupates  late  in  June,  the  moth  appearing  during  July.  It 
is  identical  with  the  Antithesia  pruniana  of  Hubner  (Plate  8, 
fig.  13,  natural  size)  a  destructive  moth  in  Europe,  where  it 
devours  the  plum,  as  its  specific  name  indicates.  The  inner 
two  thirds  of  the  fore  wings  are  marbled  with  black  and  lilac 
colored  scales  ;  the  apical  third  being  white,  with  three  costo- 
apical  dark  spots,  and  the  extreme  apex  black. 

The  genus  Siderea  has  rather  long  fore  wings,  the  costa  be- 
ing regularly  arched,  and  the  tip  rather  pointed,  the  outer  edge 
being  concave  below  the  tip.  Clemens,  doubtfully,  refers  his 
S.?  nubilana  (Fig.  256,  7a,  head)  to  this  genus.  The  fore 
wings  are  brown,  with  dark  brown  markings,  and  there  is  a 
dark  brown  basal  line  and  a  central  irregular  dark  brown  band, 
which  becomes  ochreous  brown  in  the  middle  of  the  wing,  and 
seems  to  be  separated  from  a  conspicuous  dark  brown  triangu- 


334 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


Fig.  257. 


lar  patch,  which  is  edged  narrowly  with  ochreous.     Near  the 
inner  angle  are  two  dark  brown  oblique  stripes. 

The  typical  genus  Tortrix  has  the  palpi  much  longer  than 
the  head,  with  the  fore  wings  about  twice  as  long  as  broad,  and 
the  costa  arched  abruptly  at  the  base,  while  the  outer  edge  is 
truncate  and  sometimes  hollowed  out  below  the  tip.  T.  geli- 
dana  Moschler  is  a  common  arctic  form,  and  occurs  commonly 
in  northern  Labrador,  and  has  been  detected 
on  the  Alpine  summit  of  Mount  Washington 
by  Mr.  F.  G.  Sanborn.  He  has  also  detected 
a  new  species  which  feeds  on  the  cranberry, 
for  which  we  suggest  the  name  Tortrix  oxycoc- 
cana.  Its  body  is  dark  brown,  with  lighter 
hairs  on  each  side  of  the  abdominal  segments, 
and  fuscous  at  the  tip.  The  fore  wings  are 
of  a  peculiar  glistening  gray,  mottled  with  red- 
dish brown  scales,  especially  towards  the  outer  edge.  There 
are  no  well  defined  spots  or  bands.  The  hind  wings  and  body, 
and  under  surface  of  the  wings  are  slate  colored.  The  wings 
expand -.64  inch. 

The  Leptoris  breviornatana  of  Clemens  (Fig.  257 ;  a,  side 
view  of  the  head  and  labial  palpi ;  6,  fore  wing  ;  c,  hind  wing), 
which  is  referred  to  the  genus  Tortrix  by  Mr.  C.  T.  Robinson, 
has  tawny  yellow  fore  wings,  with  the  veins  brown.  An  oblique 

brown  band  arises  on  the  basal 
third  of  the  costa,  and  runs  to 
the  middle  of  the  inner  margin, 
but  does  not  reach  it.  On  the 
costa  is  a  brown  patch.  It  lives 
in  Virginia.  Mr.  Robinson  also 
informs  me  that  in  a  forthcom- 
ing paper  on  this  family  he  re- 
fers the  Ptycholoma?  semifus- 
cana  of  Clemens  (Fig.  258  ;  o,  head ;  6,  fore  wing ;  c,  hind 
wing)  to  the  present  genus.  "The  fore  wings  are  white  along 
the  costa  and  hinder  margin,  marked  with  pale  brown,  ochreous 
and  tarnished  silvery  stripes  and  spots."  It  ranges  from 
Maine  to  Virginia. 

The  genus  Lozotcenia  has  palpi  rather  longer  than  the  head. 


Fig.  258. 


TOKTRICIM;.  335 

It  differs  from  Tortrix  in  the  male  having  a  fold  or  flap  of  scales 
extending  nearly  to  the  tip  of  the  fore  wing,  while  the  outer 
edge  is  indented  below  the  tip,  which  is  rather  produced  up- 
wards. The  larvae  of  this  genus  feed  in  leaves,  the  edges  of 
which  are  drawn  together  by  silken  threads,  or  in  the  stems  and 
seeds  of  plants.  L.  rosaceana  Harris  (Plate  8,  fig.  12;  12  a, 
larva)  is  pale  brown,  with  two  oblique,  darker  reddish  brown 
bands,  and  a  triangular  spot  of  the  same  color  on  the  costa  near 
the  tip.  The  hind  wings  are  ochreous  yellow,  and  blackish 
within.  The  larva,  early  in  June,  binds  together  the  leaves  of 
the  rose,  apple  and  strawberry.  It  is  plump  and  rather  large, 
and  of  a  pale  yellowish  green.  We  found,  on  the  23d  of  June, 
the  fully  grown  larva  on  the  leaves  of  the  strawberry,  doubling 
them  up  and  binding  them  together  by  a  few  silken  threads. 
The  worm  is  pale  livid,  greenish  above  and  paler  beneath,  with 
a  conspicuous  black  dot  on  each  side  of  the  hinder  edge  of  the 
prothorax.  The  head  is  very  pale  honey  yellow,  with  two  black 
spots  :  one  near  the  insertion  of  the  mandibles,  and  the  other 
on  the  side  near  the  base  of  the  head.  The  posterior  half  of 
each  segment  is  transversely  wrinkled  a  few  times.  The  body 
is  scattered  over  with  a  few  minute  tubercles,  each  giving  rise 
to  a  fine  hair.  It  is  .80  of  an  inch  long.  One  specimen  spun 
its  slight  cocoon  on  June  26th,  the  pupa  appearing  June  30th. 
It  is  sometimes  attacked  by  Ichneumons.  The  pupa  is  pointed 
on  the  vertex  of  the  head,  and  on  the  back  of  each  abdominal 
ring  are  two  rows  of  spines.  The  moth  usually  appears  the 
last  of  June.  There  is  a  second  brood  in  August. 

We  have  reared  another  species  from  the  wild  strawberry. 
It  may  be  called  the  Lozotcenia  fragariana.  "It  is  a  very  pretty 
moth  expanding  .80  of  an  inch,  with  red  fore  wings,  darker  on 
the  outer  half  and  with  a  large  triangular  white  spot  near  the 
middle  of  the  costa  ;  the  outer  edge  of  the  spot  is  hollowed  out. 
The  outer  edge  of  the  wing  is  pale,  especially  in  the  middle, 
and  concolorous  with  the  head  and  palpi,  and  thorax.  The 
hind  wings  and  abdomen  are  whitish  buff.  The  hind  wings 
are  whitish  beneath.  The  larva  may  be  found  in  Maine,  early 
in  June,  folding  the  leaves,  and  the  moth  appears  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  same  month. 

The  Lozotcenia  gossypiana,  or  Cotton  Leaf-roller,  we  describe 


336  LEPIDOPTERA. 

from  the  very  characteristic  drawings  of  Mr.  Glover.  The 
larva  closely  resembles  that  of  L.  rosaceana  and  is  about  the 
same  size.  It  rolls  up  the  leaf  of  the  cotton  into  a  loose  cir- 
cular fold,  and  when  fully  grown  spins  a  thin,  loose,  transpar- 
ent cocoon  between  the  leaves.  On  the  abdominal  tip  of  the 
brown  cocoon  are  three  pairs  of  minute  hooks,  the  two  outer 
pairs  supported  on  a  pedicel,  by  which  the  chrysalis  is  re- 
tained in  place  in  the  cocoon.  The  moth  is  the  size  of  the 
L.  rosaceana,  being  pale  reddish  brown,  and  with  three  darker 
bars,  the  inner  one  crossing  the  costal  two-thirds  of  the  wing, 
the  middle  and  broadest  crossing  the  wing  obliquely,  and  ter- 
minating near  the  outer  angle,  while  the  third  bar  cuts  off  the 
apex  of  the  wing.  The  hind  wings  are  paler,  but  dusky  along 
the  inner  side. 

The  species  of  Penthina  may  be  recognized  by  the  oblong 
fore  wings,  the  apex  being  obtuse,  sometimes  a  little  falcate. 
An  interesting  species,  according  to  information  received  from 
Mr.  M.  C.  Reed  of  Hudson,  Ohio,  rolls  up  the  leaves  of  the 
grape,  and  when  the  fruit  becomes  formed,  eats  the  pulp  and 
seeds,  thus  doing  a  two-fold  injury  to  the  vine.  It  may  be 
called  the  Penthina  vitivomna*  (Plate  8,  fig.  22,  enlarged). 
The  head,  thorax,  and  palpi,  and  basal  half  of  the  antennae  are 
fulvous.  The  fore  wings  are  dark  slate  brown.  From  the  mid- 
dle of  the  costa  proceeds  a  blackish  band  which  curves  to  the 
middle  of  the  outer  third  of  the  wing  ;  beyond  is  a  linear  curved 
costal  band  succeeded  by  another  broader  but  quite  short  costal 
line ;  the  costa  is  tawny  beyond,  sending  a  tawny  patch  obliquely 
inwards.  Near  the  margin  is  an  irregular  blackish  patch  and 
two  dark  spots  on  the  costa,  and  a  larger  one  at  the  apex.  The 
hind  wings  and  body  are  dark  slate  color.  It  expands  .40  of  an 
inch.  The  first  brood  of  caterpillars  feeds  on  the  leaves,  ap- 
pearing in  May  (in  Ohio),  or  as  soon  as  the  leaves  are  grown. 
The  second  brood  appears  when  the  grapes  are  nearly  filled 
out,  and  then  they  feed  on  the  pulp  and  seeds.  Mr.  Reed  writes 
me  that  "in  every  instance  where  a  grape  was  opened  contain- 
ing a  fully  grown  larva,  the  seeds  were  mere  shells.  They  con- 
tinue their  work  until  the  grapes  are  fully  ripe,  and  at  that 
time  on  removing  to  a  new  berry,  seem  to  make  their  home  in 
the  old  one,  which  is  attached  by  a  web."  The  larva  turns 

*It  is  the  Lobesia  botrana  of  Southern  Europe  according  to  Prof.  Zeller. 


TORTRICID^.  337 

over  the  edge  of  a  leaf  to  form  a  rude  cocoon  for  the  chrysalis. 
Mr.  Eead  suggests  destroying  the  leaves  thus  affected  before 
they  fall  in  autumn,  as  the  larvae  do  not  descend  to  the  earth 
to  undergo  their  transformations. 

Halonota  differs  from  Tortrix  in  having  the  apex  of  the  fore 
wings  rather  obtuse,  and  there  is  a  pale  blotch  usually  present 
on  the  middle  of  the  inner  margin.  H.  simulana  Clemens  is 
brownish  ochreous,  with  dull  ochreous  palpi,  reddish  at  the 
tip ;  the  fore  wings  are  brown,  with  a  slight  brassy  hue,  and 
with  an  ochreous  dorsal  blotch;  the  costa  is  streaked  with 
ochreous,  and  there  are  two  violet  streaks,  one  running  be- 
neath the  tip  and  the  other  to  a  faint  eye-like  patch,  behind 
which,  on  the  hinder  margin,  are  three  black  spots. 

The  genus  Grapholitha  is  characterized  by  Stainton  as  hav- 
ing the  palpi  longer  than  the  head,  with  the  fore  wings  more 
than  twice  as  long  as  wide,  the  costa  being 
slightly  arched,  and  the  apex  rather  pointed, 
while  the  outer  edge  is  a  little  hollowed  out 
below  the  apex,  and  rounded  at  the  inner  an- 
gle. The  larvae  live  in  the  folded  leaves  of 
shrubs,  or  in  the  tops  of  herbaceous  plants, 
or  in  their  roots.  Mr.  Eobinson  refers  the 
JSteganoptycha?  oclireana  of  Clemens,  to  Gra- 
pholitha (Fig.  259  ;  a,  head  ;  6,  fore  wing  ;  c, 
hind  wing.*)  The  fore  wings  are  pale  yel- 
lowish, and  the  outer  half  of  the  costa  is  Fig'  259' 
streaked  with  ochreous  brown,  and  there  is  an  eye-like  patch 
which  is  white,  and  contains  two  ochreous  brown  streaks  and 
two  black  dots.  It  was  discovered  in  Virginia.  Robinson  also 
refers  Clemens'  Euryptychia  saligneana  (Fig.  256  ;  8  a)  to  this 
genus.  It  was  bred  by  Mr.  B.  D.  Walsh,  in  Illinois,  from  a 
willow  gall.  The  fore  wings  are  white,  tinted  with  yellowish, 
with  a  dark  brown  basal  patch,  the  wing  beyond  being  nearly 
white  varied  with  lead  colored  speckles,  and  striped  over  the 
venules  with  dull,  leaden  gray,  transverse  stripes,  two  of  which 
near  the  anal  angle,  form  a  white  eye-like  patch.  (Clemens.) 

Under  the  name  of  Callimosema  scintillana  (Fig.  256  ;  9  a), 

*The  artist  has  represented  the  last  branch  of  the  median  vein  forked  at  the 
tip.  It  should  have  been  the  middle  branch.  ( Clemens.') 

22 


338 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


Clemens  describes  a  moth  with  narrow  fore  wings,  and  a  large 
eye-like  spot  across  the  inner  angle,  the  venation  being  the 
same  as  in  loplocama.  In  this  latter  genus  (Fig.  256;  10  a, 
I.  formosana  Clemens)  the  wings  are  broader  and  have  the 
costa  of  the  fore  wings  dilated  at  the  base,  while  the  labial 
palpi  are  broad,  and  reach  far  beyond  the  front  of  the  head. 

In  Anchylopera  the  palpi  are 
shorter  than  the  head,  with  the 
fore  wings  broader  than  usual, 
and  the  costa  somewhat  obtusely 
arched  towards  the  base,  while 
the  tip  is  often  hook-like  and 
the  outer  edge  concave.  The 
larva  feeds  between  the  united 
leaves  of  plants.  A.  spirewfoli- 
ana  Clemens  *s  white  on  the  fore 
wings,  with  a  large,  reddish 
brown  dorsal  patch  extending 
from  the  base  to  the  middle  of 
the  wing,  and  an  oblique  band 
from  the  middle  of  the  costa  to 
about  the  centre  of  the  wing ; 
the  costa  beyond  is  streaked 
alternately  with  white  and  red- 
dish brown  to  the  apex.  The 
larva  feeds  on  the  leaves  of 
Spiraea  opulifolia,  or  Nine-bark. 
It  is  pale  green  with  a  yellowish 
tinge.  (Clemens.)* 
*Fig.  260.  Mr.  Fish  has  discovered  an  un- 

described  species  which  feeds  on  the  cranberry,  and  which  we 
may  call  the  Cranberry  Anchylopera,  A.  vacciniana  (Plate  8, 
fig.  21,  enlarged).  The  moth  is  dark  ash,  the  fore  wings  being 
whitish,  dusted  with  brown  and  reddish  scales,  with  white  nar- 
row bands  on  the  costa,  alternating  with  broader  yellowish 

*FiG.  260;  la,  represents  the  head  of  A.  nubeculana,  described  by  Clemens  in 
the  Proceedings  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  Philadelphia;  16,  the  vena- 
tion of  the  fore  wing;  and  1  c,  the  hind  wing;  2  a,  the  head  of  A.  ocellana  Clemens; 
26,  the  fore  wing;  2  c,  the  hind  wing;  3  a,  the  head  of  A.  mediofasciana  Clemens; 
36  the  fore  wing;  and  3 c,  the  hind  wing. 


TORTEICID^.  339 

brown  bands,  five  of  which  are  several  times  larger  than  the 
others,  and  from  four  of  them  irregular  indistinct  lines  cross 
the  wing.  The  first  line  is  situated  just  beyond  the  inner  third 
of  the  wing,  and  is  often  obsolete.  The  second  line  is  the 
largest  and  is  slightly  bent  once  in  the  middle  of  ti*8 
wing.  There  is  a  large  brown  spot  parallel  to  the  costa, 
being  situated  on  the  angle.  The  third  line  is  oblique  and 
stops  before  reaching  the  inner  angle  and  is  forked  on  the 
costa,  while  the  fourth  line  is  a  short  apical  diffuse  irregular 
line.  The  apex  of  the  wing  is  dark  brown,  and  is  a  little  more 
acute  than  usual  in  the  genus.  The  length  of  a  fore  wing  is  .20 
of  an  inch.  It  lays  its  eggs  on  the  leaves  during  the  month 
of  August  and  a  new  brood  of  larvae  appear  in  September, 
though  they  hatch  mostly  in  the  following  spring,  or  early  in 
June,  and  become  fully  grown  in  July. 

The  larva  seen  from  above  is  much  like  that  of  Lozotaenia 
rosaceana,  but  the  head  is  a  little  larger  in  proportion  to  the 
rest  of  the  body,  being  as  wide  as  the  body  in  its  thickest  part. 
The  body  is  more  hairy,  while  the  prothorax  is  not  dark.  The 
chrysalis  is  rather  slender,  the  body  being  contracted  at  the 
base  of  the  abdomen,  on  the  rings  of  which  there  are  dorsal 
rows  of  fine  spines. 

Mr.  Fish  writes  me  that  "  these  larvae,  called  the  Cranberry- 
vine  worms,  hatch  about  the  first  of  June  from  eggs  that  have 
remained  upon  the  leaves  of  the  plant  all  winter.  They  com- 
mence to  feed  upon  the  tender  growing  shoots  of  the  plant, 
drawing  the  leaves -together  with  their  web  for  shelter,  conceal- 
ing themselves  and  feeding  within.  Before  reaching  their 
full  size  they,  if  very  numerous,  almost  wholly  destroy  the 
leaves  and  tender  shoots,  giving  the  whole  bog  a  dark  dry  ap- 
pearance as  though  a  fire  had  been  over  it.  This  is  why  they 
are  in  some  places  known  as  'fire-worms/  Having  reached 
their  full  size  they  spin  up  among  the  leaves  or  among  the 
dead  leaves  upon  the  ground.  After  remaining  in  the  pupa 
state  about  ten  or  thirteen  days  the  moths  come  out  and  de- 
posit their  eggs  upon  the  leaves. 

"This  year  the  moths  were  out  the  last  of  June  and  first  of 
July.  In  five  or  six  days  the  eggs  hatched  and  this  second 
brood,  which  is  usually  the  most  destructive,  mostly  changed 


340  LEPIDOPTEKA. 

to  pupae  on  the  20th  of  July.  On  the  26th  of  July  the 
first  moth  came  out  and  most  were  out  before  the  4th  of 
August.  I  saw  the  moth  at  Sandwich  as  late  as  the  20th  of 
August.  Most  of  the  eggs  laid  in  August  do  not  hatch  until 
the  following  spring.  I  did  succeed  in  finding  two  or  three 
larvae  in  September,  but  they  were  rare  at  that  time.  The 
only  sure  means  known  of  destroying  them,  is  to  let  water  upon 
the  bog  for  twenty -four  hours." 

Another  Tortricid  larva,  which  seems  to  differ  generically 
from  the  vine  worm,  in  being  thicker  and  having  a  larger, 
squarer  prothoracic  ring,  and  a  less  hairy  body  is  called  the 
"  Fruit- worm."  According  to  Mr.  Fish,  these  worms  appear  the 
first  of  August  and  work  all  through  the  month.  The  first  signs 
of  their  presence  are  seen  in  the  berries  that  are  attacked  turn- 
ing prematurely  red.  Most  of  them  reach  their  full  size  before 
the  first  of  September.  In  some  places  where  the  vines  have 

been  retarded  by  be- 
ing  kept  under  water 

until  the  first  of  June 

previous  (it  is  com- 
mon to  cover  the  bogs 
with  water  when  con- 
venient),  they  do  not 
reach  their  full  size  until  a  few  weeks  later.  When  fully 
grown  they  enter  the  ground  and  spin  their  cocoons  within  a 
few  inches  of  the  surface.  The  cocoons  are  covered  with  grains 
of  sand  and  are  hardly  distinguishable  from  small  lumps  of 
earth.  They  remain  in  the  ground  all  winter.  I  do  not  know 
positively  the  perfect  insect,  as  I  have  never  been  able  to  rear 
it  in-doors.  In  the  spring  of  1867  I  bred  two  species  of  Ich- 
neumons from  these  cocoons  that  had  remained  in  the  house 
over  winter." 

The  Strawberry  leaf-roller  (A.  fragarise  Riley,  Fig.  261 ;  c, 
lines  showing  the  dimensions  of  the  moth ;  a,  larva,  natural 
size ;  6,  the  head  and  four  succeeding  rings  of  the  body ;  d, 
the  terminal  ring  of  the  abdomen,  showing  the  anal  legs)  has, 
according  to  Riley,  recently  been  doing  much  injury  to  straw- 
berry plants  in  Illinois  and  Canada.  "It  crumples  and  folds 
the  leaves,  feeding  on  their  pulpy  substance,  and  causing  them 


TORTRICID^.  341 

to  appear  dry  and  seared,  and  most  usually  lines  the  inside  of 
the  fold  with  silk.  There  are  two  broods  during  the  year,  and 
the  worms  of  the  first  brood,  which  appear  during  the  month 
of  June,  change  to  the  pupa  state  within  the  rolled  up  leaf, 
and  become  minute  reddish  brown  moths  during  the  fore  part 
of  July.  After  pairing  in  the  usual  manner,  the  females  deposit 
their  eggs  on  the  plants,  from  which  eggs  in  due  time  hatches 
a  second  brood  of  worms.  These  last  come  to  their  growth  to- 
wards the  end  of  September,  and  changing  to  pupae,  pass  the 
winter  in  that  state.  The  moth  expands  from  .40  to  .45  of  an 
inch.  The  head  and  thorax  are  reddish  brown,  with  pale  palpi 
and  legs,  and  dusky  antennae,  while  the  tarsal  joints  are  dusky 
at  the  tips.  The  fore  wings  are  reddish  brown  and  streaked 
and  spotted  with  black  and  white,  as  in  the  figure,  while  the 
hind  wings  and  abdomen  are  dusky."  (American  Entomologist, 
vol.  i,  p.  89.) 

The  Coddling  moth,  Carpocapsa,  has  palpi  longer  than  the 
head ;  the  apex  of  the  fore  wings  is  rather  obtuse,  and  the 
outer  edge  is  suddenly  hollowed  out  below  the  tip.  The  larvae 
feed  in  the  interior  of  fruits.  C.  pomonella  Linn.  (Fig.  256, 
II  a)  is  gray,  with  numerous  darker,  transverse  lines,  and  with 
a  curved  black  line  before  the  ocellated  patch  on  the  inner  an- 
gle, which  line  is  edged  with  a  coppery  tint.  The  moth  lays  its 
eggs  on  apple  and  pear  trees  early  in  summer  in  the  blossom- 
end  of  the  fruit,  and  the  larva  hatches  in  a  few  days,  burrowing 
into  the  core.  It  matures  in  three  weeks,  when  the  apple  drops 
to  the  ground  and  the  larva  transforms  in  a  thin  cocoon  in 
crevices  in  bark,  etc.,  and  in  a  few  days  another  brood  of  moths 
appear,  though  most  of  them  remain  in  their  cocoons  through 
the  winter  as  larvae,  where  we  have  found  them  under  the  loos- 
ened bark  early  in  May. 

This  formidable  pest  may  be  partially  destroyed  by  gather- 
ing "wind-falls,"  though  the  larva  often  deserts  the  worm-eaten 
apple  before  it  falls.  The  best  remedy  is  that  suggested  by 
Dr.  Trimble,  who  binds  bands  of  hay  about  the  trees  from 
July  until  the  middle  of  September.  The  larvae  crawl  under 
these  bands  and  there  spin  their  silken  cocoons,  when  every 
few  days  the  bands  can  be  removed  and  the  worms  de- 
stroyed. 


342  LEPIDOPTEEA. 

TINEID^E  Leach.  The  Tineids  are  a  family  of  great  extent, 
and  the  species  are  very  destructive  to  vegetation,  having  in- 
numerable modes  of  attack.  They  may  be  distinguished 
from  the  Tortricidceby  their  smaller  size,  while  the  narrow 
wings  which  lie  on  the  top  of,  or  are  rolled  around  the  body 
when  at  rest,  are  often  falcate,  or  pointed  acutely,  and  edged 
with  a  long  fringe  of  exceeding  delicacy.  The  maxillary  palpi 
are  greatly  developed,  while  the  labial  palpi  are  of  the  usual 
size,  and  usually  recurved  in  front  of  the  head.  The  antennae  are 
long  and  filiform.  The  larvae  are  cylindrical,  variously 
wrinkled  transversely,  and  with  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  feet. 
They  often  construct  cases  in  which  they  live,  and  usually  spin 
a  slight  silken  cocoon.  About  1,200  species  are  already  known 
in  Europe  alone.  Those  of  this  country  have  been  mostly  de- 
scribed by  Dr.  Clemens. 

In  studying  this  interesting  family,  Stainton  remarks  that 
"the  elongated  wings,  the  slender  body  and  the  long  or  very 
long  fringes  to  the  wings,  are  characters  by  which  the  Tineidae 
may  generally  be  recognized  at  once  ;  and  the  development  of 
the  palpi  and  their  variety  in  form  and  structure,  offer  most 
tangible  grounds  for  separating  the  greater  number  of  the  gen- 
era. Indeed,  if  the  student  will  look  at  the  head  of  a  species 
to  see  whether  it  is  hairy  or  smooth,  if  he  will  then  notice  the 
palpi,  whether  the  maxillary  palpi  are  developed  and  to  what 
extent,  and  whether  the  labial  palpi  are  slender,  ascending  or 
drooping,  whether  the  second  joint  is  densely  clothed  with 
scales,  or  bears  a  long  protruding  tuft,  and  if  he  will  farther 
notice  the  form  of  the  hind  wings,  which  are  either  well  rounded 
or  very  pointed,  or  indented  towards  the  tip,  he  will  be  per- 
fectly surprised  to  see  how  easily  he  will  arrange  these  insects 
into  genera  by  their  structure." 

The  larvae  vary  excessively  in  the  number  of  legs,  sixteen 
being  the  usual  number,  but  in  several  genera  (Gracilaria,  Lith- 
ocolletis,  etc.),  we  only  find  fourteen;  in  Nepticula,  though 
the  legs  are  but  poorly  developed,  they  number  eighteen  ;  on  the 
other  hand  the  larvae  of  a  few  of  the  smaller  genera  (Antispila, 
Tinagma,  etc.)  are  absolutely  footless. 

For  collecting  and  preserving  these  minute  and  delicate 
moths,  which  are  called  by  collectors,  micro-kpidoptera,  especial 


TINEIM:.  343 

instructions  are  necessary.  When  the  moth  is  taken  in  the 
net,  it  can  be  blown  by  the  breath  into  the  bottom.  "Then 
by  elevating  the  hand  through  the  ring,  or  on  a  level  with  it,  a 
common  cupping  glass  of  about  two  inches  in  diameter,  or  a 
wine  glass  carried  in  the  pocket,  is  placed  on  top  of  the  left 
hand  over  the  constricted  portion,  the  grasp  relaxed,  and  the 
insect  permitted  to  escape  through  the  opening  into  its  interior. 
The  glass  is  then  closed  below  by  the  left  hand  on  the  outside 
of  the  net,  and  may  be  transferred  to  the  top  of  the  collecting 
box,  when  it  can  be  quieted  by  chloroform"  (Clemens)  ;  or  the 
moths  may  be  collected  in  pill  boxes,  and  then  carried  home 
and  opened  into  a  larger  box  filled  with  fumes  of  ether  or  ben- 
zine or  cyanide  of  potassium.  In  pinching  any  moths  on  the 
thorax,  as  is  sometimes  done,  the  form  of  that  region  is  inva- 
riably distorted,  and  many  of  the  scales  removed.  In  search- 
ing for  "Micros"  we  must  look  carefully  on  the  lee  side  of? 
trees,  fences,  hedges,  and  undulations  in  the  ground,  for  ; 
they  avoid  the  wind.  Indeed,  we  can  take  advantage  of 
this  habit  of  many  Micros,  and  by  blowing  vigorously  on  the 
trunks  of  trees  start  the  moth  off  into  the  net  so  placed  as  to 
intercept  it.  This  method  is  most  productive,  C.  G.  Barrett 
states,  in  the  "Entomologist's  Monthly  Magazine,"  while  a 
steady  wind  is  blowing. 

In  seeking  for  the  larvae  we  must  remember  that  most  of 
them  are  leaf  miners,  and  their  burrows  are  detected  by  the 
waved  brown  withered  lines  on  the  surface  of  leaves,  and  their 
tlfrass"  or  excrement,  thrown  out  at  one  end.  Some  are  found 
between  united  leaves,  of  which  the  upper  is  crumpled.  Others 
construct  portable  cases  which  they  draw  about  the  trunks  of 
trees,  fences,  etc.  Others  burrow  in  the  stems  of  grass,  or  in 
fungi,  toadstools,  and  in  the  pith  of  currant  or  raspberry  bushes. 
Most  are  solitary,  a  few  gregarious.  A  bush  stripped  of  its 
leaves  and  covered  with  webs,  if  not  done  by  Clisiocampa  (the 
American  Tent  Caterpillar),  will  witness  the  work  of  a  Tineid. 
Buds  of  unfolded  herbs  suffer  from  their  attacks,  such  as  the 
heads  of  composite  flowers  which  are  drawn  together  and  con- 
sumed by  the  larvae. 

After  some  practice  in  rearing  larvae  it  will  be  found  easier 
and  more  profitable  to  search  for  the  leaf  miners,  and  rear  the 


344  LEPIDOPTERA. 

perfect,  fresh,  and  uninjured  moths  from  them.  In  this  way 
many  species  never  found  in  the  perfect  state  can  be  secured.* 
In  raising  "micro"  larvae  it  is  essential  that  the  leaf  in 
which  they  mine  be  preserved  fresh  for  a  long  time.  Thus 
a  glass  jar,  tumbler  or  jam-pot,  the  top  of  which  has  been 
ground  to  receive  an  air-tight  glass  cover,  and  the  bottom 
covered  with  moist  white  sand,  will  keep  a  leaf  fresh  for  a 
week,  and  thus  a  larva?  in  the  summer  will  have  to  be  fed  but 
two  or  three  times  before  it  changes ;  and  the  moth  can  be 
seen  through  the  glass  without  taking  off  the  cover ;  or  a  glass 
cylinder  can  be  placed  over  a  plant  inserted  in  wet  sand,  hav- 
ing the  top  covered  with  gauze.  Dr.  H.  G.  Knaggs  in  treat- 
ing of  the  management  of  caterpillars  in  breeding  boxes, 
enumerates  the  diseases,  beside  muscardine  and  cholerine,  to 
which  they  are  subject.  Among  direct  injuries  are  wounds  and 
bruises,  which  may  be  productive  of  deformities  in  the  future 
imago ;  the  stings  of  ichneumon  flies,  whose  eggs  laid  either 
upon  or  in  the  body  may  be  crushed  with  finely  pointed  scis- 
sors or  pliers  ;  frost  bites,  and  suffocation  chiefly  from  drown- 
ing. If  the  caterpillar  has  not  been  more  than  ten  or  twelve 
hours  in  the  water  it  may  be  recovered  by  being  dried  on  a 
piece  of  blotting  paper  and  exposed  to  the  sun.  Larvae  may 
also  starve  to  death  even  when  food  is  abundant,  from  loss  of 
appetite,  or  improper  ventilation,  light,  etc. ;  or  they  may  eat 
too  much,  become  dropsical,  and  die.  Caterpillars  undoubt- 
edly suffer  from  a  contagious  disease  analogous  to  low  fever. 
Many  die  while  moulting,  especially  the  larvae  of  Butterflies, 
Sphinges,  and  Bombycids  ;  others  are  carried  off  by  diarrhoea, 
which  is  generally  caused  by  improper  feeding  on  too  juicy  or 
relaxing  food,  when  oak  leaves  or  dry  stunted  foliage  should 
be  given  them.  To  relieve  constipation  they  should  be  fed 
with  lettuce  and  other  natural  purgatives,  and  lastly,  they  may 
be  attacked  by  fungi,  especially,  besides  those  previously  men- 

*"In  general,  it  may  be  said,  the  mines  of  the  leaf  miners  are  characteristic  of 
the  genus  to  which  the  larva  may  belong.  A  single  mine  once  identified,  enables 
the  collector  to  pronounce  on  the  genus  of  all  the  species  he  may  find  thereafter. 
This  added  to  the  ease  with  which  the  larvae  are  collected,  and  the  little  subsequent 
care  required  to  bring  them  to  maturity,  except  to  keep  the  leaves  in  a  fresh  and 
healthy  state,  makes  the  study  of  this  group,  in  every  respect,  pleasant  and  satis- 
factory to  the  entomologist."  (Clemens.) 


345 

tioned,  a  species  of  Oidium.  Such  patients  should  be  put  in 
direct  sunlight  or  dry  currents  of  air.  (Entomologist's  Monthly 
Magazine,  June,  1868.)  The  pupae  easily  dry  up  ;  they  should 
be  kept  moist,  in  tubes  of  glass  closed  at  either  end,  through 
which  the  moth  can  be  seen  when  disclosed. 

In  setting  micro- lepidopt era :  "If  the  insect  is  very  small  I 
hold  it  by  its  legs  between  the  thumb  and  finger  of  the  left 
hand,  whilst  I  pierce  it  with  the  pin  held  between  the  thumb 
and  finger  of  the  right  hand  ;  if  the  insect  is  not  very  small  I 
use  a  rough  surface,  as  a  piece  of  blotting-paper,  or  piece  of 
cloth,  for  it  to  lie  upon  and  prevent  its  slipping  about,  and 
then  cautiously  insert  the  point  of  the  pin  in  the  middle  of  the 
thorax,  as  nearly  as  possible  in  a  vertical  direction.  As  soon 
as  the  pin  is  fairly  through  the  insect,  remove  it  to  a  piece  of 
soft  cork,  and  by  pressing  it  in,  push  the  insect  as  far  up  the 
pin  as  is  required. 

"For  setting  the  insects  I  find  nothing  answers  as  well  as  a 
piece  of  soft  cork,  papered  with  smooth  paper,  and  with 
grooves  cut  to  admit  the  bodies.  The  wings  are  placed  in  the 
required  position  by  the  setting  needle,  and  are  then  retained 
in  their  places  by  a  wedge-shaped  thin  paper  brace,  placed  over 
them  till  a  square  brace  of  smooth  card-board  is  placed  over  the 
ends  of  the  wings."  (Stainton.)  A  small  square  of  glass  can 
also  be  laid  on  the  wings  to  keep  them  expanded,  and  thus 
serve  the  same  purpose  as  the  paper  braces.  Linnaeus  first  set 
the  example  of  having  the  specific  names  of  the  Tortricids 
end  in  ana  and  of  the  Tineids  in  ella,  and  at  the  present  day 
the  rule  is  generally  followed  by  entomologists,  who  have  also 
given  the  same  terminations  to  the  names  of  the, smaller  spe- 
cies of  Pyralids,  such  as  Pempelia,  Crambus  and  allied  genera. 

In  the  group  of  Tineids  proper,  the  head  is  roughly  scaled, 
with  short  and  thick  labial  palpi,  while  the  maxillary  palpi  are 
generally  extremely  well  developed,  and  the  antennae  some- 
times (Adela)  extremely  long.  The  larvae  live  in  a  portable 
case  and  feed  on  wool,  hair,  etc.,  and  fungi,  or  decayed  wood. 

Solenobia  has  very  short  labial  palpi,  which  are  almost  con- 
cealed in  the  hairs  of  the  mouth,  and  the  case  of  the  larva  is 
shorter  than  usual.  The  unimpregnated  females  of  this  genus 
lay  fertile  eggs,  so  that  one  may  breed  a  species  for  years  with- 


346  LEPIDOPTERA. 

out  ever  seeing  a  male.  (Stainton.)  Soknobiaf  Walshella 
Clemens  is  gray,  varied  with  fuscous.  The  silken  case  is  gran- 
ulated with  fine  sand  ;  the  larva  is  probably  lichenivorous. 

In  Tinea  the  head  is  rough,  the  maxillary  palpi  are  usually 
folded  and  five  jointed,  while  the  labial  palpi  are  cylindrical, 
hairy  and  sometimes  bristly.     The  fore  wings  are 
oblong  ovate,  and  the  hind  wings  ovate  and  clothed 
with  scales. 

Fig.  232.  The  common  Clothes  moth,  Tinea  flavifrontella 
Linn.  (Fig.  262  ;  fig.  263,  a,  larva,  with  its  case,  b ;  c,  chrysa- 
lis, enlarged)  is  of  a  light  buff  color,  with  a  silky  iridescent  lus- 
tre, the  hind  wings  and  abdomen  being  a  little  paler.  The  head 
is  thickly  tufted  with  hairs  and  is  a  little  tawny.  The  wings  are 
long  and  narrow,  pointed  acutely,  with  the  most  beautiful  and 
delicate  long  silken  fringe,  which  increases  in  length  towards 
the  base  of  the  wing.  The  moth  begins  to  fly  about  our  apart- 
c  6  nients  in  May,  individuals 

remaining  through  the  sum- 
mer.    They  lay  their   eggs 
in  woollens,  though  we  have 
a  reared  numerous  specimens 
which  had  attacked  a  mass 
of  cotton.      Early  in  June 
we  found    numbers    of  the 
Fis-  263-  caterpillars  in  their  flattened 

cylindrical  cases  which  in  this  instance  were  white,  the  color 
of  the  substance  they  fed  upon.  The  larva  is  whitish  with  a 
tolerably  plump  body,  which  tapers  slightly  towards  the  end 
of  the  body,  while  the  head  is  honey  yellow.  The  segments 
of  the  body  are  thickened  above  by  two  transverse  folds.  The 
body  of  the  chrysalis  is  considerably  curved,  with  the  head 
smooth  and  rounded.  The  antennae,  together  with  the  hind  legs, 
which  are  laid  on  the  breast,  reach  to  the  tip  of  the  abdo- 
men. On  the  upper  surface  of  each  ring  is  a  short  trans- 
verse row  of  minute  spines,  which  aid  the  chrysalis  in  moving 
towards  the  mouth  of  its  case,  just  before  changing  to  a  moth. 
When  about  to  transform,  the  skin  splits  open  on  the  back, 
and  the  perfect  insect  glides  out.  The  skin  is  moulted  with 
great  rapidity.  To  avoid  the  ravages  of  this  destructive  moth, 


TINEID^.  347 

woollens  and  furs  should  be  carefully  shaken  and  examined 
early  in  June.  Dr.  Harris  states  that  "powdered  black  pep- 
per strewed  under  the  edge  of  carpets  is  said  to  repel  moths. 
Sheets  of  paper  sprinkled  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  camphor 
in  coarse  powder,  leaves  of  tobacco,  or  shavings  of  Russian 
leather,  should  be  placed  among  the  clothes  when  they  are  laid 
aside  for  the  summer ;  and  furs  and  other  small  articles  can  be 
kept  by  being  sewed  in  bags  with  bits  of  camphor  wood,  red 
cedar,  or  of  Spanish  cedar,  while  the  cloth  lining  of  carriages 
can  be  secured  forever  from  the  attacks  of  moths  by  being 
washed  or  sponged  on  both  sides  with  a  solution  of  the  corro- 
sive sublimate  of  mercury  in  alcohol,  made  just  strong  enough 
not  to  leave  a  white  stain  on  a  black  feather."  The  moths  can 
be  most  readily  killed  by  pouring  benzine  among  them,  though 
its  use  must  be  much  restricted  from  the  disagreeable  odor 
which  remains,  and  c 

its  inflammable  na- 
ture. The  use  of  a 
weak  solution  of  car- 
bolic acid  is  also  rec- 
ommended. Tinea 
tapetzella  Linn.,  the 
Carpet  moth,  is  black- 
ish at  the  base  of  the 
fore  wings,  the  re- 
mainder being  yellow- 
ish white,  while  the  b  Fig.  204.  « 
hind  wings  are  dark  gray,  and  the  head  white.  The  larva 
feeds  on  carpets,  etc. 

Tinea  granella  Linn.  (Fig.  264  natural  size,  and  enlarged, 
with  the  wings  spread  ;  a,  larva,  natural  size  and  enlarged ;  6, 
pupa,  natural  size  and  enlarged ;  c,  grains  of  wheat  held  to- 
gether with  a  firm  web)  the  Grain  moth,  is  found  flying  .in 
granaries  during  the  summer.  The  female  lays  thirty  or  more 
minute  eggs,  one  or  two  on  each  grain  of  wheat.  The  white 
worm  hatches  in  a  few  days,  eats  its  way  into  the  grain,  clos- 
ing the  entrance  with  its  castings,  and  after  it  has  devoured 
the  interior  of  one  grain,  unites  others  in  succession  to  it,  until 
it  binds  together  by  a  fine  web  a  number  of  them.  When 


348  LEPIDOPTERA. 

nearly  full  grown  they  cover  the  grains  with  a  very  thick  web. 
According  to  Curtis  the  larvae  retire  to  cracks  and  crevices  in 
the  floor  and  walls  of  the  granary,  and  construct  their  cocoons 
by  gnawing  the  wood  and  working  it  up  with  their  web  until  it 
has  the  form  and  size  of  a  grain  of  wheat,  wherein  it  remains 
through  the  winter,  changing  to  a  chrysalis  early  in  the  spring ; 
while  two  or  three  weeks  after  the  moth  appears.  It  is  creamy 
white,  with  six  brown  spots  on  the  costa,  and  with  a  long 
brown  fringe.  To  prevent  its  attacks  empty  granaries  should 
be  thoroughly  cleansed  and  whitewashed,  or  washed  with  coal 
oil,  and  when  the  moths  are  flying  numbers  may  be  attracted 
to  the  flames  of  a  bright  light ;  also  when  the  larvae  are  at  work, 
the  grain  should  be  shovelled  over  frequently  to  disturb  them. 

The  beautiful  genus  Adela  is  at  once  known  by  its  exces- 
sively long  antennae.  The  larva  makes  a  flat  case,  and  feeds 
on  the  leaves  of  various  low  plants,  such  as  the  wood  Anemone 
and  Veronica.  The  A.  Ridingsella  of  Clemens  has  coppery 
brown  fore  wings,  with  a  pale  grayish  brown  mesial  patch 
dusted  with  black,  and  four  or  five  black  spots  at  the  inner 
angle,  while  the  hind  wings  are  fuscous. 

Hyponomeuta  has  a  smooth  head,  with  rather  short,  slender, 
reflexed,  subacute  labial  palpi ;  the  fore  wings  are  white,  dotted 
in  rows  with  black,  and  on  the  base  of  the  hind  wings  is  a 
transparent  patch.  The  larvae  are  gregarious,  and  the  pupa  is 
enclosed  in  a  cocoon.  H.  millepunctatella  Clemens  is  white, 
with  the  base  of  the  costa  blackish,  and  with  longitudinal  rows 
of  distinct  black  dots,  two  of  which,  one  along  the  inner  mar- 
gin, and  one  along  the  fold,  are  plain.  The  hind  wings  are 
blackish  gray. 

In  Depressaria  the  fore  wings  are  unusually  oblong,  being 
rounded  at  the  apex ;  and  the  hind  wings  are  broader  than 
usual,  with  the  inner  edge  emarginate  opposite  the  subme- 
dian  vein,  and  rounded  opposite  the  internal  vein.  The  abdo- 
men is  flattened  above,  with  projecting  scales  at  the  sides. 
The  larvae  of  this  genus  are  extremely  active,  and  feed  on  a 
variety  of  substances ;  some  in  rolled  up  leaves  of  composite 
plants,  some  in  the  leaves  and  others  in  the  umbels  of  the 
umbelliferous  plants.  Many  of  the  worms  descend  from  the 
plant  on  the  slightest  agitation,  so  that  considerable  caution  is 


TINEID^E.  349 

necessary  in  attempts  to  collect  them.  The  full-fed  larvae  de- 
scend to  the  ground  and  change  to  pupae  among  the  fallen 
leaves.  The  perfect  insects  have  the  peculiarity  of  sliding 
about  when  laid  on  their  backs.  D.  atrodorsella  Clem,  is  yel- 
low ochreous,  with  six  or  eight  black  costal  dots,  with  a  red- 
dish patch  extending  from  the  disc  towards  the  tip  of  the  wing. 
The  head  is  rufous  above,  with  the  face  blackish  brown  above 
and  yellowish  beneath. 

During  the  last  summer  we  observed  a  locust  tree  which  had 
some  of  the  branches  well  nigh  defoliated  by  an  undescribed 
species  of  this  genus  which  we  may  call  the  Depressaria  robin- 
iella  (Plate  8,  fig.  14,  natural  size).  The  head,  palpi  and  fore 
wings  are  light  brick  red,  spotted  irregularly  with  yellow,  and 
the  antennae  are  slate  brown.  The  fore  wings  are  a  little 
darker  in  the  middle,  especially  towards  the  inner  edge.  There 
is  a  submarginal  darker  brown  band  near  the  outer  edge,  which 
does  not  reach  the  costa,  and  on  the  outer  edge  is  a  row  of 
minute  black  dots.  The  hind  wings  and  abdomen  are  of  a  pale 
slate  gray,  and  of  the  same  color  beneath,  while  the  legs  are 
of  a  very  pale  straw  yellow.  It  differs  from  most  of  the  spe- 
cies of  the  genus  in  having  the  apex  of  the  fore  wing  less 
rounded  than  usual,  and  in  this  and  other  respects  it  is  allied 
to  the  European  D.  laterella.  The  larva  is  thick-bodied,  with 
a  black  head,  and  is  green,  the  cervical  shield  being  green.  It 
devours  the  leaves,  drawing  them  together  by  threads,  and 
also  eats  the  flower  buds.  It  was  most  abundant  in  the  last 
week  of  June.  It  turned  to  a  chrysalis  July  8th,  and  in  about 
two  weeks  the  moth  appeared. 

In  Gelechia  the  fore  wings  are  rather  long  and  pointed,  and 
the  hind  wings  are  trapezoidal  and  more  or  less  excavated  below 
the  tip.  The  terminal  joint  of  the  labial  palpi  is  slender,  al- 
most needle-like,  smooth  and  pointed.  This  genus  is  of  great 
extent  and  comprises  a  considerable  diversity  of  species.  The 
moth  is  extremely  active.  Clemens  states  that  "the  habits  of 
the  larvae  are  extremely  varied,  feeding  upon  leaves,  flower- 
buds,  young  shoots,  and  in  the  interior  of  grain  and  seeds.  The 
species  that  feed  in  buds  and  shoots  are  mostly  in  the  larva 
state  in  spring  and  the  beginning  of  summer ;  those  that  feed 
in  and  upon  leaves  are  met  with  in  summer  and  autumn,  and 


350 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


those  that  feed  on  seeds  do  so  in  the  autumn  and  winter." 
The  Angoumois  Grain  moth,  G.  cerealella  Linn.  (Fig.  265),  is 
ochreous,  with  a  fuscous  streak  towards  the  base,  and  a  few 
fuscous  dots  towards  the  tip  of  the  wing,  while  the  hind  wings 
are  grayish  ochreous.  The  wings  are  sometimes  unspotted. 
It  feeds  in  wheat  granaries,  where  it  secretes  itself  within 
the  grain,  devouring  the  mealy  substance.  Reaumur,  according 
to  Mr.  Stainton,  thus  speaks  of  the  econon^  of  material  in  the 
food  of  the  larva  of  Gelechia  cerealella.  "A  grain  of  wheat 
or  of  barley  contains  the  precise  quan- 
tity of  food  necessary  to  nourish  the 
larva  from  its  birth  till  it  is  full  fed. 
For  if  we  open  a  grain  inhabited  by 
a  younger  and  smaller  larva,  we  find 
that  there  is  more  or  less  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  grain  still  to  be  consumed, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  larva. 

But  what  is  remarkable  is,  that  in  the  latter  case,  we  find 
at  least  as  much  and  probably  more  excrement,  and  in  larger 
pellets,  than  we  find  in  a  grain  tenanted  by  an  older  larva." 
It  is  thus  driven  to  eat  its  excrement  over  once  and  perhaps 
more  than  once !  We  have  received  from  Mr.  F.  G.  Sanborn 
the  larva  (Fig.  266,  much  enlarged)  of  this  moth,  which  had 
eaten  out  the  kernel  of  grains  of  parching  corn,  leaving  but  a 
thin  shell.  The  body  is  unusually  short,  thick  and  white,  the 
tegument  being  very  thin  and  transparent.  Gelechia  fungivo- 

retta  Clem,  has  roseate  white 
fore  wings,  dusted  and  banded 
with  brown.  Walsh  states  that 
"the  larva  mines  a  cabbage- 
like  gall  (C.  salicis-brassicoides) , 
Fig  266.  peculiar  to  Salix  longifolia,  and 

a  pine-cone-like  gall  on  Salix  cordata,  named  C.  salicis-stro- 
biloides  by  Osten  Sacken."  The  larva  of  a  similar  species, 
G.  roseosuffusella ,  inhabits  the  fruit  panicles  of  the  sumach. 

Coleophora  is  a  beautiful  form,  with  long  fringes  to  the 
wings,  which  are  long  and  lanceolate,  especially  the  hinder  pair. 
The  head  is  smooth  above  and  in  front,  and  the  slender,  simple 
antennae  are  sometimes  thickened  with  scales  as  far  as  their 


TINEID^E.  351 

middle.  The  labial  palpi  are  slender,  rather  porrected,  with  a 
slender  prolonged  tuft  from  the  second  joint,  and  the  third 
joint  is  pointed.  The  larva  is  a  case-bearer,  changing  to  a 
pupa  within  the  case.  While  these  moths  abound  in  the  larva 
state,  the  adult  insects  are  rarely  met  with.  The  leaf-feeding 
larvae  are  very  easily  found,  as  their  presence  may  be  detected 
by  the  pale  blotches  they  form  on  the  leaf  they  feed  upon, 
while  the  seed-feeding  larvae  are  much  better  concealed. 

"Coleophora  larvae  do  not  well  bear  confinement  in  the  hu- 
mid air  of  the  breeding  jar.  To  be  successful  in  rearing  the 
larvae,  one  must  use  a  pot  of  moistened  sand,  in  which  the  food 
plant  is  placed,  covered  with  a  glass  cylinder,  with  fine  gauze 
tied  over  the  top  ;  or  the  plant  may  be  kept  in  water  and  cov- 
ered with  a  cylinder  of  glass.  For  this  purpose  old  chimney 
tops  to  lamps  answer  very  well.  The  larvae  of  this  genus,  taken 
in  the  fall  of  the  year,  hibernate  in  their  cases  until  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  and  feed  upon  the  first  leaves  that  put  forth. 
They  must  not,  therefore,  be  kept  in  a  warm  room  during 
the  winter.  The  pupae  of  the  fall  brood  of  larvae  thrive  much 
better,  likewise,  if  not  kept  in  a  warm  room  during  the  cold 
months.  The  spring,  or  early  summer  brood  of  larvae,  produce 
images  in  a  few  weeks  after  entering  the  pupa  state,  and  hence 
it  is  much  more  satisfactory  to  collect  early  in  the  year  than 
during  the  latter  part."  (Clemens.) 

In  C.  roscefoliella  Clem,  the  head  and  thorax  are  white,  while 
the  fore  wings  are  pale  grayish  towards  the  base,  clouded  with 
dark  brown  from  the  middle  to  the  tip,  and  the  hind  wings  are 
dark  brown.  The  case  is  silken,  covered  with  granulations, 
cylindrical,  slightly  compressed,  the  mouth  slightly  deflexed 
and  the  opposite  hook-like  end  turned  down  slightly.  Its  color 
is  brown,  varied  with  gray  and  reddish-brown  granulations. 
The  larva  feeds  in  the  spring  on  the  common  garden  rose,  and 
the  case  was  found  in  winter  attached  to  a  thorn  on  one  of  the 
stems.  C.  rosacella  Clem,  also  feeds  in  the  spring  on  the  rose 
and  sweet  briar.  The  case  is  made  of  the  cuticle  of  the  rose- 
leaf  on  which  the  larva  feeds.  It  is  a  compressed  cylinder,  and 
dilated  slightly  in  the  middle  of  the  under  edge.  Color  dark 
ochreous.  (Clemens.)  Coleophora  coruscipennella  Clemens  is 
a  beautiful  bronzed  green  species,  with  the  terminal  half  of  the 


352  LEPIDOPTERA. 

antennae  white,  ringed  with  brown.  The  fore  wings  are  reddish 
violet  on  the  apex,  and  the  hind  wings  are  dark  brown.  An 
unknown  species  is  represented  on  Plate  8,  fig.  17.  It  was 
found  feeding  on  the  pear  the  5th  of  September,  carrying  about 
a  flattened  case  of  the  form  indicated  in  the  figure,  which  is 
enlarged  about  five  times.  We  have  also  found  another  Col- 
eophora  larva,  with  a  long,  flattened,  cylindrical  case,  alike  at 
each  end,  constructed  of  the  outer  skin  of  the  leaf.  It  was 
found  late  in  September  feeding  on  the  apple. 

In  the  genus  Batrachedra  the  wings  arc  narrow,  especially 
the  hind  ones  which  are  sharply  pointed,  with  a  tuft  near  the 
base  of  the  costa.  B.  salidpomonelta  Clemens  (Fig.  267,  vena- 
tion and  side  view  of  the  head,  enlarged),  in  its  larval  state, 
according  to  Mr.  Walsh,  inhabits  the  gall 
made  by  a  saw-fly  on  the  willow. 

Elachista  is  a  very  extensive  genus  charac- 
terized by  the  long  and  slender,  slightly  re- 
curved palpi.  The  fore  wings  are  smooth, 
elongate  and  rarely  oblong,  and  the  hind 
wings  are  narrow  and  pointed.  The  larva 
mines  the  leaves  of  grasses  and  allied  plants. 
Fig.  267.  Over  fifty  species  have  been  described  in 

Europe.  Clemens  refers  doubtfully  to  this  genus,  a  Virginian 
species,  Elachista  ?  orichalcella,  which  is  of  a  beautiful  metallic 
coppery  color,  while  the  hind  wings  and  fringe  are  rather  pale 
ochreous. 

The  genus  Lithocolletis  comprises  very  minute  but  most  richly 
colored  moths.  The  head  is  rough,  the  labial  palpi  filiform 
and  drooping,  while  the  fore  wings  are  elongate,  and  the  hind 
wings  are  linear  lanceolate,  with  long  fringes.  They  are  often 
excessively  abundant,  are  rather  sluggish,  but  fly  readily  in  the 
early  morning.  In  Europe  they  are  double-brooded,  and  hiber- 
nate in  the  pupa  state  (Clemens  states  that  some  hibernate  as 
moths),  appearing  in  the  perfect  state  in  spring,  while  a  second 
brood  of  moths  appear  in  August.  The  larvae  have  fourteen 
feet,  and  mine  the  leaves  of  trees,  shrubs  or  low  plants,  sepa- 
rating either  the  upper  or  lower  cuticle  and  feeding  on  the 
inner  substance  of  the  leaf.  When  the  mine  is  on  the  upper 
surface,  or  at  least  most  frequently  when  it  is  in  this  position, 


TINEID^E.  353 

the  leaf  becomes  folded  and  curved  at  the  place  mined,  and  the 
separated  cuticle  is  gathered  into  folds,  or  covers  the  curved 
portion  so  as  to  make  a  capacious  habitation.  Some  of  the 
miners  of  the  upper  surface  of  leaves  make  large  blotches,  or 
tracts,  and  when  the  mines  are  fresh  the  separated  cuticle  is 
whitish  and  very  noticeable.  The  miners  of  the  under  surface, 
cause  the  upper  cuticle  to  become  discolored  in  patches,  and 
this  with  the.  fold  of  the  side  of  the  leaf  is  often  sufficient  to 
indicate  the  presence  of  a  mine.  Usually  the  species  are  con- 
fined to  a  single  plant ;  some,  however,  feed  on  several  allied 
plants.  The  larva  seldom  quits  the  mine  and  changes  in  it 
to  a  pupa.  Some  species  either  make  no  cocoon  or  only  a  very 
slight  one,  and  others  make  one  of  grains  of  excrement  woven 
together  with  silk.  L.  Fitchella  Clemens  (Argyromiges  querci- 
foliella  Fitch)  is  silvery  white,  with  pale  reddish  saffron  fore 
wings,  slightly  tinged  with  a  brassy  hue.  It  feeds  on  the  oak, 
according  to  Dr.  Fitch. 

L.  saUtifollella  Clemens  during  the  latter  part  of  June  or 
early  in  July  mines  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves  of  the  yel- 
low willow  (Salix  vitellina  var.  alba).  L.  juglandiella  makes 
an  elongated,  rather  wide  tract  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
leaves  of  the  black  walnut. 

During  the  last  summer  the  larva  of  an  undescribed  species, 
which  we  may  call  Litliocolletis  geminatella  (Plate  8,  fig.  15  ;  a, 
larva ;  6,  pupa  ;  c,  its  mine,  the  first  three  figures  enlarged  six 
diameters)  was  abundant  on  the  apple  and  pear  trees.  The 
moth  is  of  a  dark  slate  gray,  without  any  prominent  markings, 
with  ochreous  hairs  on  the  top  of  the  head.  There  is  a  black 
round  spot  on  the  middle  of  the  inner  edge  of  the  wing  (omit- 
ted in  the  figure,  which  is  drawn  from  a  slightly  rubbed  speci- 
men). On  the  outer  edge  is  an  eye-like  spot,  pupilled  with 
black,  like  the  "eye"  in  a  peacock's  tail.  The  antennae  are 
dark,  ringed  with  a  pale  slate  color.  It  expands  .30  of  an  inch. 
The  larva  is  pale  livid  reddish  with  a  black  head  and  cervical 
shield,  and  .14  of  an  inch  in  length.  It  was  first  discovered 
about  the  middle  of  August,  hanging  from  a  branch  suspended 
by  a  thread.  From  this  time  it  became  abundant,  until  the 
leaves  began  to  fall  in  the  first  week  of  October ;  nearly  every 
leaf  on  some  of  the  pear  and  apple  trees  having  a  mine  like 
23 


354  LEPIDOPTERA. 

that  represented  in  Plate  8,  fig.  15  c.  Usually  the  larva  draws 
two  leaves  together,  or  folds  one  up,  and  as  it  eats  its  way 
along  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  leaves  its  excrement  filling  up  the 
space  behind,  thus  making  blotches  and  otherwise  disfiguring 
the  leaves.  In  this  mine  it  transforms  into  a  long  slender 
pupa,  which  may  be  found  surrounded  with  the  castings  of  the 
larva.  The  moths  first  appeared  August  19th,  and  flew  in-doors 
at  night  attracted  by  the  light. 

Bucculatrix  pomonella  Clem.  (Plate  8,  fig.  16,  enlarged)  is  a 
pale  whitish  species  with  yellowish  scales,  with  a  black  line, 
which  beginning  on  the  middle  of  the  costa,  curves  around  to- 
wards the  apex,  ending  in  the  usual  eye-like  spot  on  the  outer 
edge,  beyond  which  is  a  dark  marginal  line ;  in  the  middle  of 
the  wing  near  the  inner  side  is  a  longitudinal  black  oval  spot, 
paler  within.  The  hind  wings  are  pale  gray,  and  the  body  and 
legs  pale  whitish  yellow.  The  wings  expand  .30  of  an  inch. 
We  never  met  with  the  larva,  but  the  cocoon  is  long  and  slen- 
der, a  little  blunt  at  each  end  and  white,  with  slight  longitudinal 
ridges.  It  may  be  found  attached  to  the  bark  on  the  branches 
of  the  apple  tree  in  May  and  also  in  the  autumn  and  winter. 
Besides  differing  from  L.  geminatella  in  making  a  regular  co- 
coon, the  pupa  is  a  little  stouter  and  the  top  of  the  head  is 
blunter. 

Another  species,  which  appears  to  be  undescribed,  we  would 
call  the  Lithocolletis  nidificansella  (Plate  8,  fig.  19,  moth;  19 a, 
cocoon)  from  the  singular  way  the  cocoon  is  suspended  in  a 
leaf  like  a  hanging  nest,  by  silken  cords.  The  single  speci- 
men figured  was  found  early  in  September,  the  moth  appearing 
on  the  llth.  The  larva  feeds  on  the  pear,  and  when  about  to 
transform  had  evidently  drawn  the  edges  of  the  leaf  together 
by  a  few  threads,  and  then  suspended  its  thin  cocoon  in  the 
manner  indicated  in  the  figure,  the  position  of  the  chrysalis 
being  represented  by  the  black  line  in  the  centre  of  the  cocoon. 
The  moth  is  silvery  white,  with  gray  hind  wings.  The  fore 
wings  are  white,  with  golden  bronze  streaks  and  spots.  The 
costa  is  white,  with  three  oblique  golden  lines  running  out- 
wards from  the  edge  of  the  wing  towards  the  outer  margin,  the 
inner  one  being  minute,  and  the  outer  one  broad  and  less 
oblique  than  the  others.  Beyond,  are  three  apical  straight 


TINEIM:.  355 

thread-like  lines  next  the  eye-like  black  dot,  near  which  arises 
a  slender  pencil  of  long  hairs.  Below  the  costa  the  wing  is 
spotted  with  gold,  and  there  is  a  broad  oblique  golden  dark 
band  directed  outwards  and  reaching  to  the  middle  of  the 
wing.  The  costa  is  golden  on  the  outer  third  of  its  length. 
The  wings  expand  .36  of  an  inch. 

Lyonetia  is  closely  allied  to  the  preceding  genus,  and  may 
be  distinguished  from  it  by  the  head  being  smooth,  the  scales 
being  broad  and  flattened  down.  Mr.  F.  G.  Sanborn  first 
drew  our  attention  to  this  moth,  having  reared  it  from  cocoons 
found  on  the  apple.  From  the  singular  habit  of  the  larva  in 
making  a  case  instead  of  living  in  a  mine  in  leaves,  we  would 
call  it  the  Lyonetia  saccatella  (Plate  8,  fig.  18  ;  18 a,  the  larva ; 
186,  the  larva  with  its  case,  all  a  little  enlarged).  The  moth 
is  a  perfect  gem ;  its  head  and  short  antennae  are  pale  gray 
and  its  fore  wings  are  light  slate  gray  on  the  basal  half,  and 
beyond  bright  orange,  enclosing  two  white  bands,  one  costal 
and  the  other  arising  from  the  inner  edge,  both  nearly  meeting 
in  the  middle  of  the  wing,  and  edged  externally  with  black. 
There  is  a  square,  black,  very  conspicuous  spot  near  the  fringe, 
in  which  is  a  long  pencil  of  black  hairs,  not  shown  in  the 
figure.  The  outer  angle  of  the  wing  is  dusky.  It  expands 
.20  of  an  inch.  The  larva  is  a  little  flattened  green  worm, 
and  constructs  a  flattened  oval  case  of  the  skin  of  the  leaf 
which  it  draws  about.  The  case  is  open  at  each  end,  and 
is  roomy  enough  for  the  larva  to  turn  around  in.  It  be- 
comes fully  grown  by  the  last  of  August,  and  in  Octo- 
ber we  have  found  the  cocoons  attached  to  the  bark  of  the 
tree,  where  they  may  also  be  seen  through  the  winter  and  in 
the  spring. 

The  last  important  genus,  Nepticula,  contains  the  smallest 
known  lepidopterous  insects.  "Many  of  them  are  excessively 
beautiful,  resplendent  with  burnished  copper,  gold  and  silver 
scales.  They  may  fre  observed  in  May  and  June,  sitting  on 
the  trunks  of  trees  or  palings  ;  but  to  see  these  atoms  requires 
an  experienced  eye.  Most  of  the  species  appear  to  be  double- 
brooded,  and  are  easily  collected  in  plenty  in  the  larva  state. 
A  nut-leaf,  containing  from  twenty  to  thirty  larvae  of  Nepticula 
microtheriella,  is  no  unusual  sight.  In  Nepticula  the  antennae 


356  LEPIDOPTERA. 

are  not  half  as  long  as  the  fore  wings,  which  are  rather  broad 
while  the  hind  pair  are  lanceolate. 

"The  larvae  mine  very  narrow  serpentine  patfcs  in  the  inte- 
rior of  leaves,  the  mine  being  always  on  the  upper  surface. 
They  vary  much  in  form,  being  sometimes  a  slender  galley  or 
line,  either  simple,  or  enlarged  towards  the  end  into  a  blotch. 
When  the  larva  is  full-fed  it  quits  the  mine,  cutting  for  this 
purpose  the  separated  cuticle,  in  order  to  weave  a  minute  co- 
coon." (Clemens.)  JV.  corylifoliella  Clemens  mines  the  hazel. 
N.  platanella  Clemens  mines  the  button- wood  tree,  or  syca- 
more, and  N..  amelanchierella  Clemens  mines  the  leaves  of  the 
June  berry  in  June  and  July. 

PTEROPHORID^E  Latreille.  The  small  group  of  Plume-moths 
may  be  at  once  known  by  their  fissured  and  plumed  wings. 
The  body  is  long  and  slender,  with  long  antennae  and  legs. 
They  are  the  lowest  moths,  the  long  slender  abdomen  and  fis- 
sured wings  being  marks  of  degradation.  The  larvae  have  six- 
teen legs  and  are  rather  hairy.  They  form  no  cocoon,  but, 
fastening  themselves  by  the  tail  to  a  leaf  or  stem,  shed  their 
larva-skins  and  appear  in  the  pupa  state.  Some  of  the  pupae 
are  nearly  as  hairy  as  the  larvae,  others  are  quite  naked.  Most 
of  the  larvae  feed  in  the  early  summer  months,  and  the  perfect 
insects  appear  rather  later,  though  some  may  be  seen  in  spring. 
(Stainton,  Manual  of  British  Butterflies  and  Moths.) 

In  Pteropliorus  the  hind  margin  of  the  'fore  wing  is  more  or 
less  deeply  cleft,  while  the  hind  wings  are  almost  divided  into 
three  separate  slender  lobes  or  plumes.  The  larvae  live  in  the 
flowers  and  stems  as  well  as  on  the  leaves  of  plants.  P.  peri- 
scelidactylus  Fitch  (Plate  8,  fig.  23  ;  a,  larva  ;  6,  pupa,  enlarged) 
is  tawny  yellow,  the  fore  wings  having  three  large  white  spots 
and  two  bands  beyond  ;  the  outer  line  is  thread-like,  the  inner 
line  being  much  broader  on  the  costal  division  of  the  wing,  re- 
appearing at  the  base  of  the  split  in  the  wing,  and  below 
extending  out  to  the  lower  half  of  the  outer  line.  The  hind 
wings  are  darker  brown  than  the  rest  of  the  moth,  while  the 
third  and  shortest  division  of  the  wing  is  white,  but  brown  at 
the  end,  with  the  fringe  on  the  outer  fourth  of  the  wing  still 
darker  brown.  The  legs  are  white  with  tufts  of  brown  scales 


PTEROPHORIDJE.  357 

surrounding  the  hind  legs.  It  expands  .65  of  an  inch.  The 
larvae,  received  from  Mr.  M.  C.  Reed,  of  Hudson,  Ohio,  were 
pale  green,  with  a  greenish  yellow  head.  Along  the  body  is  a 
double  dorsal  paler  line,  and  whitish  tubercles,  from  which  pro- 
ceed very  long  uneven  hairs,  and  the  body  is  also  covered  with 
very  short  white  hairs,  giving  a  frosted  appearance  to  the 
worm.  They  are  about  half  an  inch  long.  About  the  middle 
of  June  it  changes  to  the  singular  chrysalis  represented  on  the 
plate,  and  in  about  a  fortnight  appears  as  one  of  the  most  deli- 
cate and  graceful  of  moths.  It  may  be  seen  flying  about  our 
graperies  in  midsummer,  and  is  attracted  to  our  apartments 
after  nightfall  by  the  lights  within.  It  feeds  upon  the  young 
leaves  of  the  grape,  hiding  itself  in  a  hollow  ball  made  of 
leaves  drawn  together  by  threads.  The  pupa  is  slender,  coni- 
cal, obliquely  truncated  at  the  head,  with  two  long  compressed 
horns  placed  side  by  side,  and  jutting  upwards  from  the  mid- 
dle of  its  back,  and  numerous  smaller  projecting  points  and 
ridges.  It  reminds  one  of  the  chrysalids  of  the  butterflies, 
in  its  habit  of  remaining  attached  by  its  tail  to  the  plant  on 
which  it  feeds. 

In  Alucita  the  wings  are  still  farther  subdivided,  each  wing 
being  divided  from  the  base  into  six  distinct  feathers.  The 
larva  of  the  European  A.  polydactyla  feeds  in  the  unopened 
buds  of  the  honey-suckle.  It  is  not  hairy,  and  spins  a  co- 
coon. 


Fig.  269. 
Chrysophanus  Thoe  Westwood. 


358  DIPTERA. 


DIPTERA, 

FLIES  may  be  easily  recognized  by  their  having  but  a  single 
pair  of  wings,  the  hinder  pair  being  aborted,  and  existing  in  a 
rudimentary  state  under  the  name  of  "halter."  The  more  es- 
sential character  of  the  Diptera,  however,  consists  in  the  greatly 
centralized,  more  or  less  globular  thorax.  Both  the  prothorax 
and  metathorax  are  greatly  aborted,  and  the  legs  are  somewhat 
weak.  As  the  second  pah-  of  wings  are  obsolete,  the  muscles 
adapted  for  flying  are  not  developed. 

When  the  wings  are  entirely  wanting,  as  in  Chionea,  the 
Spider  fly,  and  the  Spider-like  Bat-tick  (Nycteribia),  the  tho- 
rax becomes  still  more  globular,  and  the  head  of  .Nycteribia 
shows  a  tendency  to  become  immersed  in  the  thorax,  as  in  the 
spiders. 

The  abdomen  is  either  short,  conical  and  broad  at  the  base, 
being  rarely  pedicellate  ;  or  long  and  cylindrical,  or  flattened 
either  horizontally  or  laterally.  The  conical  form  of  the  abdo- 
men accords  with  the  quick  jerky  flight  of  the  House  fly,  as 
compared  with  the  steady  slow  flight  of  Tipula,  whose  abdomen 
is  very  long.  The  abdomen  is  composed  of  from  five  to  nine 
distinct  segments.  As  Lacaze-Duthiers  states,  the  Diptera  as 
a  rule  have  no  true  ovipositor  like  that  of  bees,  etc. ,  though  the 
three  terminal  rings  are  retracted  within  the  abdominal  cavity, 
and  are  capable  of  being  thrust  out  like  the  joints  of  a  telescope. 
When  about  to  lay  their  eggs  they  simply  place  them  in  cracks 
or  upon  the  substances  that  are  to  form  the  future  food  of  the 
larva,  having  no  organs  for  boring,  though  the  female  Tipulids 
are  able  to  work  the  hard  tip  of  the  abdomen  into  the  ground 
where  they  deposit  their  eggs.  The  terminal  ring  of  the  abdo- 
men in  the  males  is  provided  with  clasping  organs. 

The  head  is  very  free  from  the  thorax  in  the  true  flies,  and 
is  spherical,  hemispherical  or  conical.  The  eyes  are  large,  with 
very  numerous  facets,  and  often  approach  each  other  closely  on 
the  front  of  the  head,  especially  in  the  males.  The  ocelli,  when 
present,  are  placed  on  the  vertex,  and  the  antennae  are  in- 
serted below,  in  the  middle  (antero-posteriorly)  of  the  front. 


DIPTEEA.  359 

They  are  either  long  and  evenly  jointed,  as  in  the.  Tipulidce, 
often  with  long  cilia,  and  sometimes  verticillate,  as  in  Ce- 
cidomyia ;  or,  as  in  the  House  fly,  the  typical  form  is  a 
short  and  stout,  two  to  three-jointed  antenna,  ending  in  a 
bristle. 

In  the  Hymenoptera  and  Lepidoptera  only  a  portion  of  the 
mouth  parts  are  used  for  sucking  in  food,  but  in  the  present 
group,  the  labruni,  with  the  two  pairs  of  appendages,  i.  e.,  the 
maxillae  and  mandibles,  are  (when  all  are  well  developed,  as 
in  the  Mosquito)  ensheathed  partially  within  the  labium,  and 
with  the  last  form  a  channel  for  the  passage  of  the  fluid  food 
into  the  mouth. 

The  labium  forms  the  under  side  of  the  sheath,  while  the 
mandibles  and  maxillae  are  represented  by  simple  setae,  though 
the  one,  two,  or  three-jointed  maxillary  palpi  are  present,  and 
in  this  last  character  the  rostrum  of  the  flies  differs  from  the 
beak  of  the  Hemiptera.  As  in  the  Hymenoptera,  the  lingua 
is  well,  though  differently  developed,  terminating  in  a  large 
fleshy  knob  which  is  divided  into  two  fleshy  flaps  called  the 
labellce. 

The  wings  are  naked,  as  in  the  Hymenoptera,  though  fine 
hairs  may  be  detected  by  the  microscope  on  the  veins,  becom- 
ing most  apparent  in  the  Psychodae,  where  the  wings  are  very 
hairy.  In  form  they  are  long  and  narrow,  the  costal  edge 
being  straight,  the  apex  of  the  wing  obtusely  rounded,  while 
the  oblique  outer  edge  is  very  long  and  nearly  parallel  with 
the  costa,  where  in  the  Lepidoptera  it  is  nearly  at  right  an- 
gles to.  it.  The  veins  are  six  in  number,  and  in  their  direction 
and  branches  (Fig.  270-271)  correspond  more  closely  with  the 
venation  of  the  Lepidoptera  than  any  other  suborder.  The 
veins  are  straight,  and  with  fewer  branches  than  in  the  Lepi- 
doptera, but  with  more  cross  venules,  which  in  the  wing  of 
the  Tipulidce,  remind  us  of  the  net-veined  Neuroptera. 
When,  as  in  the  Cecidomyiae,  the  veins  become  in  part  ob- 
solete, only  three  veins  remain,  the  costal,  subcostal  and 
median.  The  form  and  size  of  the  cells,  especially  the  submar- 
ginal  ones,  are  of  much  use  in  distinguishing  the  species,  while 
the  changes  in  the  costal  and  basal  .portion  of  the  wing  are 
the  most  important  in  classifying  the  genera  and  families. 


360  DIPTERA. 

The  function  of  the  halteres,  or  "poisers,"  is  still  problema- 
tical. Hicks  and  Leydig  consider  them  as  organs  of  hearing, 
while  Goureau  and  Loew  think  they  are  concerned  in  the  act 
of  respiration. 

Besides  the  well  known  wingless  genus  Chionea,  and  the 
Flea,  Sheep-tick,  and  Braula,  Loew,  the  eminent  German  ento- 
mologist, enumerates  several  European  species  of  Tipula,  the 
females  of  which  have  the  wings  rudimentary ;  and  also  a  spe- 
cies of  Limnobia  (Idioptera).  Epidapus  is  wingless  in  both 
sexes.  "  Psyllomyia,  Apterina  and  Elachiptera,  and  species 
of  Tachista,  Chersodromia  and  Geomyza  have  rudimentary 
wings  in  both  sexes  ;  in  other  forms  the  wings  are  only  abbre- 
viated in  both  sexes  (Sciomyza),  or  in  those  of  the  male  or  fe- 
male are  smaller  than  in  the  other  sex  (species  of  Empis, 
Rhamphomyia,  Idioptera  and  Tipula)." 

FIG.  270.  Diagram  of  a  wing  with  two  submarginal  and  five  posterior  cells  (Cladura 
indivisd).  Cells:  — I,  costal;  2,  subcostal;  3,  marginal;  3*,  inner  marginal;  4,  sub- 
marginal;  5,  second  submarginal;  6-10,  first  to  fifth  posterior;  11,  discal;  12,  first 
basal;  13,  second  basal;  14,  anal;  15,  axillary;  16,  spurious.  Veins:— b  I,  auxiliary; 
cm,  first  longitudinal;  h,  n,  o,  second  longitudinal;  h  i,  praefurca;  k  n,  anterior 
branch  of  the  second  longitudinal  vein;  Jc  o,  posterior  branch  of  the  second  longi- 
tudinal vein;  i  k,  petiole  of  the  first  submarginal  cell;  ip,  third  longitudinal;  d  q 
rst,  fourth  longitudinal;  q  r,  fork  of  its  anterior  branch;  the  posterior  branch  of 
this  fork,  ending  in  r,  is  Mr.  Loew's  anterior  intercalary  vein ;  s  t,  fork  of  the  pos- 
terior branch  of  the  fourth  vein ;  the  branch  of  this  fork,  ending  in  t.,  is  Mr.  Loew's 
posterior  intercalary  vein ;  e  u,  fifth  longitudinal;  /  v,  sixth  longitudinal;  g  w, 
seventh  longitudinal.  Cross-veins:— x,  humeral;  a?  a?,  subcostal;  xxx,  marginal; 
x*,  small,  or  anterior  cross-vein;  #**,  great  cross-vein.  —  From  Osten  Sacken. 


Fig.  270. 

FIG.  271  (1).  Wing  of  Ortalis.  —  «,  transverse  shoulder- vein ;  6,  auxiliary  vein ;  c, 
d>  e>  />  9  and  &>  first>  second,  third,  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  longitudinal  veins;  i, 
small  or  middle  transverse  vein;  k,  hinder  transverse  vein;  I,  m,  «,  o,  costal  vein; 
p,  anterior  basal  transverse  vein ;  q,  posterior  basal  transverse  vein ;  r,  rudiment 
of  the  fourth  trunk;  s,  axillary  incision;  A,  S,  and  C,  first,  second  and  third  costal 
cells ;  D,  marginal  cell ;  E,  submarginal  cell ;  F,  G  and  H,  first,  second  and  third 
posterior  cells;  7,  discal  cell;  K,  first  or  large  basal  cell;  L±  second  basal  cell,  or 


DIPTERA. 


361 


M.  Marey  has  determined  that  a  common  fly  when  held  cap- 
tive moves  its  wings  330  times  a  second ;  a  honey  bee  190 
times,  and  a  cabbage  butterfly  (Pieris)  nine  times.  The  wings 
describe  a  figure  8  in  the  air.  (Cosmos.)  Landois,  calcu- 
lating the  rapidity  of  the  vibrations  by  the  sound  produced 

anterior  of  the  small  basal  cells ;  M,  third  basal  cell,  or  posterior  of  the  small 
basal  cells;  JV,  anal  or  axillary  corner  of  the  wing;  O,  alar  appendage,  (alula). 

FIG.  271  (2).  Wing  of  Empis.  —  t,  anterior  branch  of  the  third  longitudinal  vein; 
u,  anterior  intercalary. 


Fig.  271. 

FIG.  271  (3).  Wing  of  Dasypogon.  —  t,.  anterior  branch  of  the  third  longitudinal 
vein;  u,  anterior  intercalary  vein;  v,  posterior  intercalary  vein.  —  From  Loew. 

Comparing  the  wing  of  Ortalis  with  that  of  tine  bee  and  butterfly  figured  on 
page  23,  we  should  prefer  to  use  the  same  terminology  and  call  I,  m,  n,  the  margi- 
nal vein ;  A,  6,  the  costal ;  c,  d  and  e  the  three  branches  of  the  subcostal  vein ;  /,  the 
median  vein ;  h,  the  submedian ;  and  r,  the  internal  vein.  In  Macquart's  system, 
modified  slightly  by  Sacken  (fig.  270),  b,  I,  is  the  costal;  cm,  the  subcostal;  d  and  e, 
the  median ;  /,  the  submedian,  and  g  the  internal  vein. 


362  DIPTERA. 

thereby,  states  that  the  fly,  which  produces  the  sound  of  F,  vi- 
brates its  wings  352  times  a  second,  and  the  bee,  which  makes 
the  sound  of  A',  440  times  a  second.  "  On  the  contrary  a  tired 
bee  hums  on  E',  and  therefore  vibrates  its  wings  only  330  times 
in  a  second.  This  difference  is  probably  involuntary,  but  the 
change  of  'tone'  is  evidently  under  the  command  of  the  will, 
and  thus  offers  another  point  of  similarity  to  a  true  'voice.' 
A  bee  in  the  pursuit  of  honey  hums  continually  and  content- 
edly on  A',  but  if  it  is  excited  or  angry  it  produces  a  very  dif- 
ferent note.  Thus,  then,  the  sounds  of  insects  do  not  merely 
serve  to  bring  the  sexes  together ;  they  are  not  merely  '  love 
songs/  but  also  serve,  like  any  true  language,  to  express  the 
feelings.  (Sir  John  Lubbock's  Address  before  the  London 
Entomological  Society,  1868.) 

Landois  describes  the  sound-producing  organs  in  several 
genera  of  flies.  "He  distinguishes  three  different  tones  as 
emitted  by  these  insects  :  during  flight,  a  relatively  low  tone, 
a  higher  one  when  the  wings  are  held  so  as  to  prevent  their 
vibrating,  and  a  higher  still  when  the  fly  is  held  so  that  all  mo- 
tion of  the  external  parts  is  prevented.  The  last  mentioned 
is  the  true  voice  of  the  insect ;  it  is  produced  by  the  stigmata 
of  the  thorax,  and  may  be  heard  when  every  other  part  of  the 
body  is  cut  away.  The  first  sound  is  caused  by  the  rapid  vi- 
bration of  the  wings  in  the  air ;  the  second  is  caused,  or  at  all 
events  accompanied,  by  the  vibration  and  friction  of  the  abdo- 
minal segments,  and  by  a  violent  movement  of  the  head 
against  the  anterior  wall  of  the  thorax."  The  halteres  also 
assist  in  producing  the  sound.  The  vibration  of  the  head  in 
the  Diptera  during  the  emission  of  sound  is  regarded  by  this 
author  as  due  to  the  transmission  of  movement  from  the  tho- 
rax. (Zoological  Record,  1867.)  Landois  also  states  that 
there  are  small  species  which  give  a  deeper  note  than  larger 
ones,  on  account  of  the  wing-vibrations  not  being  of  the  same 
number  in  a  given  time.  (Lubbock.) 

The  legs  are  slender,  unarmed,  except  with  stout  bristles,  as 
in  Asilus  ;  the  joints  ar£  simple,  cylindrical ;  the  tarsi  are  five- 
jointed,  the  terminal  joint  ending  in  two  claws  (ungues),  be- 
tween which  is  the  cushion,  or  pulvillus,  consisting  of  two  or 
three  fleshy  vesicles,  often  armed  with  hairs,  which  are  tubular. 


DIPTEKA.  363 

and  secrete  an  adhesive  fluid,  which  is  said  to  aid  the  fly  in 
walking  up-side-down  on  polished  surfaces. 

The  nervous  system  in  the  Diptera  is  characterized  by  a 
grouping  of  the  thoracic  ganglia  into  a  single  mass,  from  which 
proceed  nerves  to  the  abdomen ;  the  abdominal  ganglia  being 
for  the  most  part  aborted.  Thus  in  some  Muscidm,  GEstrus, 
and  Hippobosca,  the  nervous  cord  behind  the  cephalic  portion, 
consists  of  a  single  thoracic  ganglion,  which  gives  out  nerves 
in  different  directions.  The  higher  Muscids,  such  as  Syrphus 
and  Conops  have  in  addition  one  or  two  ganglia  situated  at 
the  base  of  the  abdomen.  The  higher  groups,  such  as  the 
Tabanidce,  Asilidce  and  Bombylidce  have  six  ganglia, 
and  the  Empidce,  Tipulidce  and  Culicidce  have  more. 
The  larvae  usually  have  one  more  pair  than  the  adult,  having 
ten  and  sometimes  eleven  ganglia,  with  long  commissures, 
which  are  often  double. 

The  digestive  system  is  less  complex  than  usual.  As  in  the 
two  preceding  suborders,  on  one  side  of  the  oesophagus  is  a 
pedicellate  sucking  stomach  which  extends  into  the  abdomen 
near  the  true  chyle-making  stomach.  The  latter  is  of  the 
usual  intestinoid  form,  enlarging  a  little  anteriorly,  with  two 
coecal  appendages  beneath  on  each  side,  near  the  cardiac  ex- 
tremity. 

The  four,  rarely  five,  Malpighian  vessels  which  correspond 
to  the  kidneys  of  vertebrates,  are  united  before  they  open  into 
the  single  or  double  common  outlet. 

There  are  two  main  tracheae,  and  two  large  air-sacs,  one  on 
each  side,  at  the  base  of  the  abdomen.  The  system  of  tracheae 
is  simplest  in  the  aquatic  Tipulid  larvae,  resembling  in  this 
respect  the  Phryganeae,  where  the  tracheae  are  subcutaneous 
and  designed  to  extract  the  air  from  the  water. 

The  testes  are  generally  colored,  being  provided  with  a  pig- 
ment layer.  They  are  oval,  curved  or  tortuous  glands,,  with 
a  short  efferent  vessel  (vas  differens).  The  ovaries  consist  of 
three  to  four  chambered  tubes,  and  a  short  oviduct.  The  re- 
ceptaculum  seminis  is  generally  triple.  A  true  bursa  copulatrix 
is  wanting  in  the  Diptera,  but  in  "many  Muscidce  the  vagina 
has,  as  a  seminal  receptacle  or  uterus,  a  spacious  and  sometimes 
two-lobed  reservoir  in  which  the  fecundated  eggs  are  accumu- 


364  DIPTERA. 

lated  in  great  numbers,  and  remain  until  the  larvas  are  suffi- 
ciently developed  to  be  hatched,  so  that  these  animals  are 
viviparous.  In  the  pupiparous  Hippoboscae,  the  female  organs 
are  formed  on  an  entirely  special  type,  corresponding  with  the 
remarkable  mode  of  reproduction  in  these  animals."  (Siebold.) 
Near  the  external  opening  of  the  oviduct  is  a  pair  of  glands 
designed  to  secrete  the  gummy  matter  coating  the  eggs. 

The  eggs  of  the  Diptera  are  usually  cylindrical,  elon- 
gated and  slightly  curved,  and  the  surface  is  smooth,  not  being 
ornamented  as  in  the  Lepidoptera.  In  the  Tipulidce,  the 
eggs  become  mature  as  soon  as  the  pupa  skin  is  thrown  off, 
when  they  are  immediately  laid. 

The  larvae  are  footless,  white,  fleshy,  thin  skinned,  cylindrical 
and  worm-like,  spindled  or  linear  in  shape.  They  have,  in  the 
higher  families,  as  in  the  Tipulidce,  a  distinct  head  ;  but  they 
are  often  headless,  as  in  the  Muscidce,  and  are  then  called 
maggots.  They  live  in  mould,  decaying  organic  substances,  or 
in  the  water.  Many  maggots  are  provided  with  two  corneous 
hooks,  probably  the  mandibles,  with  which  they  seize  their  food. 
The  pupa  is  either  naked  (Pupa  obtecta,  Fig.  276),  like  the 
chrysalids  of , moths,  with  the  limbs  exposed,  as  in  the  Tipu- 
lidce ;  or  they  are  coarctate  (pupa  coarctata,  Fig. 
272)  as  in  the  flies  generally,  the  skin  of  the  larva 
serving  to  protect  the  soft  pupa  within,  as  during 
the  growth  of  the  pupa  the  old  larval  skin  separates 
from  the  newly  formed  pupa  skin,  which  contracts 
slightly.  It  is  then  called  the  puparium,  and  is 
usually  cylindrical  and  regularly  rounded  at  each  end 
like  the  cocoon  of  moths.  Those  which  have  the 
Fig.  272.  pupae  obtected,  when  aquatic  and  active,  are  provided 
with  gill-like  filaments  permeated  with  tracheae. 

The  semipnpa  stage  of  Diptera,  corresponds  generally  with 
that  of  the  Hymenoptera  and  Lepidoptera.  By  an  ingenious 
device  Dr.  Fitch  succeeded  in  observing  in  the  living  insect 
the  processes  by  which  the  larva  of  the  willow  Cecidomyia 
(C.  salicis)  turns  to  a  pupa,  and  which  is  usually  accomplished 
during  the  night.  He  states  that  "as  the  first  step  of  this 
change,  at  the  anterior  end  of  the  larva  the  cutis  or  opake 
inner  skin  becomes  wholly  broken  up  and  dissolved  into  a 


DIPTERA.  365 

watery  fluid,  whereby  the  thin  transparent,  outer  skin  or  cuticle 
is  elevated  like  a  vesicle  or  blister,  which  occupies  about 
a  fourth  of  the  length  of  the  worm  on  its  under  side,  but 
is  much  shorter  on  its  back.  The  insect  is  now  in  its  em- 
bryo-pupa state,  having  lost  its  larva  form  and  having  not 
yet  assumed  its  pupa  form.  In  the  fluid  contained  in  this  vesi- 
cle, the  wings,  legs  and  antennae  of  the  future  fly  now  begin 
to  be  developed,  whereby  the  sheaths  of  the  wings  at  length 
come  to  be  discerned  immediately  under  the  skin.  This  skin 
is  exceedingly  thin,  delicate  and  transparent,  like  the  tunica 
arachnoides  of  the  human  brain,  a  mere  film,  as  thin  as  a  spi- 
der's web.  Eventually  the  insect,  by  gently  writhing,  ruptures 
this  film  at  its  anterior  end,  and  gradually  crowds  it  off  down- 
wards to  the  lower  end  of  the  vesicle,  carrying  the  minute 
black  jaws  of  the  larva  with  it.  It  there  remains,  becoming 
dry  and  torn  into  shreds  which  flake  and  fall  off  by  the  con- 
tinued motions  of  the  insect.  At  the  same  time  from  the 
remainder  of  the  surface  not  occupied  by  this  vesicle,  a  still 
more  slight  and  delicate  film,  appearing  as  though  the  worm 
had  been  wet  in  milk  which  had  dried  upon  it,  forming  an  ex- 
ceedingly thin  pellicle  or  scurf,  becomes  separated  by  the  same 
•motions  of  the  insect  and  drops .  off  in  minute  scales  scarcely 
to  be  perceived  with  a  magnifying  glass.  And  now  the  insect 
has  acquired  its  perfect  pupa  form." 

Frederic  Brauer  has  proposed  in  his  "Monographic  der 
CEstriden,"  a  division  of  the  Diptera  into  two  large  groups. 
This  division  is  much  more  natural  than  the  old  one  into  those 
with  coarctate  and  obtected  pupae.  The  first  group  is  the  Dip- 
tera orthorapJia,  comprising  the  Nemocera,  or  flies  with  long  an- 
tennae, together  with  the  fitratiomyidce,  Xylophagidce, 
Tabanidce,  Acroceridce  (?),  Bombylidcz,  Asilidce, 
Leptidce,  Therevidce,  JEmpidce  and  Dolicliopidcc  (pass- 
ing over  some  small  families  whose  metamorphoses  are  not 
known).  In  these  families  the  larva  skin  at  the  last  moult 
splits  down  along  the  middle  of  the  back  of  the  three  thoracic 
rings,  while  a  transverse  split  on  the  first  thoracic  ring  makes  a 
T-shaped  fissure.  Through  this  the  mummy-like  pupa  with  free 
limbs  escapes  ;  or  it  remains  within  the  loose  envelope  formed 
by  the  old  larval  skin,  when  this  author  calls  it  a  "false  pu- 
parium." 


366  DIPTEBA. 

In  the  second  group,  the  Diptera  cydorapha,  the  true  coarc- 
tate,  cylindrical,  smooth  puparium  is  formed  by  the  contraction 
of  the  larva  skin,  but  is  very  different  in  shape  from  the  ma- 
ture larva  ;  while  this  puparium  remains  in  vital  connection  by 
means  of  tracheae,  with  the  enclosed  pupa,  which  escapes  from 
the  puparium  through  a  curved  seam  or  lid  in  the  anterior 
end,  and  not  by  a  slit  in  the  back.  This  group  includes  the 
Pipunculidce,  JSyrphidce,  Conopidce^  CEstridce,  Mus- 
cidce  and  Pupipara. 

Certain  Diptera  are  injurious  to  crops,  as  gall  producers,  but 
indirectly  the  Tachinidce  are  beneficial  since  they  prey  on  cat- 
erpillars ;  while  the  greater  number  act  as  scavengers  in  the 
water  and  on  land,  and  thus  as  sanitary  agents.  Diptera  enjoy 
a  wider  geographical  range  than  other  insects.  None  of  the 
larger  families  are  exclusively  tropical;  the  Muscidce  and 
mosquitoes  are  found  in  the  circumpolar  regions  in  abundance, 
as  well  as  in  the  tropics.  They  are  the  earliest  to  appear  in 
spring  and  the  latest  to  disappear  in  autumn.  They  are 
active  at  all  times,  in  rain  or  sunshine,  day  or  night,  though 
the  greater  number  prefer  the  sunshine. 

From  their  habit  of  living  in  vegetables,  flowers,  and  other 
substances  sometimes  eaten  by  persons,  physicians  occasion- 
ally are  called  to  treat  cases  where  dipterous  larvae  have  been 
swallowed  «and  produced  sickness.  Among  those  most  fre- 
quently vomited  are  larvae  of  various  Muscids,  especially  An- 
thomyia.  "  C.  Grerhardt  records  a  case  in  which  a  patient,  after 
four  days  illness,  vomited  about  fifty  larvae  of  some  dipterous 
insect,  probably  a  large  species  of  Muscidae.  A.  Laboul- 
bene  describes  and  figures  in  the  Annals  of  the  Entomologi- 
cal Society  of  France,  a  larva  of  Teichomyza  fusca  Macquart, 
which  is  exceedingly  abundant  in  the  public  urinals  in  France, 
and  which  lives  in  human  urine.  He  identifies  it  with  the 
larvae  described  and  figured  by  Davaine  in  1857,  as  having  been 
evacuated  from  the  intestines  of  a  woman  after  she  had  suffered 
much  pain.  (Zoological  Record  for  1867.)  Four  other  cases 
are  on  record  of  larvae  having  been  voided  by  the  urinary  pas- 
sages, or  found  living  in  urine,  though,  as  suggested  to  us  by 
Dr.  Hagen,  it  is  possible  that  in  such  cases,  the  worms  were 
not  voided,  but  lived  in  the  urine  previous  to  the  time  they 
were  detected  by  the  reporters  of  such  cases. 


DIPTERA.  367 

Dr.  J.  Leidy  reports  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  for  1859,  a  case  where  a  num- 
ber of  specimens  which  "  appeared  to  be  the  larvae  of  the  Blue- 
bottle fly,"  were  given  him  by  a  physician,  having  been  vomi- 
ited  from  the  stomach  by  a  child.  Also,  a  second  case  where 
numerous  larvae  of  a  species  of  Anthomyia,  "  were  given  to  him 
for  examination  by  a  physician  who  had  obtained  them  from 
his  own  person.  He  had  been  seized  with  all  the  symptoms 
of  cholera  morbus,  and  in  the  discharges  he  had  detected  nu- 
merous specimens  of  this,  to  him,  unknown  parasite.  It  was 
in  the  latter  part  of  summer,  and  the  larvae,  it  is  suspected, 
had  been  swallowed  with  some  cold  boiled  vegetables.  Dr. 
Leidy  had  observed  the  same  kind  of  larva  in  another  case, 
accompanied  with  the  ordinary  phenomena  of  cholera  mor- 
bus." 

Isidore  Geoffroy  Saint  Hilaire  records  a  case  of  a  larva  of 
the  common  fly  found  living  in  the  skin  of  an  infant ;  while 
Dr.  Livingston,  according  to  Cobbold,  detected  a  "solitary 
larva  of  a  species  which  had  taken  up  its  residence  in  his  leg. 
Dr.  Kirk  removed  this  parasite  by  incision ;  and  on  a  second 
occasion  he  obtained  a  similar  specimen .  from  the  shoulder  of 
a  negro." 

There  are  about  2,500  species  of  North  American  flies  de- 
scribed, and  it  is  probable  that  the  number  of  living  North 
American  species  amounts  to  10,000.  In  Europe  there  are  also 
about  10,000  known  species,  belonging  to  about  680  genera. 

The  flies  of  this  country,  compared  with  the  other  groups, 
have  been  but  little  studied,  though  the  habits  of  manj7  are  so 
interesting  and  the  species  very  numerous.  The  different  parts 
of  the  body  vary  much  more  than  in  the  Hymenoptera  and 
Lepidoptera,  and  in  such  a  degree  as  to  often  afford  compara- 
tively easy  characters  for  discriminating  the  genera. 

Their  habits  are  very  variable.  Fresh  water  aquaria  are 
necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  aquatic  larvae.  If  quantities 
of  swamp  mud  and  moss  with  decaying  matter  are  kept  in  boxes 
and  jars,  multitudes  of  small  flies  will  be  hatched  out.  Leaf- 
mining  and  seed-inhabiting  species  can  be  treated  as  micro- 
lepidoptera,  and  earth-inhabiting  larvae  like  ordinary  cater- 
pillars. Dung,  mould  in  hollow  trees,  stems  of  plants  and 


368  DIPTERA. 

toadstools  contain  numerous  larvae  or  maggots,  as  the  young 
of  flies  are  called,  which  must  be  kept  in  damp  boxes. 

Flies  can  be  pinned  alive,  without  killing  them  by  pressure, 
which  destroys  their  form ;  and  numbers  may  be  killed  at  once 
by  moistening  the  bottom  of  the  collecting  box  with  creosote, 
benzine  or  ether,  or  putting  them  into  a  bottle  with  a  wide 
mouth,  containing  cyanide  of  potassium.  Minute  species  can 
be  pinned  with  very  slender  pins,  or  pieces  of  fine  silver  wire, 
and  stuck  into  pieces  of  pith,  which  can  be  placed  high  up 
on  a  large  pin.  In  pinning  long-legged,  slender  species,  it  is 
advisable  to  run  a  piece  of  card  or  paper  up  under  their  bodies 
upon  which  their  legs  may  rest,  and  thus  prevent  their  loss 
by  breakage.  Of  these  insects,  as  with  all  others,  duplicates 
in  all  stages  of  growth  should  be  preserved  in  alcohol,  while 
the  minute  species  dry  up  unless  put  in  spirits. 

In  the  genuine  flies  the  thorax  is  highly  centralized;  the 
maxillae  are  covered  by  the  labrum,  and  the  labium  is  not  pro- 
vided with  palpi.  The  females  lay  eggs  from  which  the  larvae 
are  hatched.  They  are  also  divided  into  the  Nemocera,  com- 
prising those  flies  having  long,  thread-like,  many-jointed  an- 
tennae, and  embracing  the  higher  families,  i.e.  the  Culicidce, 
Tipulidce,  Bibionidce,  and  Rhyphidce  ;  while  the  remain- 
ing families  of  this  division  are  included  in  the  Brachycera,  or 
flies  with  short  antennae,  such  as  the  Muscidce,  etc.  But  the 
fossil  genera,  Electra  and  Chryothemis,  discovered  by  Profes- 
sor Loew  in  the  amber  of  the  Tertiary  formation,  and  a  North 
American  genus  of  Xylophagidce,and  the  genus  Rachicerus, 
have  intermediate  characters  combining  these  distinctions, 
which  are  thus  shown  to  be  somewhat  arbitrary. 

CULICIDJE  Latreille.  The  family  of  Mosquitoes  or  Gnats 
have  the  mouth-parts  very  long  and  slender;  the  maxillae  and 
mandibles  are  free  and  lancet-like.  Figure  274  (A,  larva ;  c, 
its  respiratory  tube  ;  B,  pupa  ;  d,  the  respiratory  tubes  ;  a,  the 
end  of  the  abdomen,  with  the  two  oar-like  swimming  leaves, 
seen  in  profile  at  B,  from  drawings  made  by  Mr.  E.  Burgess,) 
illustrates  the  transformations  of  a  species  inhabiting  brackish 
water  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston.  The  larvae  remain  most  of 
the  time  at  the  bottom  feeding  upon  decaying  matter,  thus  act- 


CULICID^E. 


369 


Fig.  273. 


ing  as  scavengers  and  doing  great  benefit  in  clearing  swamps 
of  miasms.  Occasionally  they  rise  to  the  surface  for  air  by  a 
jerking  movement,  inhaling  it  through  the  star-like  respiratory 
tube  which  connects  with  the  tracheae. 

The  pupae  have  club-shaped  bodies  owing  to  the  greatly  en- 
larged thorax,  with  two  respiratory  tubes  like  those  of  Corethra, 
situated  on  the  thorax.  They 
remain  near  the  surface  of 
the  water  wriggling  towards 
the  bottom  when  disturbed, 
aided  by  the  two  broad 
swimming  caudal  leaves. 
Though  active  in  their  hab- 
its they  do  not  eat.  The  eggs 
are  laid  in  a  boat-shaped 
mass,  which  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  About  four 
weeks  after  hatching  the  imago  appears,  so  that  there  are 
several  broods  during  the  summer.  The  females  alone  bite, 
the  males  not  coming  into  our  apartments  but  spending  their 
lives  in  the  retirement  of  the  swamps  and  woods. 

This  genus  abounds  in  the  high  Arctic  regions  as  well  as  in 
the  tropics.  Culex  pipiens 
Linn,  inhabits  Europe,  and 
there  are  over  thirty  North 
American  species  described  in 
various  works. 

Figure  274  represents  a  ver- 
tical and  side  view  of  the  head 
(greatly  magnified)  of  a  com- 
mon species  of  Culex  found  in 
Labrador.  The  antennas  (a) 
do  not  reach  as  far  as  the  tip 
of  the  beak,  and  are  supplied 
at  each  joint  with  a  thin  ver- 
ticil of  hairs  (by  an  oversight 
partly  omitted  in  the  upper  fig- 
ure). The  beak  consists  of  a  stout  bristle-like  labrum  (not 
shown  in  the  figure),  the  bristle-like  maxillae  (ma;,  with  their 
rather  large  three-jointed  palpi  mp)  with  the  mandibles  (m) 
24 


Fig.  274. 


370  DIPTEKA. 

which  are  thicker  than  the  maxillae  and  barbed  at  the  tip,  and 
the  single  hair-like  lingua,  or  tongue  (/#).  These  six  bristle- 
like  organs  are  folded  together  within  the  hollowed  labium  (7), 
which  is  a  little  enlarged  at  the  tip,  and  forms  a  gutter-like  case 
for  the  rest  of  the  mouth-parts.  The  mosquito,  without  any 
apparent  effort,  thrusts  them,  thus  massed  into  a  single  awl-like 
beak,  into  the  flesh,  and  draws  in  the  blood  through  the  chan- 
nel formed  by  the  fine  bristles,  Westwood  stating  that  the  la- 
bium does  not  penetrate  the  flesh,  but  becomes  bent  upon 
the  breast  of  the  fly.  He  adds  "it  is  supposed  that,  at 
the  same  time  it  instils  into  the  wound  a  venomous  liquid, 
which,  while  it  enables  the  blood  to  flow  faster,  is  the  chief 
cause  of  the  subsequent  irritation."  So  far  as  we  are  aware 
no  poison  glands  have  been  demonstrated  to  exist  in  the  head  of 
flies,  or  other  six-footed  insects,  and  we  are  disposed  to  doubt 
whether  any  poison  is  poured  into  the  wound,  and  to  question 
whether  the  barbed  mandibles  are  not  sufficient  to  produce 
the  irritation  ordinarily  accompanying  the  punctured  wound 
made  by  the  mosquito  as  well  as  other  flies. 

A  large  mosquito,  with  two  light  spots  on  each  wing  (Ano- 
pheles quadrimaculatus  Say),  bites  fiercely.  It  is  abundant 
very  early  in  the  spring  before  other  mosquitoes  appear.  It 
seems  to  hibernate  in  houses.  The  genus  Corethra  has  the 
male  antennae  very  long  and  densely  hairy.  The  wings  are 
finely  ciliated  as  in  Culex,  and  the  inner  edge  has  a  short 
fringe.  The  beautifully  transparent  and  delicate  whitish  larvae 
may  be  seen  in  early  spring  in  quiet  pools.  Early  in  April 
the  pupa  state  is  assumed,  disclosing  the  flies  late  in  the 
month. 

CHIROXOMID^E  Westwood.  Of  this  small  family  the  genus 
Chironomus  includes  some  small  species  which  are  mosquito- 
like,  with  feathered  antennae,  and  abound  in  swarms  in  early 
spring  before  the  snow  disappears.  The  larvae  are  long,  slen- 
der, worm-like  ;  sometimes  of  a  blood-red  color,  and  aquatic  in 
their  habits.  While  most  of  the  larvae  of  this  genus  live  in 
fresh  water,  we  have  observed  multitudes  of  the  young  of  C. 
oceanicus  Pack,  living  on  floating  eel-grass  and  in  green  sea- 
weeds at  low  water  mark  in  Salem  harbor.  There  are  two 


CECIDOMYIM:. 


371 


Fig.  275. 


broods  of  the  larvae,  the  first  becoming  fully  grown  the  last  of 
April,  the  other  the  last  of  September,  6 

the  flies  appearing  about  the  middle  of 
October.  The  larva  (Fig.  275,  a,  en- 
larged about  three  times,  with  the  head 
greatly  magnified ;  6,  the  labrurn ;  c, 
the  mandibles ;  d,  the  labium)  is  cy- 
lindrical, whitish  and  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  long.  The  single  pair  of 
fore  legs  (Fig.  276a)  are  provided  with 
about  twenty-five  longitudinal  rows  of  hooks,  while  the  anal 
legs  (Fig.  277  ;  a,  a  portion  of  the  dorsal  vessel)  terminate  in 
a  single  crown  of  hooks  which  can  be  drawn 
in  out  of  sight.  The  worms  were  found  either 
creeping  over  the  surface  of  the  weeds,  or  if 
about  to  pupate,  concealed  in  a  rude  thin  case 
or  tube,  formed  of  the  debris  collected  on  the 
weeds.  It  feeds  on  sea-weeds  and  small 
worms.  It  remains  in  the  pupa  state  (Fig. 
276)  about  two  weeks,  transforming  into  a  fly 
(Fig.  278  male,  and  head  of  the  female)  which 
differs  from  the  true  Chironomi  in  having 
shorter  antennae  and  smaller  palpi,  and  also  in 
the  venation,  and  the  longer  thorax.  Tanypus 
resembles  Culex  in  its  larva  and  pupa  state, 
being  of  similar  form.  Lyonnet  figures  a 
larva  which  spins  a  movable  case  of  silk  and 
moss.  The  eggs  of  T.  varius  are  laid  on  the  a 
leaves  of  aquatic  plants,  and  fastened  together  Fis-  277. 
with  gluten.  Some  species  of  Ceratopogon,  like  the  mosquito, 
are  blood  suckers.  The  larvae  are,  however,  terrestrial,  living 
in  mushrooms,  or  under  the  bark  of  decaying  trees. 

CECIDOMYID^E  Westwood.  The  group  of  Gall-flies  comprises 
minute,  delicate,  slender-bodied  species,  whose  bodies  are 
clothed  with  long  hairs.  The  wings  have  usually  three  or 
four  longitudinal  veins,  and  are  folded  over  the  back. 
They  are  gall-flies,  the  female  laying  her  eggs  in  the  stalk  of 
cereals,  and  in  the  stems,  leaves  and  buds  of  various  plants 


Fig.  276. 


372 


DIPTEEA. 


which  produce  gall-like  excrescences  inhabited  by  the  larvae. 
The  Wheat-midge  or  Hessian-fly  does  not,  however,  produce 
such  an  enlargement,  while  other  larvae  only  produce  a  folding 
of  the  leaf,  swelling  of  a  leaf-rib,  or  arrest  the  growth  of  a 
bud  or  stalk. 

Before  giving  a  special  account  of  the  Wheat-midge,  so  de- 
structive to  wheat  crops,  let  us,  with  the  aid  of  Baron  Osten 
Sacken's  resume  in  the  Smithsonian  Monographs  of  North 
American  Diptera,  Part  1,  take  a  glance  at  the  habits  of  the 
family.  As  a  rule  the  species  prefer  living  plants,  though  sev- 
eral species  of  Epidosis  and  Diplosis  live  in  decaying  wood,  and 

C.  fuscicollis  Meigen 
(?)  has  been  reared 
by  Bouche  from  de- 
caying bulbs  of  tulips 
and  hyacinths. 
Others  live  under  the 
bark  of  trees,  in  the 
cones  of  pines,  or  in 
fungi.  Each  species 
is,  as  a  rule,  confined 
to  a  peculiar  species 
of  plant.  Some  of 
the  larvae  live  as 
guests  or  parasites 
in  galls  formed  by  other  Cecidomyiae.  Thus  C.  acrophila  and 
C.  pavida  live  socially  in  the  deformed  buds  of  Fraxinus  ;  and 
Diplosis  socialis  inhabits  the  gall  of  Lasioptera  rubi.  The 
larvae  of  some  species  of  Diplosis  are  parasitic  among  the  plant- 
lice  (Aphis)  .  Some  of  the  larvae  live  on  the  surface  of  leaves, 
C.  glutinosa  having  been  found  by  Osten  Sacken  living  on  the 
surface  of  hickory  leaves. 

The  rather  long,  cylindrical  eggs  laid  on  the  surface  of 
leaves,  etc.,  are  generally  hatched  in  a  few  days,  though  this 
period  may  be  hastened  or  retarded  by  heat  or  cold.  The 
young  larvae  are  colorless  and  transparent,  with  age  becoming 
reddish  or  yellow,  or  white.  They  are  fourteen-jointed.  a 
supposed  supernumerary  joint  being  placed  between  the  head 
and  the  first  thoracic  segment.  The  last  abdominal  ring  is 


278- 


CECIDOMYID^E.  373 

sometimes  provided  with  bristles  or  horny  splnules,  frequently 
curved,  which  aid  the  larvae  in  leaping,  as  they  have  been 
observed  by  Dufour  to  do.  The  head  and  mouth-parts  are 
exceedingly  rudimentary,  consisting  of  a  ring  with  two  pro- 
cesses extending  backwards  ;  the  soft  fleshy  labium  protrudes 
through  this  ring ;  and  from  the  upper  part  of  the  ring 
arise  a  pair  of  two-jointed  organs,  supposed  to  be  rudimental 
antennae.  On  the  under  side  of  the  body  at  the  juncture  of 
the  first  or  prothoracic  segment  with  the  supernumerary  seg- 
ment, is  a  horny  piece  called,  provisionally,  the  breast-bone 
(Fig.  284,  a),  and  which  is  present  in  most  of  the  larvae  of  this 
group.  The  larvae  having  no  jaws,  must  suck  in  the  sap  and 
moisture  through  the  mouth,  or  absorb  it  through  the  skin. 
They  make  no  excrement,  like  the  larvae  of  the  Hive  bee  and 
Humble  bee.  Though  their  motions  are  ordinarily  slow,  just 
before  pupation  they  are  very  active.  The  larvae  are  not 
known  to  moult,  though  probably  the  larva  skin  is  shed  by 
gradually  peeling  off  in  shreds,  in  this  respect  resembling  the 
thin-skinned  larvae  of  bees. 

Some  larvae  of  Cecidomyia  before  becoming  pupae,  leave 
their  galls  and  descend  to  the  ground,  while  others  remain  in 
them,  where  they  spin  a  slight  silken  cocoon.  Dr.  Harris  has 
described  the  mode  of  pupation  of  the  larva  of  C.  solids  Fitch, 
stating  that  "the  approaching  change  is  marked  by  an  altera- 
tion of  the  color  of  the  anterior  segments  of  the  larva,  which 
from  orange  become  red  and  shining,  as  if  distended  by 
blood.  Soon  afterwards,  rudimentary  legs,  wings  and  antennae 
begin,  as  it  were,  to  bud  and  put  forth,  and  rapidly  grow  to 
their  full  pupal  dimensions,  and  thus  the  transformation  to  the 
pupa  is  completed."  This  process  is  undergone  beneath  the 
larva  skin,  out  of  which  the  pupa  does  not  draw  its  body,  as  in 
the  obtected  diptera  generally.  The  larva  skin,  dried  and  cy- 
lindrical in  shape,  thus  serves  as  a  cocoon  to  preserve  the  soft 
pupa  from  harm.  The  semipupa  of  C.  destructor  thus  "takes 
the  form  and  color  of  a  flax-seed.  While  this  change  is  going 
on  externally,  the  body  of  the  insect  gradually  cleaves  from  its 
outer  dry  and  brownish  skin.  When  this  is  carefully  opened, 
the  included  insect  will  be  seen  to  be  still  in  the  larva  state.* 

*This  "larva"  is  probably  the  semipupa,  or  "beginning  of  the  pupa  state" 
(Harris),  and  may  be  compared  with  the  semipupa  of  the  Bee.  (Fig.  27.) 


374 


DIPTERA. 


It  does  not  change  its  condition  and  become  a  true  pupa  until 
a  few  days  before  it  discloses  the  winged  insect." 

The  pupa  resembles  that  of  the  fungus-eating  Tipulids, 
such  as  Sciara.  The  bases  of  the  antennae  are  often  produced 
into  horn-like  points,  which  aid  the  pupa  in  working  its  way 
out  from  the  gall  before  assuming  the  fly  state,  and  for  the 
same  purpose  the  back  of  the  abdomen  is  spinose,  and  often 
there  are  a  few  bristles  at  the  tip. 

According  to  Dr.  Harris,  the  Cecidomyia  destructor  Saj^,  or 
Hessian-fly  (Fig.  279),  has  two  broods,  as  the  flies  appear  in 
the  spring  and  autumn.  At  each  of  these  periods  the  fly  lays 

twenty  or  thirty  eggs  in  a 
crease  in  the  leaf  of  the  young 
plant.  In  about  four  da}'s, 
in  warm  weather,  they  hatch 
and  the  pale  red  larvae  (a) 
"crawl  down  the  leaf,  work- 
ing their  way  in  between  it  and 
the  main  stalk,  passing  down- 
wrards  till  they  come  to  a  joint, 
just  above  which  they  remain, 
a  little  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  with  the  head  towards  the  root  of  the  plant"  (c). 
Here  they  imbibe  the  sap  by  suction  alone,  and  by  the  simple 
pressure  of  their  bodies  they  become  embedded  in  the  side  of 
the  stem.  Two  or  three  larvae  thus  embedded  serve  to  weaken 
the  plant,  and  cause  it  to  wither  and  die.  The  larvae  become 
full  grown  in  five  or  six  weeks,  then  measuring  about  three- 
twentieths  of  an  inch  in  length.  About  the  first  of  December 
their  skin  hardens,  becomes  brown  and  then  turns  to  a 
bright  chestnut  color.  This  is  the  so-called  flax-seed  state,  or 
puparium.  In  two  or  three  weeks  the  "larva"  (or  more  truly 
speaking,  the  semipupa)  becomes  detached  from  the  old  case. 
In  this  puparium  the  larva  remains  through  the  winter.  To- 
wards the  end  of  April  or  the  beginning  of  May  the  pupa  (Fig. 
279,  b)  becomes  fully  formed,  and  in  the  middle  of  May,  in  New 
England,  the  pupa  comes  forth  from  the  brown  puparium, 
"wrapped  in  a  thin  white  skin,"  according  to  Herrick,  "which 
it  soon  breaks  and  is  then  at  liberty."  The  flies  appear  just  as 


- ?79- 


CECIDOMYnXE .  3  75 

the  wheat  is  coming  up ;  they  lay  their  eggs  for  a  period  of 
three  weeks,  and  then  entirely  disappear.  The  maggots  hatched 
from  these  eggs  take  the  flax-seed  form  in  June  and  July,  and 
are  thus  found  in  the  harvest  time,  most  of  them  remaining  on 
the  stubble.  Most  of  the  flies  appear  in  the  autumn,  but  others 
remain  in  the  puparium  until  the  following  spring.  By  burn- 
ing the  stubble  in  the  fall,  their  attacks  may  best  be  prevented. 
Among  the  parasites  on  this  species,  are  the  egg-parasites, 
Platj^gaster,  and  Semiotellus  (Ceraphron)  destructor  Say  (Fig. 
140),  the  latter  of  which  pierces 
the  larva  through  the  sheath  of  the 
leaf.  Two  other  Ichneumon  para- 
sites, according  to  Herrick,  destroy 
the  fly  while  in  the  flax-seed  or 
semipnpa  state.  The  ravages  of  the 
Hessian-fly  have  been  greatly 
checked  by  these  minute  insects,  so 
that  it  is  in  many  localities  not  so 
destructive  as  it  was  formerly.  Dr. 
Fitch  has  suggested  that  the  Euro-  Fis-  14°- 

pean  parasites  of  this  insect  and  the  C.  tritici,  could  be  im- 
ported and  bred  in  large  quantities,  so  as  to  stop  their  ravages. 
With  proper  pecuniary  aid  from  the  State  this  seems  feasible, 
while  our  native  parasites  might  perhaps  also  be  bred  and 
multiplied  so  as  to  effectually  exterminate  these  pests. 

The  Wheat-midge,  C.  tritici  Kirby,  attacks  the  wheat  in  the 
ear.  When  the  wheat  is  in  blossom  the  females  lay  their  eggs 
in  the  evening  by  means  of  the  long  retractile  tube-like  extrem- 
ity of  the  body,  within  the  chaffy  scales  of  the  flowers,  in 
clusters  of  from  two  to  fifteen  or  more.  In  eight  or  ten  days 
the  eggs  disclose  the  transparent  maggots,  which  with  age  be- 
come orange  colored,  and  when  fully  grown  are  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  long.  They  crowd  around  the  germ  of  the  wheat,  which 
by  pressure  becomes  shrivelled  and  aborted.  At  the  end  of 
July  and  in  the  beginning  of  August  the  maggots  become 
full  fed,  and  in  a  few  days  moult  their  skins,  leaving  the  old 
larva  skin  entire, -except  a  little  rent  in  one  end  of  it.  "  Great 
numbers  of  these  skins  are  found  in  the  wheat  ears  immediately 
after  the  moulting  process  is  completed."  Sometimes  the 


376  DIPTERA. 

larva  descends  to  the  ground  and  moults  there.  Harris  states 
that  "it  is  shorter,  somewhat  flattened,  and  more  obtuse 
than  before,  and  is  of  a  deeper  yellow  color,  with  an  oblong 
greenish  spot  in  the  middle  of  the  body.  In  this  state,  which  is 
intermediate  between  the  larva  and  pupa  states,  which  has  by 
Dr.  Fitch  been  termed  the  u embryo-pupa,"  and  by  us  "semi- 
pupa,"  the  insect  spins  a  minute  earthen  cocoon,  which,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Fitch,  is  smaller  than  a  mustard  seed  and 
remains  in  the  ground  through  the  winter,  burrowing  to  the 
depth  of  an  inch  beneath  the  surface.  In  the  next  June 

they  are  transformed  to  pupae, 
with  the  limbs  free.  When  about 
to  assume  the  adult  state  the 
pupa  works  its  way  to  the  surface 
in  June  and  July.  Its  chief  para- 
site, the  Platygaster  error  Fitch 
(Fig.  135),  is  allied  to  P.  tipulee, 
which  in  Europe  destroys  great 
numbers  of  the  midge. 

It  is  evident  that  deep  plough- 
ing in  the  fall  or  spring  will  destroy  many  of  the  insects,  and 
grain  sown  after  the  15th  or  20th  of  May,  in  New  England, 
will  generally  escape  their  attacks. 

The  wings  of  the  Hessian-fly  are  blackish ;  those  of  the  C. 
tritici  are  transparent.  This  last  species  is  orange  colored,  with 
long,  slender,  pale  yellow  legs,  and  the  joints  of  the  antennae 
are  twenty-four  in  number  in  the  male,  and  twelve  in  the  fe- 
male. 

The  Cecidomyia  rigidce  Osten  Sacken  (C.  salicis  Fitch)  forms 
a  gall  surrounded  by  the  dry  and  brittle  terminal  bud  at  the 
end  of  the  twigs  of  the  willow.  The  single  larva  discloses  the 
fly  early  in  the  spring.  The  bright  yellow  larva  of  C.  grossu- 
larice,  Fitch,  causes  the  gooseberry  to  turn  red  prematurely  and 
become  putrid.  The  pupa  of  C.  pini-inopis  is  supposed  by 
Osten  Sacken  to  be  coarctate,  the  larva  fastening  itself  to  a 
pine  leaf  and  remaining  motionless  until  the  resinous  exuda- 
tion resulting  from  its  attacks  hardens,  forming  a  cocoon-like 
pupa  case  or  puparium. 

Mr.  Walsh  describes  in  the  "  American  Entomologist,"  vo\,  i> 


CECIDOMYID  J3 . 


377 


p.  105,  the  gall  formed  by  C.  strobiloides  O.  Sacken  (Fig.  280 ; 
a,  natural  size ;  6,  antenna ;  281,  gall)  which  is  simply  an  en- 
larged and  deformed  bud  of  Salix  cordata. 
The  fly  appears  in  April,  or  early  in  May, 
oviposits  in  a  terminal  bud,  and  the  gall  attains 
its  full  size  by  the  middle  of  July.  The  larva 
hibernates  in  a  thin  cocoon,  changing  to  a  pupa 
in  the  spring.  (Walsh.)  Another  willow  gall 
made  by  C.  salicis-brassicoides  Walsh  occurs 

on  the  Salix  longi- 
folia,  the  galls 
forming  a  mass 
(Fig.  282)  like 
the  sprouts  on  a  Fig.  281. 
cabbage  stalk.  Mr.  Walsh  also 
describes  the  Grape-vine  Apple 
Gall  (Fig.  283,  gall  of  C.?  vitis 
pomum ;  a,  natural  size ;  6,  a 
2so.  section),  the  fly  of  which  is 

unknown.  The  gall  is  divided  into  numerous  cells,  each  con- 
taining a  larva.  It  occurs  on  the  wild  Frost  grape.  The 
Grape-vine  filbert  gall  (C.?  vitis-cory- 
loides  Walsh,  fig.  284  ;  a,  head  of  larva, 
showing  the  clove-shaped  breast  bone ; 
6,  a  bunch  of  galls,  natural  size  ;  c,  sec- 
tion of  a  gall,  showing  the  cell  the 
larva  inhabits)  is  found  on  the  wild 
Frost  grape  in  Illinois. 

Walsh  has  described  fourteen  addi- 
tional species  of  Cecidomyise  inhabiting 
eight  different  species  of  willow.  The 
specific  character  of  the  insects  them- 
selves, are  in  all  their  stages  of  the 
slightest  possible  character,  but  the  dif- 
ferent galls  can  be  readily  distinguished. 
These  galls,  according  to  Walsh  and 
other  authors,  also  afford  a  shelter  to  so- 
called  "inquiline,"  or  guest  species,  such  as  the  larvae  of  other 
species  of  Cecidomyia  and  species  of  Scatopse  and  Drosophila, 


282t 


373 


DIPTERA, 


1  of   the  Smithsonian 
Monographs    of    Dip- 


Curculionidce    and    minute    Lepidoptera,    together    with 
Aphides   and   species  of  Thrips,  which  last  are  thought  by 

Mr.  Walsh  to  prey 
upon  the  cecidomyious 
larvae. 

The  subdivisions  of 
the  large  genus  Ceci- 
domyia  are  noticed  by 
Osten   Sacken  in  Part 
6 

Fig.  283. 

tera.     As  the  student  can  refer  to  that  work,  we  simply  intro- 
duce the  cuts  showing  the  venation  of  the  wing  of  each  genus 
without  farther  characterizing  them.     (Fig.  285,  Cecidomyia 
286,  Diplosis  ;  287,  Colpodia ;  288,  Epidosis  ;  289,  Asynapta 

290,  Spaniocera 

291,  Lasioptera). 
Another  group  of 
this     family     are 
Anarete    and    its 
allies    (Fig.    292, 
Zygoneura ;     293, 
Anarete  ;  294,  Ca- 
tocha  ;  295,  Cam- 
py lomyza  ;       296, 
Lestremia)  which 
are  also  related  to 
the       Mycetophi- 
lids. 

We  have  al- 
ready referred,  on 
page  51,  to  cer- 
tain c  e  c  i  d  o  - 
myians,  which  in 
the  larval  condi- 
tion produce 
Fig.  284.  young.  We  figure 

(297)    a   species  whose   metamorphosis   has   been   traced  by 
Nicholas  Wagner.     The  larva  is  cylindrical  in  form,  like  most 


CECIDOMYID.E. 


379 


cecidomyian  larvae,  with  the  division  between  the  segments  in- 
dicated by  rows  of  minute  spines.  From  the  germ-balls  (a, 
nearest  the  posterior  end  of  the  body)  the  embryo  is  gradually 
formed  (as  at  a  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  rings  of  the  body), 
when  they  assume  a  cylindrical  form  like  the  eggs  of  the  adult 
fly  of  this  family.  These  eggs  may  be  compared  with  the 


Fig.  291. 


Fig.  292. 


Fig.  293. 


Fig.  294.  Fig.  205.  Fig.  296. 

"pseudova"  of  the  Aphis,  and  are  developed  from  the  two 
large  fatty  bodies  (corpora  adiposa)  which  are  situated  one  on 
each  side  of  the  body.  These  "false  eggs"  increase  in  num- 
ber and  develop  until  the  entire  cavity  of  the  mother  larva  be- 
comes distended  with  young  worms  like  itself,  and  which  are 
finally  born  and  may  be  compared  with  the  wingless  broods  of 
Plant-lice.* 

*  Grimm  thinks  that  the  term  "pseudova"  is  objectionable,  as  in  the  paedo- 
genetic  Chironomus  the  Aviuter  ova,  as  well  as  the  summer,  or  false  ova,  develop 
without  previous  fertilization  by  the  male. 


880  DIPTERA. 

Several  species  have  been  found  in  Europe  under  the  bark 
of  apple  trees,  etc.  Loew  states  "that  the  species  on  which 
Wagner  made  his  observations  is  nearly  allied 
to  the  genus  Heteropeza,  but  still  more  closely 
to  the  genus  Monodicrana,  from  the  amber  of 
the  Tertiary  formation  on  the  shores  of  the 
Baltic.  (Zoological  Record,  1865.)  Meinert  de- 
scribes a  similar  species  of  worm  and  its  imago, 
under  the  name  of  Miastor  metroloas,  and  charac- 
terizes the  fly  as  having  very  short  two-jointed 
palpi,  and  moniliform  eleven-jointed  antennae. 
_0  The  wings  have  tlu-ee  veins,  the  middle  one  of 
which  does  not  reach  the  apex  of  the  wing. 

PSYCHODID^E  Zetterstedt.  The  principal  genus 
in  this  small  family  is  Psychoda,  comprising 
small  flies  with  broad,  very  short,  oval  whitish 
Fig.  297.  wings,  which,  like  the  body,  are  very  hairy. 
They  may  be  seen  flying  and  leaping  on  the  banks  of,  or  on  the 
surface  of  pools,  and  on  windows.  The  larvae  live  in  dung. 
The  larva  of  the  European  P.  phalcenoides  (so  named  from  its 
resemblance  to  a  moth)  is  "long,  subfusiform  and  depressed, 
with  a  slender,  straight  cylindrical  tail,  longer  than  the  pre- 
ceding segment.  The  pupa  has  two  short  appendages,  thick- 
ened at  the  tips  behind  the  head.  The  abdomen  is  tapering." 
(Westwood.) 

TIPULIDJE  Latreille.  The  Daddy-long-legs  or  Crane-flies 
are  well  known  by  their  large  size  and  long  legs,  and  from  their 
close  resemblance  in  form  have  probably  given  rise  to  the 
humorous  stories  of  giant  mosquitoes,  which  sometimes  appear 
in  newspapers.  They  are  characterized  by  their  slender  an- 
tennae and  palpi,  and  their  remarkably  long  legs,  while  the 
abdomen  is  very  slender  and  cylindrical  in  shape ;  the  group 
chiefly  differs,  however,  from  other  flies,  according  to  Baron 
Osten  Sacken  (Monograph  of  the  Diptera  of  North  America, 
Part  iv),  in  the  presence  of  a  transverse  V-shaped  suture 
across  the  mesonotum ;  by  the  completeness  of  the  venation, 
and  the  presence  of  a  well  developed  ovipositor,  "with  its  two 


TIPULIDJE.  381 

pairs  of  long,  horny,  pointed  valves."     The  larvae  (Fig.  298, 
natural  size,. a  larva  of  this  family  found  living  under  stones 
in   a  running   brook   at    Burkesville    Junction,    Va.     In  the 
American  Naturalist,  vol.  ii,  it  was 
referred  to   Tabanus)    differ    from 
those  of  the  neighboring  families  in 
having  but  a  single  pair  of  spiracles  Fig.  2cs. 

at  the  anal  end  of  the  body.  The  head  is  rather  large,  and 
"  embedded  nearly  up  to  the  mouth  in  the  first  thoracic  seg- 
ment ;  the  mandibles  are  horny  and  strong,  and  forked  at  the 
end."  The  body  is  grub-like,  of  a  uniform  grayish,  brownish, 
or  whitish  color,  and  consists ^of  twelve  segments. 

"The  larvae  of  Ctenophora,  living  in  wood,  have  a  soft, 
white,  smooth  skin,  similar  to  that  of  the  larvae  of  longicorn 
beetles,  or  of  the  As  Hi  dee,  living  in  similar  conditions. 
The  larva  of  Tipula  living  in  the  soil,  or  the  larvae  of  those 
species  of  Ctenophora  which  are  found  in  wood  so  far  de- 
composed as  to  be  like  soil  or  vegetable  mould,  have  a  much 
tougher  skin,  and  are  covered  with  a  microscopic,  appressed 
pubescence.  This  toughness,  as  well  as  some  stiff  bristles, 
scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  skin,  is  probably  useful  in 
burrowing.  Thus  the  larva  of  Trichocera,  digging  in  vegeta- 
ble mould  or  in  fungi,  is  covered,  according  to  Ferris,  with  mi- 
croscopic erect  bristles.  The  larva  of  Ula,  living  in  fungi,  has, 
according  to  the  same  author,  still  longer  bristles.  Those  larvae 
living  in  water  (as  some  Limnobina)  are  soft  and  slimy,  of  a 
dirty  greenish  color,  and  with  a  peculiar  clothing  of  appressed 
microscopic  hairs,  not  unlike  those  of  the  larvae  of  Stratiomys. 
The  most  anomalous  of  all  the  Tipulideous  larvae  are  those  of 
the  Cylindrotomina.  That  of  Cylindrotoma  distinctissima 
lives  upon  the  leaves  of  plants,  as  Anemone,  Viola,  Stellaria, 
almost  like  a  caterpillar.  It  is  green,  with  a  crest  along  the 
back,  consisting  of  a  row  of  fleshy  processes.  The  larva  of 
Cylindrotoma  (Phalacrocera)  replicata,  according  to  Degeer, 
lives  in  the  water,  on  water  plants,  and  is  distinguished  by  nu- 
merous filaments,  which,  although  resembling  spines,  are  flexi- 
ble and  hollow  on  the  inside.  Degeer  took  them  for  organs  of 
respiration."  (Osten  Sacken.) 

The  larvae  move  by  means  of  minute  stiff  bristles  arising 


382  DIPTERA. 

from  transverse  swellings  on  the  under  side  of  the  body. 
"The  end  of  the  body  is  truncated,  and  the  two  spiracles  are 
placed  upon  the  truncature,"  from  the  edge  of  which  part  arise 
usually  four  retractile  processes. 

In  the  aquatic  larva  of  Ptychoptera  there  is  a  long  respira- 
tory tube  at  the  end  of  the  body.  The  pupae  (Fig.  299,  under 
side,  enlarged  twice,  represents  a  pupa  of  this  family) 
have  usually  on  the  thorax  two  horn-like  processes, 
representing  the  thoracic  spiracles,  and  in  Ptychoptera 
one  of  these  processes  acquires  a  great  length,  in  order 
to  allow  the  pupa  to  breath  under  water. 

The  Tipulids,  like  other  flies  with  soft  bodies  which 
contract  in  drying,  should,  as  Osteu  Sacken  suggests, 
be  studied  from  fresh  specimens,  especially  when  the 
thorax  and  abdomen,  with  the  ovipositor,  are  to  be  ex- 
rig.  299.  amined.  The  Tipulids  of  the  United  States,  east  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  closely  represent  those  of  Europe,  while  Os- 
ten  Sacken  states  that  a  few  species  are  found  to  be  common  to 
both  countries  ;  and  he  farther  states,  with  regard  to  the  Tip- 
uli dee,  that  "whenever  the  North  American  fauna  differs  from 
the  European  in  the  occurrence  of  a  peculiar  generic  form,  or  in 
a  marked  prevalence  of  another,  this  difference  is  due,  either  to 
an  admixture  of  South  American  forms,  or  of  forms  peculiar 

to  the  amber  fauna." 

The  genus  Tipula  com- 
prises the  largest  individuals 
of  the  family,  and  the  species 
may  be  seen  early  in  May  fly- 
ing over  grassy  fields.  The 

larvse  live  in  garden  mould  and  under  moss  in  fields  and  woods. 
T.  trivtttata  Say  is  one  of  our  most  common  species. 

In  the  genus  Limnobia  the  body  is  very  slender  and  delicate, 
though  stouter  than  in  Dicranomyia,  a  closely  allied  genus,  the 
larvue  of  which  are  probably  aquatic.  "The  larvae  live  in  de- 
caying vegetable  matter,  especially  in  wood  and  fungi."  ' '  Van 
Roser  discovered  the  larvae  of  the  European  L.  annulus  (closely 
allied  to  L.  cinctipes  Say)  in  decayed  wood.  They  are  like  an 
earth-worm  in  size,  as  well  as  in  color,  and  line  their  burrows 
with  a  kind  of  silken  web."  (Osten  Sacken.) 


TIPULID^E. 


383 


Fig.  301. 


The  genus  Styringomyia  (Fig.  300,  wing)  is  an  anomalous  ge- 
nus found  in  gum  copal  brought  from  Zanzibar.  Of  three  other 
anomalous  genera  belonging  here  Osten  Sacken 
describes  Bhcmphidia;  of  which  the  rostrum  is 
long,  but  shorter  than  the  thorax,  with  species 
common  to  Europe  and  America,  and  also  found 
in  amber ;  Toxorrhina  which  is  found  both  in 
North  and  South  America,  and  Elepliantomyia 
which  occurs  only  in  North  America,  and  has  a 
very  slender  filiform  rostrum,  almost  as  long  as 
the  body.  E.  Westwoodii  O.  Sacken  is  found  in 
the  Northern  States  and  Canada. 

Erioptera  and  its  allies  have  two  submarginal  cells  and  the 
tibiae  are  without  spurs  at  the  tip.  In  Erioptera  the  wings  are 
pubescent  along  the  veins  only,  giving  the  whole  wing  a  hairy 
appearance.  E.  venusta  O.  Sacken  has  yellowish  wings,  with 
two  brown  bands,  and  is  a  common  species  in  the  'Atlantic 
States.  According  to  Osten  Sacken  Chionea  is 
closely  allied  to  Erioptera.  It  is  wingless,  with  six- 
jointed  antennae  of  anomalous  structure,  and  stout, 
hairy  feet,  and  a  short  abdomen,  which,  according  to 
Harris  is  provided  with  a  "sword-shaped  borer, 
resembling  that  of  a  grasshopper."  "These  insects 
occur  on  snow  in  winter,  the  larvae  live  underground, 
apparently  upon  vegetable  matter,  and  have  been  de- 
scribed in  detail  by  Brauer  in  the  Transactions  of 
the  Zoological  and  Botanical  Society  of  Vienna  for 
1854."  C.  valga  Harris  (Fig.  301,  enlarged;  fig. 
302,  larva  of  the  European  C.  araneoides  Dalman) 
is  reddish  brown,  with  paler  legs. 

Another  section  of  this  large  family  is  represented 
by  the  genus  Limnopliila,  in  which  there  are  two 
submarginal  cells,  usually  five  posterior  cells,  and  Fig-  302- 
the  wings  and  eyes  are  smooth,  and  the  antennae  sixteen- 
jointed.  The  larvae  live  in  decayed  wood.  The  larva  of  the 
European  L.  dispar  digs  longitudinal  burrows  in  the  dry  stems 
of  Anglica  sylvestris.  "It  is  cylindrical,  glabrous,  of  a  livid 
gray,  with  a  horny  black  head."  (Osten  Sacken.) 

The  anomalous  genus   Trichocera  has  pubescent  eyes  and 


384  DIPTERA. 

distinct  ocelli  on  the  sides  of  the  frontal  tubercle.  The  species 
appear  in  swarms,  flying  up  and  down  in  their  mazy  dances, 
especially  at  twilight  early  in  spring,  though  they  may  be  seen 
late  in  autumn  and  on  warm  days  in  winter.  They  live  in  de- 
caying vegetable  matter.  Pedicia 
is  a  gigantic  crane-fly,  embracing 
the  largest  flies  of  the  family, 
-d  and  with  Trichocera  is  the  only 
genus  of  this  family  having  ocelli. 
P.  albivitta  has  hyaline  wings,  with  the  costa,  the  fifth  longi- 
tudinal vein  and  the  central  cross  veins  margined  with  brown. 
The  body  is  1.4  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  larva  of  an  Euro- 
pean species  lives  in  well  water. 

The  genus  Cylindrotoma  and  its  allies,  resemble  Tipula  in 
the  course  of  the  veins  lying  in  the  vicinity  of  the  stigma,  and 
Osten  Sacken  illustrates  the  re-  a 

semblances  by  the  accompanying 
drawings,  of  whieh  Fig.  303  rep-    ^- 
resents    the    venation    near    the 
stigma    of    Cylindrotoma;     Fig.  Fig.  304. 

304  that  of  the  European  Phalacrocera  replicata,  closely  allied 
to  the  preceding  genus,  and  Fig.  305  that  of  a  genuine  Tipula. 
Ptychoptera  is  rather  stout-bodied  and  has  a  singular  mem- 
branous spatulate  organ,  ciliated  on  the  margin,  which  is 
inserted  at  the  base  of  the  halteres.  (Osten  Sacken.)  P.  ru- 
fodncta  O.  S.  is  black  with  reddish  bands  on  the  feet. 

The  larva  of  the  European   P.  paludosa  has  a  long  respira- 
tory tube  at  the  end  of  the  body,  which  it  raises  to  the  surface 
a  of   the  water,  and   in  the   pupa 

"one  of  the  horny  processes 
which  distinguishes  the  thorax  of 
all  the  pupae  of  the  Tipulidce, 
is  enormously  prolonged,  like- 
Fig.  303.  wise,  for  the  purpose  of  breath- 

ing under  water.  (Osten  Sacken.)  The  very  singular  genus 
Bittacomorpha  is  an  aberrant  form,  resembling  the  neu- 
ropterous  Bittacus.  The  antennas  consist  of  twenty  joints, 
and  the  first  joint  of  the  tarsi  is  very  much  thickened,  while 
the  abdomen  is  very  long  and  slender.  J3.  clavipes  Fabr.  is 


MYCETOPHILIDJE.  385 

black  with  a  white  stripe  on  the  mesonotum,  the  metanotum 
and  flanks  being  white,  and  the  legs  banded  with  white.  It  is 
a  widely  diffused  species, 
and  presents  a  most  sin- 
gular appearance  when  fly- 
ing, as  it  moves  slowly, 
with  its  feet  variegated  Fi£-  306< 

with  snow-white,  and  extending  like  the  radii  of  a  circle.  (Os- 
ten  Sacken.)  In  the  genus  Protoplasma  (Fig.  306,  wing)  there 
are  six  posterior  cells  in  the  wing.  P.  Fitcliii  O.  Sacken  is 
brownish  gray,  with  brown  bands  on  the  wings. 

MYCETOPHILIDJS  Macquart.  This  family  comprises  small 
flies,  capable  of  leaping  to  a  considerable  height,  and  provided 
with  two  or  three  ocelli,  but  not  having  a  proboscis.  While 
the  antennae  are  usually  simple,  as  in  all  other  Diptera,  those 
of  Platyroptilon  Miersii  West  wood  are  forked,  having  a 
branch  one-half  as  long  as  the  antenna  itself.  The  thorax  does 
not  have  a  transverse  suture,  and  the  wings  are  without  a  discal 
cell,  while  the  coxae  are  greatly  elongated,  and  the  tibiae  are  all 
armed  with  spurs.  The  larvae  are  subcylindrical  and  smooth, 
with  locomotive  bristles  beneath,  and  eight  pairs  of  stig- 
mata ;  they  are  in  color  white  or  yellowish.  They  are  gregari- 
ous, living  in  decaying  vegetable  matter,  fungi,  or  in  dung,  one 
species  forming  a  gall.  They  shed  their  skin  several  times  be- 
fiore  becoming  fully  grown.  Osten  Sacken  states  that  the  larva 
of  Sdophila  which  covers  the  surface  of  the  fungus  it  feeds  in 
.with  a  web,  is  long  and  almost  serpentiform,  while  those  of 
Bolitopliila  and  Mycetophila  are  shorter  and  stouter,  and  that 
of  Sciara  is  intermediate.  The  pupae  of  this  family  are 
smooth,  with  rounded  angles  and  edges,  whereas  those  of 
Tipula  are  sharp  and  pointed.  They  are  enclosed  in  a  silken 
cocoon.  Some  species  of  Sciara  do  not,  however,  spin  cocoons. 
The  larva  of  Mycetophila  scatophora  Ferris  "carries  on  its 
back  a  sheath  formed  of  its  own  excrements  and  moulded  by 
means  of  a  peculiar  undulatory  motion  of  the  skin.  The 
pupae  remain  within  the  sheath,  but  before  assuming  this  state 
the  larva  extends  the  sheath  anteriorly  in  a  short  neck,  and 
tapestries  it  on  the  inside  with  a  pellicle,  which  renders  it 
25 


386  DIPTEKA. 

more  tough  and  resisting."  The  larvae  of  one  genus  sometimes 
live  gregariously  with  those  of  other  genera.  Thus  Osten 
Sacken  found  that  the  "larvae  of  Sciophila  appeared  in  a  de- 
caying fungus  only  after  the  transformations  of  Mycetophila 
were  entirely  completed.  For  two  or  three  weeks  the  eggs  of 
the  former  remained  apparently  dormant  among  the  bustle  of 
so  many  larvae  of  the  other  species."  (Osten  Sacken.)  Leja 
resembles  Sciophila  in  its  habits.  The  larvae  of  Sciara  have 
no  bristles  on  the  tubercles  of  the  under  side  of  the  body,  usu- 
ally present  in  the  family.  They  are  more  gregarious  than 
the  other  genera,  and  have  the  singular  propensity  of  sticking 
together  in  dense  patches,  generally  under  the  bark  of  trees. 
When  fully  grown  they  sometimes  march  in  processions  in  a 
dense  mass,  sometimes  several  feet  long,  and  two  to  three 
inches  broad,  and  half  an  inch  in  thickness,  whence  the  Ger- 
mans call  them  "  Army- worms."  To  the  same  genus  belongs 
the  S.  (Molobrus)  mali  of  Fitch,  the  apple  midge,  whose  larva 
is  glassy  white  and  devours  the  interior  of  apples. 

Professor  E.  D.  Cope  describes  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Philadelphia  Academy,  1867,  page  222,  a  procession  of  a  spe- 
cies of  Sciara  observed  in  September  by  William  Kite,  in  Ches- 
ter County,  Penn.,  where  he  had  observed  this  army- worm  for 
three  consecutive  years.  "  This  company  (consisting  by  rough 
estimation  of  about  2,400)  extended  over  a  length  of  about 
twenty-two  inches,  with  a  breadth  of  from  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  in  the  thickest  part,  to  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  at  the 
head,  and  one-tenth  at  tail ;  five  or  six  worms  deep  in  thicker 
parts.  They  advanced  at  the  rate  of  four  inches  in  five 
minutes,  the  hinder  ones  working  their  way  over  the  top  of 
the  rest."  These  larvae  were  about  one-half  an  inch  long, 
semitransparent,  with  black  heads.  Mr.  Kite  observed  another 
procession  July  8th,  which  was  six  feet  six  inches  long.  These 
trains  were  attacked  by  larvae  of  Staphylinids,  ants,  dipterous 
larvae  and  other  predaceous  insects.  Seven  other  persons  in 
this  country  have  witnessed  similar  trains,  one  of  which  was 
observed  in  Lee,  Mass. 

The  larva  of  Mycetobia,  which  agrees  closely  with  that  of 
Rhyphus,  is  found  li\;ing  in  putrescent  sap  under  the  bark  of 
the  elm  tree.  We  have  found,  through  the  summer,  great  num- 


MYCETOPHILIDJE. 


387 


Fig.  30J. 


bers  of  an  undescribed  species  (Fig.  307 ;  a,  larva ;  6,  pupa, 
magnified  three  times.  Fig.  308,  head  of  the  larva  greatly  en- 
larged ;  a,  antenna ;  Z,  labruin ;  m,  mandible ;  wee,  maxillae  ? 
mp,  maxillary  palpi?  #,  gena?)  which  seems  to  differ  from 
Dnfour's  figure  of  the  European  M.  pallipes  in  the  form  of  the 
wings  and  their  venation,  as  well  as  in  the 
form  of  the  pupa.  The  larvae  were  first  seen 
in  abundance  on  the  26th  of  June  in  the 
crevices  of  the  bark  of  the  elm  from  which 
flowed  a  sour  sap  mingled  with  dust,  and  in 
this  putrescent  mass  the  slender  white  worms 
glided  swiftly  about.  The  body  is  long  and 
slender,  scarcely  tapering  towards  either  end, 
and  consists  of  twelve  segments  besides  the 
head.  Like  the  larva  of  Scenopinus  and 
Thereva,  each  abdominal  ring  is  subdivided 
by  a  well  defined  false  suture ;  but  the  hinder 
division  in  this  larva  is  about  one-fourth 
shorter  than  the  rest  of  the  ring.  It  is  .36 
of  an  inch  long.  The  head  is  pale  honey  yellow,  and  the  body 
pure  white.  The  three  thoracic  rings  are  marked  posteriorly 
with  honey  yellow,  with  a  pair  of  large  round  pale  spots  low 
down  on  the  side  of  each  ring.  It  moves  with  great  activity, 
keeping  its  mouth-parts  constantly  moving,  pushing  them  into 
the  dirt.  The  pupae  were  found  sticking 
straight  out  from  the  bark,  being  attached 
by  the  spines  on  the  tail.  They  were 
straight,  long,  cylindrical,  the  thorax 
being  but  little  larger  than  the  base  of 
the  abdomen.  The  head  is  square  in 
front,  ending  in  two  lateral  horns,  and 
the  abdomen  is  covered  with  stout 
spines,  especially  at  the  tip.  It  is  .20 
of  an  inch  long,  and  is  pale  honey  yel- 
low and  covered  with  dirt.  The  flies  appeared  June  27th,  and 
for  six  weeks  after  flew  about  the  trees.  The  head  is  black, 
the  thorax  and  abdomen  brown,  with  a  leaden  hue ;  the  abdo- 
men is  a  little  paler,  being  whitish  beneath,  but  darker  towards 
the  tip.  The  legs  are  pale,  a  little  darker  externally,  especially 


Fig.  308. 


388  DIPTERA. 

towards  the  tips  of  the  joint,  and  the  hind  tarsi  are  a  little 
dusky.  Its  length  is  .10  of  an  inch,  not  including  the  an- 
tennae. It  may  be  called  the  MycetoUa  sordida. 

PULICID.E  Westwood.  While  this  group  has  been  considered 
by  many  writers  as  forming  a  distinct  "  order,"  or  suborder  of 
insects,  equivalent  to  the  Diptera,  under  the  name  of  Aphanip- 
tera,  we  prefer,  with  Straus  Durckheim,  to  consider  them 
as  wingless  flies,  and  perhaps  scarcely  more  abnormal  than 
Nycteribia  or  Braula.  Instead  of  placing 
them  at  the  foot  of  the  suborder,  we  prefer, 
in  accordance  with  a  suggestion  made  by 
Haliday  (Westwood,  Class.  Insects,  vol. 
ii,  p.  495,  note),  who  places  them  near  the 
Mycetophilids,  or  "fungivorous  Tipulids," 
to  consider  them  as  allied  to  that  group. 
The  body  is  much  compressed;  there  are 
two  simple  eyes  which  take  the  place  of  the 
compound  eyes,  the  epicranial  portion  of 
the  head  being  greatly  prolonged,  while  the 
labrum  is  wanting,  and  the  labium  is  small  and  membranous ; 
the  four-jointed  labial  palpi,  always  absent  in  other  diptera, 
are  long  and  slender.  The  form  of  the  larva,  including  the 
shape  of  the  head  and  its  habit  of  living  in  dirt,  and  its  way 
of  moving  about,  as  also  its  transformations,  certainly  ally  the 
flea  with  the  Mycetophilids. 

We  have  received  from  Dr.  G.  A.  Perkins  of  Salem,  the  eggs 
and  larvae  of  the  species  infesting  the  cat,  from  which  we  have 
also  hatched  the  young  larvae.  The  eggs  (of  which,  according 
to  Westwood,  eight  or  ten  are  laid  by  one  female)  were  shaken 
from  the  cat's  fur,  whence  they  are  said  to  fall  upon  the  floor 
and  there  hatch,  the  larvae  living  in  the  dust  and  dirt  on  the 
floor,  and  feeding  on  decaying  vegetable  substances.  The 
egg  is  oval  cylindrical,  and  one  forty-fifth  of  an  inch  long. 
The  larva  when  hatched  is  .06  of  an  inch  long  (Fig.  309,  the 
larva  four  days  old ;  a,  antenna ;  6,  end  of  the  body)  white, 
cylindrical,  the  .sides  of  the  body  being  a  little  expanded, 
giving  it  a  slightly  flattened  appearance  when  seen  from  above. 
The  segments  are  rather  convex,  the  sutures  being  deeply  in> 


PULICIDJ3. 


389 


pressed.  There  are  four  long  hairs  on  the  side  of  each  ring, 
becoming  longer  towards  the  end  of  the  abdomen,  where  they 
are  longer  than  the  body  is  thick.  The  terminal  segment  of 
the  body  is  considerably  smaller  than  the  one  preceding  it,  and 
has  two  long  spines  arising  from  the  tergal  part  of  the  ring ; 
these  spines  seem  to  assist  the  larva  in  moving  through  the. 
hairs  and  dust  in  which  it  lives.  The  well  developed  head  is 
rounded,  conical,  narrower  than  the  prothoracic  ring,  pale 
honey  yellow,  and  with  long  three-jointed  antennae. 

Mr.  Emerton,  who  made  the  drawings  here  given,  informs 
me  that  the  larvae,  when  fifteen  days  old,  did  not  differ  from 
those  freshly  hatched.  I  have  been  unable  to  discover  that  it 
moults.  Westwood  states  that  "when  fully  grown,  which 
occurs  in  summer  in  about  twelve  days,  the  larvae  enclose 
themselves  in  a 
small  cocoon  of 
silk.  Bosel,  how- 
ever, observed 
that  some  of  the 
larvae  underwent 
their  transforma- 
tions without 
forming  any  co- 
coon." "The  pu- 
pa is  quite  inac- 
tive, with  the  legs 
enclosed  in  separate  cases.  The  period  of  the  duration  of 
the  pupa  state  varies  from  eleven  to  sixteen  days."  Our 
specimens  were  hatched  early  in  October,  and  they  probably 
pass  the  winter  before  changing,  as  Westwood  states  that 
they  pass  the  winter  in  the  larva  state.  .  The  species  here  rep- 
resented (Fig.  310,  6,  maxillae,  and  their  palpi,  a;  d,  the  man- 
dibles, which  are  minutely  serrated ;  c,  labial  palpi,  the  labium 
not  being  shown  in  the  figure)  was  found  on  the  person  of  a 
man,  though  it  seems  to  differ  specifically  from  Westwood's 
figure  of  P.  irritans  Linn.,  the  human  flea;  other  species  live 
on  the  dog,  cat,  squirrel,  and  other  quadrupeds  and  various 
birds.  The  antennae  are  concealed  in  a  small  cavity  situated 
behind  the  simple  eyes  and  are  four-jointed ;  in  P.  musculi 


Fig.  310. 


390  DIPTERA. 

Duges,  they  are  external.  Kirby  describes  a  gigantic  species  two 
lines  long,  from  British  America.  As  a  preventive  measure  in 
ridding  dogs  of  fleas  we  would  suggest  the  frequent  sweeping 
and  cleansing  of  the  floors  of  their  kennels,  and  renewing  of 
the  straw  or  chips  composing  their  beds — chips  being  the  best 
material  for  them  to  sleep  upon.  Flea-afflicted  dogs  should  be 
washed  every  few  days  in  strong  soapsuds,  or  weak  tobacco,  or 
petroleum  water.  A  writer  in  the  "Science-Gossip"  recom- 
mends the  use  of  Persian  vlnsect  Powder,  one  package  of 
which  suffices  for  a  good  sized  dog.  The  powder  should  be 
well  rubbed  in  all  over  the  skin ;  or  the  dog,  if  small,  can  be 
put  into  a  bag  previously  dusted  with  the  powder ;  in  either 
case  the  dog  should  be  washed  soon  after." 

One  of  the  most  serious  insect  torments  of  the  tropics  of 
America  is  the  JSarcopsylla  (Rynchoprion  of  Oken)  penetrans 
Linn.,  called  by  the  natives,  the  Jigger,  Chigoe,  Bicho,  Chique, 

or   Pique.       (Fig.  311    much    en- 
^»     larged ;     a,    the    gravid    female, 
|L  j      natural  size) .     The  female  during 
the    dry    season,   bores    into    the 
feet  of  the  natives  (though  it  also 
311-  lives    in    dogs    and    mice,  which 

accounts  for  its  presence  in  houses),  the  operation  requir- 
ing but  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  usually  penetrating  under  the 
nails,  and  lives  there  until  her  body  becomes  distended  with 
eggs ;  the  abdomen  swelling  out  to  the  size  of  a  pea.  The 
presence  of  the  insect  often  causes  distressing  sores.  The 
Chigoe  lays  about  sixty  eggs,  according  to  Karsten,  deposit- 
ing them  in  a  sort  of  sac  on  each  side  of  the  external  opening 
of  the  oviduct.  The  larvae  do  not  live  in  the  body  of  the 
parent,  or  of  its  host,  but,  like  those  of  Pulex,  live  free  on 
the  ground.  The  best  preventives  against  its  attacks  are 
cleanliness  and  the  constant  wearing  of  shoes  or  slippers  when 
in  the  house,  and  of  boots  when  out  of  doors. 

SIMULID^E  Loew.  Simulium  molestum  (Fig.  312  ;  a,  larva 
of  this  or  an  allied  species,  magnified),  the  Black-fly,  represents 
this  family.  Its  antennae  are  eleven-jointed;  the  palpi  are 
four-jointed,  with  long,  fine  terminal  joints,  and  the  ocelli  are 


BIBIONID^. 


391 


wanting,  while  the  posterior  tibiae,  and  first  joint  of  the  hind 
tarsi  are  dilated.  The  body  is  short  and  thick.  The  labrum 
is  free,  sharp  as  a  dagger,  and  the  proboscis  is  well 
developed  and  draws  blood  profusely.  The  species 
are  numerous.  The  Black-fly,  so  well  known  as 
the  torment  of  travellers  in  the  North,  is  black, 
with  a  broad  silvery  ring  on 
the  legs.  We  have  received  a 
large  species  from  Mr.  E.  T. 
Cox,  called  in  the  West  the 
Buffalo  fly.  On  the  prairies  [ 
of  Illinois  it  has  been  known 
to  plague  horses  to  death  by 
Fig.  312.  its  bifce>  The  ^  (Rhagio) 

Columbaschense  Fabr.  in  Hungary  abounds  in  im- 
mense numbers,  often  killing  cattle.  Other  species 
abound  in  the  American  tropics  where  they  are  a 
great  scourge.  The  cylindrical  larva  of  the  Euro-  Fi&-  312»  °" 
pean  species  is  furnished  with  short  antennae  and  two  flabelli- 
form  appendages.  On  the  under  side  of -the  prothorax  is  a 
thick  conical  and  retractile  tubercle,  and  there  are  several 
curved  filaments  at  the  end  of  the  body.  The  pupa  has  eight 
very  long  lateral  filaments  on  the  front  of  the  thorax,  and  the 
posterior  end  of  the  body  is  enclosed  in  a  semioval  membra- 
nous cocoon,  open  in  front,  and  posteriorly  attached  to  some 
plant.  The  fly  leaves  the  pupa  beneath  the  water. 

BIBIONID^E  Macquart.  This  group  is  characterized  by  hav- 
ing three  ocelli  and  the  prothorax  much  developed  ;  the  wings 
have  no  discal  cell.  The  coxae  are  not  prolonged  and  the  em- 
podium  (supplementary  cushion)  is  proportionally  long,  while 
the  pulvilli  are  sometimes  wanting.  The  typical  genus,  Bibio 
of  Geoffroy,  has  short,  nine-jointed  antennae,  five-jointed  palpi, 
and  the  eyes  of  the  male  are  large  and  contiguous,  while  those 
of  the  females  are  small.  The  larvae  are  cylindrical,  footless, 
with  ten  spiracles,  and  furnished  with  transverse  rows  of  short 
hairs,  being  found  in  dung,  but  they  mostly  feed  on  the  roots 
of  grass,  whole  patches  of  which  appearing  as  if  winter-killed. 
Robins  destroy  immense  numbers  of  them.  Westwood  has 


392  DIPTERA. 

found  the  pupae  enclosed  in  smooth  oval  cells ;  they  are  naked, 
the  thorax  gibbous,  with  the  rudiment al  wings  and  legs  very 
short.  Bibio  albipennis  Say,  a  white-winged  species,  is  double- 
brooded,  and  flies  in  swarms  in  June  and  October,  alighting 
slowly  on  the  passer-by. 

RHYPHID^E  Loew.  This  family  is  known  by  the  wings  hav- 
ing a  perfect  discal  cell,  while  the  empodium  resembles  a 
pulvillus ;  the  pulvilli  being  wanting.  The  single  genus 
Khyphus  has  short  fourteen-jointed  antennae,  the  second  joint 
of  the  palpi  swollen,  and  the  legs  are  not  spiny.  Rhyplms 
alternatus  Say,  is  common  on  windows. 

The  succeeding  families  belong  to  the  Bracliycera,  or  short- 
horned  flies. 

XYLOPHAGID^E  (Macquart).  This  family  is  known  by  the 
three  basal  cells  of  the  wings  being  very  prolonged,  the  an- 
nulated  third  joint  of  the  antennae  always  without  a  style  or 
terminal  bristle,  and  by  the  spurred  tibiae.  Xylophagus  has 
ten-jointed  antennae,  with  the  ovipositor  very  long.  The  larva 
is  cylindrical,  with  an  oblique  scaly  plate  on  the  tail,  while  the 
head  ends  in  an  acute  horny  point.  Loew  doubtfully  refers 
the  genus  Bolbomyia,  found  fossil  in  the  Prussian  Amber,  to 
this  group. 

STRATIOMYIDJE  Latreille.  The  wings  in  this  group  have  the 
three  basal  cells  much  prolonged,  and  the  costal  vein  reaching 
only  to  the  middle  of  the  wing.  The  third  joint  of  the  an- 
tennae is  sometimes  subdivided  into  several  portions.  The 
tibiae  are  spurless  and  the  pulvilliform  empodium  is  much 
developed.  The  coarctate  pupa  retains  the  larva  skin  nearly 
in  its  original  form.  The  genus  Beris  is  easily  distinguished 
by  having  seven,  instead  of  five  (the  usual  number)  abdominal 
segments  visible.  In  Sargus  the  eyes  of  the  males  approxi- 
mate much  closer  than  in  the  females.  They  are  showy  insects, 
with  bright  metallic  colors,  and  are  widely  distributed  over  the 
earth.  The  larva  lives  in  the  earth,  is  oval  oblong,  narrowing 
before ;  the  head  is  scaly,  with  two  ocelli,  and  armed  with  two 
hooks,  while  the  body  is  hairy.  Fig.  313  represents  a  pupa 


TABANIDJE.  393 

belonging  probably  to  this  family.  Stratiomys  has  a  broad  flat- 
tened abdomen,  and  the  scutellum  spined.  The  larvae  are 
aquatic,  being  apodal  and  flattened,  and  slen- 
der especially  at  the  end  of  the  body,  which  is 
elongated  and  has  a  simple  terminal  spiracle 
"surrounded  by  a  great  number  of  bearded 
hairs,  which  form  a  coronet,  and  which  are 
capable  of  being  closed  up  so  as  to  retain  a 
bubble  of  air,  and  by  the  assistance  of  which 
the  insect  suspends  itself  at  the  surface  of  the 
water  for  respiration.  On  assuming  the  pupa 
state,  the  insect  floats  at  liberty  in  the  water, 
the  enclosed  pupa  occupying  only  the  anterior  Fig.  sis. 
portion  of  its  larva  skin." 

TABANID^E  Latreille.  In  this  important  family  the  three 
basal  cells  of  the  wings  are  much  prolonged ;  the  third  longitu- 
dinal vein  is  furcate,  and  the  tegulae  are  rather  large.  The  pro- 
boscis of  the  male  has  four,  that  of  the  female  six  bristles.  The 
third  joint  of  the  antennae  is  annulate  and  always  without 
style  or  bristle.  The  eyes  are  large,  and  the  thorax  oblong  and 
flattened  above.  The  female  Horse-flies  are  troublesome  from 
their  formidable  bite.  The  pupae  are  obtected,  resembling  the 
adult  flies.  Pangonia  has  a  proboscis  often  longer  than  the 
body  itself.  Chrysops,  the  Golden-eyed  fly,  is  very  trouble- 
some, unceasingly  flying  about  one's  head,  striving  to  alight 
and  draw  blood.  The  two  basal  joint's  of  the  antennae  are 
prolonged,  hairy,  the  third  spindle-shaped.  Clirysops  niger 
Macquart  and  C.  vittatus  Wiedemann  are  the  two  most  abun- 
dant species. 

Tabanus,  the  Horse-fly,  is  known  by  its  large  size  and 
powerful  biting  and  sucking  apparatus.  Like  the  mosquito, 
the  male  horse-fly  does  not  bite,  but  lives  on  the  sweets  of 
flowers.  The  accompanying  sketch  shows  the  structure  of  the 
proboscis  of  the  female  of  the  Green-head  fly,  Tabanus  lineola 
Fabr.  (Fig.  314  ;  a,  five  terminal  joints  of  the  antennae ;  #>, 
labrum ;  m,  mandibles ;  m#,  maxillae ;  mp,  the  two-jointed, 
large,  stout,  maxillary  palpi ;  ?,  the  tongue).  Its  bite  is  most 
painful  and  poisonous  to  many.  Mr.  Walsh  has  shown, 


394 


DIPTERA. 


however,  that  in  its  larval  state  the  horse-fly  is  useful  to  man, 
as  it  feeds  on  snails  and  probably  the  larvae  of  other  root- 
eating  insects.  The  larvae  of  other  species  are  aquatic,  living 
under  submerged  objects.  Walsh  describes 
a  greenish  transparent  larva  which  is  cylin- 
drical, twelve-jointed,  the  body  being  most 
slender  towards  the  head,  which  is  small, 
truncate,  conical,  the  anterior  part  capable 
of  extension,  with  short,  fleshy,  exarticulate 
antennae  and  without  ocelli.  There  are  six 
pairs  of  dorsal  fleshy  tubercles.  On  the  un- 
rig. 314.  der  side  of  the  abdominal  segments  are  six 
retractile  false  legs,  and  a  single  anal  retractile  proleg.  It 
is,  when  disturbed,  vigorous  and  restless,  swimming  quickly, 
often  elevating  the  anal  slit,  in  which  the  stigmata  are  probable 
placed,  out  of  the  water  to  take  in  the  air.  The  pupa  is  cylin- 
drical, obtuse  at  the  head,  tapering  a  little  posteriorly,  and  is 
of  a  pale  yellowish  brown.  There  are  six 
tubercles  at  the  mouth,  above  which  are 
the  trigonate  three  or  four-jointed  antennae. 
The  abdominal  segments  are  furnished  with 
a  ring  of  appressed  bristles  directed  back- 
Fig.  315.  wards,  and  the  anal  spine  is  large,  trun- 
cated, and  terminates  in  six  small,  stout  spines.  T.  atratus 
Fabr.  is  a  common  species ;  it  is  black,  covered  with  a  whitish 
bloom,  and  expands  nearly  two  inches,  while  the  Tabanus  cinctus 
Fabr.,  or  Orange-belted  horse-fly,  is  smaller  and  less  abundant. 
Of  the  smaller  species  -the  Tabanus  lineola  Fabr.  (Fig.  315) 
is  so  named  from  the  whitish  line  along  the  abdomen.  This 
fly  is  our  most  common  species,  thousands  of  them  ap- 
pearing during  the  hotter  parts  of  the  summer,  when  the  sun 
is  shining  on  our  marshes  and  Western  prairies  ;  horses  and 
cattle  are  sometimes  worried  to  death  by  their  harassing  bites. 
In  cloudy  weather  they  do  not  fly  and  they  perish  on  the  cool 
frosty  nights  of  September. 

LEPTID^E  Meigen.  This  family  is  easily  distinguished  from 
the  preceding  by  the  simple  third  joint  of  the  antennae,  which 
are  provided  with  a  simple  or  thickened  styliform  bristle. 


ASILID.E.  395 

The  tibiae  are  spurred  ;  the  larvae  slender,  cylindrical  ;  the 
body  widening  posteriorly,  terminates  in  two  points,  while 
the  pupa  is  naked,  incomplete,  with  transverse  rows  of 
spines  on  the  abdomen,  becoming  largest  at  the  tip.  The 
larva  of  Leptis  vermileo  Fabr.  lives  at  the  bottom  of  holes 
which  it  makes  in  sand,  and  thus,  like  the  ant-lion,  entraps 
other  insects. 

CYRTID^E  Loew.  Known  by  the  greatly  inflated  thorax  and 
abdomen  this  family  is  of  but  small  extent,  comprising  species 
which  have  the  proboscis  rather  obsolete,  or  long  and  bent  be- 
neath the  body.  Such  are  the  genera  Cyrtus,  Acrocera  and 
Oncodes.  The  genus  Hirmoneura  represents  the  family  HIR- 

MONEURID^E  of  LO6W. 

MYDASID^E  Leach.     This  family,  represented  in  this  country 
by  the  single  genus  Midas,  is  easily  known  by  the  large  size  of 
the  species,  and  by  the  long  clavate  antennae,  the  fleshy  labium, 
and  the  minute  empodium.     The  larva  and  pupa  are 
said  by  Harris  to  almost  exactly  resemble  those  of 
the  rapacious  Asilidae.     The  larva  of  Midas  davatus 
Drury  is   cylindrical,  whitish,  tapering   before   and 
almost  rounded  behind,  with  two  spiracles  in  the  last 
segment  but  one  of  the  abdomen,  and  is  two  inches 
long.     It  lives  and  undergoes  its  transformations  in 
decaying  logs.  (Harris.)     The  pupa  (Fig.  316,  drawn 
from  a  specimen  in  the  Harris  collection)  is  about 
an  inch  and  a  quarter  long,  brown,  nearly  cylindrical,    Flg'  316' 
with  a  forked  tail  ;  there  are  eight  spines  on  the  forepart  of 
the  body.     Midas  fulvipes  Walsh  has  similar  habits  and  its 
transformations  are  similar  ;  the  larva  is  insectivorous. 


(Asilici)  Latreille.  These  large,  stout,  Robber-flies, 
as  the  Germans  style  them,  are  covered  with  stiff  hairs,  and 
have  long  abdomens.  The  third  joint  of  the  antennae  is  sim- 
ple ;  the  labium  forms  a  horny  sheath,  and  the  empodium  is 
like  a  horny  bristle.  They  are  rapacious,  seizing  other  insects 
and  flying  off  with  them,  like  the  fossorial  hymenoptera.  Da- 
sypogon  (Fig.  271,  3,  wing)  has  the  second  longitudinal  vein 


396  DIPTERA. 

running  into  the  border  of  the  wing,  while  the  anterior  tibiae 
end  in  a  hooked  spine. 

The  genus  Laphria  is  large,  stout-bodied,  very  hirsute,  the 
second  longitudinal  vein  runs  into  the  first,  and  the  style  of 
the  antennas  is  either  thick  and  stout,  and  generally  wanting,  or 
entirely  obsolete.  In  their  loud  buzz,  swift,  peculiar  flight  and 
general  appearance,  the  species  strikingly  resemble  humble 
bees.  Laphria  thoracica  Fabr.  is  nearly  an  inch  long,  and  is 
black  with  yellow  hairs  on  the  thorax.  Asilus  is  much  longer, 
with  an  acutely  pointed  prolonged  abdomen,  and  the  species  are 
often  nearly  naked,  while  the  more  essential  characters  lie  in 
the  union  of  the  second  longitudinal  vein  with  the  first,  and  the 
termination  of  the  antennae  in  a  distinct  bristle.  The  larvae 
of  Asilus  sericeus  Say,  which  feed  on  roots  of  the  rhubarb 
plant,  according  to  Dr.  Harris,  are  yellowish  white,  about 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  long,  a  little  flattened  and  tapering 
at  each  end,  with  a  small  brown,  retractile  head,  which  is  pro- 
vided with  two  little  horny  brown  hooks.  The  brown  pupa  is 
naked,  with  a  pair  of  tubercles  on  the  front  of  the  head,  three 
spines  on  the  side,  a  forked  tail,  and  a  transverse  row  of  fine 
teeth  across  each  abdominal  segment,  by  which  they  are  en- 
abled to  work  their  way  to  the  surface.  The  Trupanea  apivora 
Fitch,  or  Bee-killer,  captures  the  honey  bee  on  the  wing,  one 
having  been  known  to  kill  141  bees  in  a  day.  (Riley.) 

THERE VID^E  Westwood.  This  small  group  is  characterized 
by  the  wings  having  the  three  basal  cells  much  prolonged  ;  the 
third  longitudinal  vein  is  furcate,  and  the  antennae  have  a  ter- 
minal style  of  variable  form,  sometimes  wanting.  There  is  no 
empodium,  and  the  labium  is  fleshy.  The  larva  is  very  long 
and  slender,  the  abdominal  rings  having  a  double  segmented 
appearance,  with  two  respiratory  tubes  at  the  end  of  the  body. 
They  are  found  in  garden  mould  and  rotten  wood.  The  pupa  is 
oblong,  with  two  spines  on  the  front  of  the  head,  and  three  on 
the  side  of  the  thorax.  Westwood  states  that  the  larva  of  a 
species  of  TJiereva,  which  is  like  a  wire-worm  in  shape,  feeds 
on  the  pupae  of  some  moths. 

BOMBYLIID.E  Latreille.     These  pretty  flies  are  very  hirsute, 


397 

with  an  oval  body  and  long  proboscis ;  the  wings  have  the 
three  basal  cells  much  prolonged,  with  the  anterior  intercal- 
ary vein  present  almost  without  exception,  the  posterior  always 
wanting.  The  third  joint  of  the  antennae  is  simple,  and  the 
empodium  quite  rudimentary.  They  are  exceedingly  swift  on 
the  wing  and  are  found  in  sunny  paths  and  glades  early  in  the 
spring  and  throughout  the  summer.  They  can  only  be  cap- 
tured when  alighted  on  the  ground.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the 
nests  of  bees,  and  the  half  cylindrical,  long,  fleshy,  smooth, 
unarmed  larvae  devour  the  bee  larvae,  while  the  pupa  is  spiny, 
armed  on  the  head  with  horny  lamellae.  In  the  genus  Bomby- 
lius  the  body  is  ovate,  with  long  dense  hairs  and  a  small  head. 
The  eyes  of  the  male  are  grown  together,  and  the  legs  are  very 
slender.  A  species  is  known  in  England  to  lay  its  eggs  at  the 
opening  of. the  holes  of  Andrena,  whose  larvae  and  pupae  are 
devoured  by  the  larvae  of  the  fly.  Systropus  is  very  long  and 
slender,  and  wasp-like,  as  in  Conops,  with  the  proboscis  equal-, 
ling  the  thorax  in  length.  The  genus  Anthrax  is  more  flattened 
and  oblong  in  shape  than  Bombylius,  with  a  short  proboscis ; 
the  eyes  are  not  connected  in  the  males.  The  species  are 
gaily  colored,  the  wings  often  partially  black  ;  they  fly  in  paths 
in  the  hottest  days  of  summer.  The  larvae  are  parasitic  on 
bees,  and  in  their  transformations  closely  resemble  those  of 
Bombylius.  Audouin  has  found  Anthrax  morio  in  the  nest  of 
Anthophora,  and  Westwood  has  found  the  pupa-skin  in  the 
nest  of  Megachile,  while  the  larva  has,  in  England,  more  re- 
cently been  found  to  be  parasitic  in  the  nests  of  certain  An- 
drenidae.  We  have  received  from  Mr.  J.  Angus  the  larva  and 
pupa  (Plate  4,  figs.  6,  7)  of  Anthrax  sinuosa  Wiedemann, 
which  is  parasitic  in  the  nest  of  Xylocopa  Virginica. 

SYRPHID^:  Leach.  These  gaily  colored  flies,  so  useful  to  ag- 
riculturists from  their  habit  of  feeding  upon  Plant-lice,  closely 
resemble  the  wasps  in  form  and  coloration,  having  hemis- 
pherical heads,  large  broad  eyes,  and  rather  flattened  bodies 
ornamented  with  yellow  bands  and  spots.  The  wings  have  the 
three  basal  cells  much  prolonged,  the  third  longitudinal  vein 
simple,  a  spurious  longitudinal  vein  between  the  third  and  fourth 
longitudinal  veins  ;  while  the  fourth  longitudinal  vein  is  united 


398 


DIPTERA. 


Fig.  317. 


at  its  end  with  the  third,  and  there  is  no  intercalary  vein.  The 
genital  armor  of  the  male  is  unsymmetrical,  and  there  is  no 
empodium.  They  hover  in  the  hot  sun 
over  and  -about  flowers,  resting  upon 
them  to  feed  on  their  sweets.  The 
larvae  either  live  in  the  water,  when  the 
body  ends  in  a  long  extensile  breathing 
tube  ;  or  are  terrestrial,  living  in  decay- 
ing wood,  or  parasitically  in  nests  of 
bees,  or,  as  in  Syrphus,  live  among  plant- 
lice.  The  singular  spherical  larva  of  Mi- 
crodon  globosus  (Fig.  317  ;  a,  puparium  ; 
s,  spiracular  tubercles ;  v,  vent ;  6, 
anterior  view  of  the  same  ;  c,  larva  just 
before  pupation)  is  found,  according  to 
Mr.  Sanborn,  under  sticks  in  company 
with  shells. 

Milesia  strikingly  resembles,  in  its  style  of  coloration  and 
form,  the  common  large  yellow  wasp.  The  antennae  are  short, 
drooping,  with  a  stout  oval  terminal  joint,  and  a  subterminal 
bristle.  M.  excentrica  Harris,  with  its  yellow  spots  and  bands 
resembles  a  wasp. 

Eristalis  is  well  known  by  its  aquatic  "rat- tailed"  larvae,  the 
abdomen  terminating  in  a  long  respiratory  tube  equalling  the 
body  in  length,  with  two  stigmata  at  the  end,  which  they  pro- 
trude out  of  the  water.  There  are  seven  pairs  of  prolegs,  more 
distinct  than  in  any  other  genus  in  the  entire  suborder.  The 
pupa  is  found  buried  in  the  earth.  The  body  of  the  larva  shor- 
tens and  hardens,  forming  the  puparium,  which  is  provided 
with  four  horns,  serving  as  organs  of  respiration. 

The  species  of  Eristalis*  are  seen  flying  abundantly  about 

*  Jules  Kunckel  has  recently  detected  a  true  peritrachial  circulation  in  Eristalis, 
thus  confirming  the  discoveries  of  Blanchard  and  Agassiz.  He  saw  the  blood 
imprisoned  between  the  inner  air  tube  and  the  envelope  of  the  trachea,  and  pene- 
trating into  the  capillaiy  termination  of  those  tracheae,  and  saw  the  flow  of  the 
blood  globules  in  the  peritracheal  space.  This  peritracheal  circulation  thus  seems 
to  correspond  with  the  arterial  circulation  of  the  vertebrate  animals,  and  the  mi- 
nute branches  of  the  tracheae  are  capillaries,  and  the  blood  is  arterial.  "En 
rtsum&,  the  tracheae  of  insects,  air  tubes  in  their  central  portion,  blood  vessels  in 
their  peripheral  portion  [i.  e.,  the  space  surrounding  the  air  tube]  become  at  their 
extremities  true  arterial  capillaries."  "The  blood  in  the  peritracheal  space  re- 
mains through  all  its  course  in  contact  with  the  oxygen;  it  arrives  at  the  capilla- 


SYEPHID^E. 


399 


Fig.  318. 


Fig.  319. 


flowers  in  the  spring,  and  are  common  throughout  the  spring. 
They  scoop  up  the  pollen  of  the  flowers  with  their  maxillae. 
We  have  received  from  Mr.  E.  T.  Cox  the 
puparium  (Fig.  318)  of  a  species  which  in- 
habits the  salt  vats  of  the  Equality  Salt 
Works  of  Gallatin  County,  111.     The  pupa- 
rium of  a  species  of  Helophilus  closely  re- 
sembling that  figured  by  Westwood  (Class.  Insects,  Fig.  131, 
8),  has  been  found  living  in  the   salt  water  canal  of  the 

Naumkeag  Factory  leading 
into  Salem  Harbor,  and  is  in 
the  Museum  of  the  Peabody 
Academy. 

Closely  allied  to  Eristalis  is 
the  genus  Merodon,  of  which 
M.  bardus  Say  (Fig.  319  ;  a, 
puparium,  natural  size)  is  fre- 
quently met  with.  Its  thorax, 
the  first  abdominal  ring  and  the  side  of  the  second  are  cov- 
ered with  short  yellow  hairs ;  it  is  .70  of  an  inch  in  length. 
The  puparium  is  of  the  same  length,  and 
is  cylindrical,  ending  suddenly  in  a  re- 
spiratory filament  a  little  longer  than  the 
body;  it  is  quite  stout,  contracting  be- 
yond its  middle  into  a  slender  filament. 
On  each  abdominal  ring  is  a  pair  of  small, 
low,  flattened  tubercles  crowned  by  a 
number  of  radiating  spinules.  Its  larva 
is  undoubtedly  aquatic,  like  that  of  Eris- 
talis. Mr.  Sanborn  has  also  reared  from  the  pupa  state  Jtf. 
Narcissi,  which  probably  lives  in  the  soil  about 
decaying  bulbs,  as  the  puparium  has  no  respira- 
tory tube,  but  instead  a  very  short  sessile  trun- 
cated projection,  scarcely  as  long  as  it  is  thick, 
with  a  pair  of  stigmata  in  the  end  ;  the  body  is 
cylindrical  and  rounded  alike  at  each  end,  with  a  slight  con- 

ries  perfectly  vivified;  it  is  a  true  arterial  blood.  These  capillaries  are  not  in 
communication  with  the  venous  capillaries ;  the  blood  is  taken  up  by  the  tissues, 
it  nourishes  them  and  flows  into  the  venous  lacunae,  and  the  lacunar  currents 
carry  it  to  the  dorsal  vessel."  Annales  des  Sciences  tfaturelles,  1868. 


Fig.  320. 


Fig.  321. 


400  DIPTERA. 

traction  behind  the  middle  of  the  head ;  its  surface  is  rough- 
ened with  transverse  wrinkles,  but  no  regularly  marked  sutures, 
indicating  the  divisions  between  the  segments,  are  apparent. 
It  has  been  introduced  from  Europe,  according  to  Mr.  Sanborn, 
by  the  importers  of  Dutch  bulbs. 

The  well  known  genus  Syrplius  (Fig  320,  S.  politus  Say)  so 
useful  in  reducing  the  immense  numbers  of  plant-lice,  lays  a 
single  egg  in  a  group  of  plant-lice,  which  hatches  out  a  footless, 
eyeless,  flattened,  transversely  wrinkled,  gaily  colored  green  and 
purple  maggot  (Fig.  321)  having  a  very  extensile  body,  which 
enables  it  to  reach  up  and  grasp  the  Aphis  by  the  peculiar 
sucking  mouth-parts.  When  fully  grown  the  larva  adheres  by 
means  of  a  glutinous  secretion  to  a  leaf,  its  body  contracts  and 
hardens,  forming  a  half  cylindrical  puparium. 

The  species  of  Volucella  are  parasitic  in  their  habits,  the 
larvae  feeding  on  those  of  Bombus.  They  are  long,  "narrowed 
in  front,  transversely  wrinkled,  with  fine  lateral  points,  and  the 
tail  is  armed  with  six  radiating  points  ;  the  mouth  is  armed 
with  two  bifid  mandibles,  and  three  pairs  of  tentacula." 
(Westwood.)  The  pupae  are  not  known.  The  fly  would  be 
easily  mistaken  for  a  bee,  nearly  attaining  the  size  of  the 
worker  Humble-bee,  being  remarkably  plump  and  hirsute.  J. 
Kiinckel  states  that  in  Europe  two  species  are  known  to  live 
in  the  nests  of  Vespa. 

CONOPID^E  Leach.  The  species  of  this  family  bear  some 
resemblance  to  the  wasp,  Eumenes,  from  their  long,  slen- 
der, pedicelled  abdomen.  The  three  basal  cells  of  the  wings 
are  large,  the  third  closed,  more  or  less  remote  from  the  pos- 
terior border,  and  all  the  longitudinal  veins  are  simple.  The 
eyes  in  both  sexes  are  smaller  than  in  the  preceding  family, 
being  separated.  The  proboscis  is,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
much  prolonged,  and  the  third  joint  of  the  antennae  has  either 
an  apical  style  or  a  thick  dorsal  bristle.  The  male  genital 
armor  is  symmetrical  and  turned  beneath  the  abdomen.  The 
flask-shaped  larva  of  Conops  is  "  soft,  whitish,  eleven-jointed, 
with  a  long  neck  and  a  mouth  armed  with  lips  and  hooks  (man- 
dibles), and  two  lateral  elevated  plates  supporting  the  two 
spiracles/'  It  was  found  by  Lachat  and  Audouin  living  in  the 


CONOPID^E. 


401 


abdomen  of  Bombus.  It  is  also  said  by  St.  Fargeau  to  live  in 
the  nest  of  Vespa,  and  Conops  Jlavipes  was  bred,  according  to 
Curtis,  from  the  body  of  Osmia. 

Mr.  S.  S.  Saunders  has  observed  in  Epirus  the  habits  of  a 
species  which  lives  in  the  abdomen  of  Pompilus  audax  Smith. 
The  fly  lays  its  eggs  in  June  in  the  adult  Pompilus,  probably 
ovipositing  between  the  abdominal  segments.  During  August 
the  larvae  become  fully  grown,  probably  in  ten  or  fifteen  days. 
The  puparium  is  oval,  of  an  uniform,  deep,  piceous  hue,  and  the 
fly  works  its  way  through  the  first  and  second  abdominal  rings 
of  the  wasp,  whose  abdomen  then  breaks  in  two.  Saunders 
also  found  a  similar  Conops  larva  in  Sphex  flavipennis,  cap- 
tured at  the  same  time  and  place  as  the  Pompilus ;  also  a 
smaller  species  of 
Conops  was  bred 
from  the  abdomen 
of  Odynerus. 
We  have  also 
bred  a  species 
from  one  of  two 
species  of  Bom- 
bus,  either  B. 
vagans  or  B.  fer- 
vidus. 

In  Myopa  the  antennal  bristle  is  subterminal,  and  the  probos- 
cis is  twice  elbowed.  Westwood  has  observed  Myopa  atra  fly- 
ing about  sand-banks  in  which  were  the  burrows  of  various  bees, 
and  by  other  authors  the  genus  is  said  to  be  parasitic  on  bees. 

The  genus  Pipunculus  represents  a  small  group  in  which 
the  head  is  almost  entirely  occupied  by  the  eyes,  the  front  and 
face  being  exceedingly  narrow,  while  the  antennae  have  a  basal 
bristle. 

Loew  considers  the  genus  JScenopinus  as  the  type  of  a  dis- 
tinct family,  hinting  at  its  relationship  with  the  Bombyliidae. 
The  genus  is  known  by  the  short  antennae,  without  style  or  bris- 
tle ;  and  by  the  short  proboscis  with  its  broad  fleshy  end.  The 
larvae  are  long,  very  slender,  much  like  those  of  Thereva,  and 
the  pupa  is  much  like  that  of  Leptis.  Mr.  Sanborn  has  reared 
S.pallipes  Say  (Fig.  322  ;  a,  larva).  The  larva  is  found  under 
26 


Fig.  322. 


402  DIPTERA. 

carpets,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  double  segmented  appearance 
of  all  the  abdominal  segments,  except  the  last  one,  so  that  the 
body,  exclusive  of  the  head,  seems  as  if  twenty-jointed  instead 
of  having  but  twelve  joints.  The  head  is  conical,  one-third 
longer  than  broad,  and  of  a  reddish  brown  color,  while  the 
body  is  white.  It  is  .65  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  larva  is 
also  said  to  live  in  rotten  wood,  and  is  too  scarce  to  be  destruc- 
tive to  carpets.  The  fly  is  black,  with  a  metallic  hue,  and 
with  pale  feet. 

The  genus  Platypeza  also  represents  the  Platypezidce  of 
Meigen,  the  antennae  of  which  have  an  apical  bristle,  with  the 
male  genital  armor  (hypopygium)  turned  symmetrically  under 
the  abdomen.  The  middle  tibiae  are  provided  with  spurs,  and 
the  empodium  is  wanting.  The  larva  is  flat,  with  rigid  curved 
bristles  along  the  side.  It  lives  in  rotten  mushrooms. 

EMPID.E  Leach.  The  species  of  this  family  closely  resemble 
the  Asilidse  in  their  long  body,  incumbent  wings,  and  rapaci- 
ous, carnivorous  habits.  The  first  joint  of  the  antennae  is  not 
much  shortened,  and  the  third  joint  has  an  apical  or  dorsal 
bristle,  while  the  empodium  is  usually  membranaceous  and  of  a 
linear  form.  The  head  is  small,  spherical,  the  eyes  united  in 
the  male ;  the  proboscis  is  horny,  without  a  distinct  tongue, 
and  bent  upon  the  breast.  The  slender  larvae,  whose  segments 
are  much  constricted,  arc  found  in  garden  mould.  The  species 
hover  in  swarms  over  standing  water,  flying  backwards  and  for- 
wards as  if  by  a  common  impulse.  They  appear  very  early  in 
the  spring,  or  in  autumn.  The  genera  Hybos  and  Tachydromia 
represent  small  groups  which  are  closely  allied  to  Empis. 

DOLICHOPODID^E  Latreille.  Loew  has  characterized  this 
well  marked  family  as  generally  comprising  metallic  green, 
brisk  and  restless  Diptera  of  small  or  medium  size,  predatory 
on  other  insects,  and  living  principally  in  damp  situations  ;  the 
larvae  living  under  ground  or  in  decaying  wood.  The  head  is 
hemispherical,  the  eyes  large  and  hairy,  the  antennae  are 
stretched  straight  out,  with  a  two-jointed  bristle.  The  probos- 
cis is  short  and  stout,  concealed  above  by  the  single  jointed, 
usually  scale-shaped  palpi,  with  a  wide  opening  which  can  be 


CESTIUD2&.  403 

shut  by  the  protruding  suctorial  flaps.  The  wings  do  not  have 
the  auxiliary  vein  running  towards  the  anterior  margin  ;  the  an- 
terior basal  cell  is  very  short  ;  and  the  discoidal  cell  coalescent 
with  the  second  basal  cell,  while  the  posterior  basal  cell  is  very 
small.  They  are  mostly  "found  on  the  leaves  of  aquatic  plants, 
on  stones  partly  overflown  with  water,  on  dams  and  near  water- 
falls ;  some  of  them  are  able  to  run  rapidly  over  the  water,  even 
when  it  is  rippled  by  the  wind  (Hydophorus)  ;  others  are  fond 
of  salt  or  brackish  waters  (Aphrosylus,  Thinophilus  and  some 
Hydrophorus)  ;  the  species  of  Medetervs  prefer  dry  situations, 
and  are  found  on  stumps  of  trees,  fences,  etc.,  even  in  very 
dry  and  hot  weather." 


Leach.  Bot-flies,  Breeze-flies.  In  these  flies,  so 
interesting  in  their  habits,  the  body  is  stout,  hairy,  like  the 
Humble  bees,  and  they  are  easily  recognized  by  having  the 
opening  of  the  mouth  very  small,  with  rudimentary  oral  or- 
gans. The  middle  part  of  the  face  is  exceedingly  narrow,  and 
the  minute  antennae  are  inserted  in  rounded  pits.  The  eggs 
hatch  very  soon  after  laying,  and  Riley  (First  Annual  Report 
on  the  Noxious  Insects  of  Missouri,  p.  164)  thinks,  from  the 
testimony  of  three  independent  witnesses,  that  the  sheep  bot- 
fly is  viviparous,  the  larvae  hatching  within  the  body  of  the 
parent,  who  deposits  in  the  nostrils  of  the  sheep  the  "perfectly 
formed  and  living  grub." 

The  larvae  are,  in  general,  thick,  fleshy,  footless  grubs,  con- 
sisting of  eleven  segments  exclusive  of  the  head,  which  are 
spined  and  tuberculated,  the  former  in  rows,  which  enable  them 
to  move  about  readily  when  living  under  the  skin  or  in  the 
frontal  sinua  and  thus  greatly  irritate  the  animals  on  which  they 
live.  The  stigmata  are  placed  in  a  scaly  plate  on  the  thick- 
ened posterior  end  of  the  body.  The  mouth  of  the  cutaneous 
larvae  consists  simply  of  fleshy  tubercles,  while  in  those  species 
that  live  in  the  stomach  and  frontal  sinuses  of  their  hosts,  it  is 
provided  with  horny  hooks.  While  in  this  state  they  moult 
twice,  and  then  attain  their  full  size.  They  feed  on  the  puru- 
lent matter  originating  from  the  irritation  produced  by  the 
movements  of  their  bodies.  Just  before  assuming  the  pupa 
state,  the  larva  leaves  its  peculiar  habitat,  descends  into  the 


404 


DIPTEKA. 


ground,  and  there  becomes  a  coarctate  pupa,  enclosed  within 
the  old  larva  skin,  and  remaining  in  connection  with  it  by 
means  of  four  tracheae. 

The  genus  Gastrophilus  has  very  small 
mouth-parts,  the  deep  lying  palpi  being 
somewhat  spherical,  and  the 
proboscis  nearly  obsolete, 
while  the  abdomen  is  sessile. 
Fig.  323.  rpke  Species  are  of  medium 

size,  short  and  thick,  and  very  hairy.  The  female 
deposits  her  eggs  on  the  horse's  hips  and  legs, 
whence  the  larvae  are  introduced  into  the  stomach. 
The  body  of  the  larva  widens  posteriorly ;  the 
mandibles  are  not  visible,  and  the  maxillae  con- 
stitute the  so-called  mouth-hooks,  by  which  the 
larva  grapples  and  adheres  to  the  walls  of  the 
horse's  stomach.  The  rudimentary  antennae  are 
indicated  by  an  ocellus-like  point.  The  Horse  Bot-fly,  Gas- 
trophilus equi  Fabr.  (Fig.  323  ;  fig.  324,  larva),  in  its  perfect 
state  is  pale  yellowish,  spotted  with  red,  with  a  grayish  yellow 
hirsuties;  the  thorax  is  banded  with  black,  or  sometimes, 


Fig.  324. 


Fig.  325.  a 

though  rarely,  reddish  hairs.  The  hinder  trochanters  are 
hooked  in  the  males,  and  tuberculated  in  the  females,  and  the 
wings  are  banded  with  reddish,  with  two  spots  at  the  apex. 
The  larvae  live  from  May  till  October,  and  when  fully  grownv 
hang  by  their  mouth-hooks  on  the  edge  of  the  rectum,  whence 


405 

they  are  carried  out  in  the  excrement.  The  pupa  state  lasts 
from  thirty  to  forty  days,  and  the  perfect  fly  appears  the  next 
season  from  June  to  October. 

In  Hypoderma  the  palpi  are  entirely  wanting.  The  species  are 
either  \QTJ  large,  or  of  medium  size,  and  often  quite  small,  cov- 
ered with  fine  dense  hairs.  The  legs  are  long  and  slender.  The 
Hypoderma  bovis  Degeer  (Fig.  325,  a,  larva)  or  Bot-fly  of  the  ox, 
is  black,  densely  pilose  ;  the  front  of  the  head  is  dirty  ashen, 
with  whitish  yellow  hairs.  The  naked  black  thorax  is  twice 
broadly  banded  with  yellow  and  white  ;  the  scutellum  has 
slight  tubercles ;  the  abdomen  is  black,  with  a  basal  white  or 
yellowish  band,  a  mesial  black  band,  and  at  the  end  is  a  reddish 
orange  band  of  hairs.  The  larvae  are  found  during  the  month 
of  May  and  in  the  summer  in  the  tumors  on  the  backs  of  cattle, 
and  when  fully  grown,  which  is  generally  in  July,  work  their 
way  out  and  fall  to  the  ground. 
They  exist  in  the  puparium  twen- 
ty-six to  thirty  days,  and  the  fly 
appears  from  June  to  September. 
This  species  is  found  over  all  the 
civilized  portions  of  the  world. 
Hypoderma  tarandi  Linn,  infests, 
in  like  manner,  the  Reindeer. 
The  genus  (Estromyia  is  thought 
to  inhabit  the  Hare.  CEstrus  ovis 
Linn.,  the  Sheep  Bot-fly,  is  of  a 
dirty  ash  color,  with  a  fuscous  ashen,  banded,  and  obscurely 
spotted  thorax.  The  abdomen  is  marbled  with  yellowish  and 
white  flecks,  and  is  hairy  at  the  end.  The  larva  lives,  during 
April,  May  and  June,  in  the  frontal  sinus  of  the  sheep,  and  also 
in  the  nasal  cavity,  whence  it  falls  to  the  ground.  It  changes 
to  a  pupa  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  fly  appears  during  the 
summer.  Cuterebra  has  the  third  joint  of  the  antennae  oval  or 
elliptical  and  the  bristle  is  dorsal  and  feathered ;  the  species 
are  short,  very  plump  and  hairy  flies,  with  a  proboscis  elbowed 
at  the  base,  and  with  a  metallic  shining  rounded  abdomen. 
The  larvae  live  in  subcutaneous  bots  beneath  the  skin  of  vari- 
ous animals.  One  species  (the  C.  emasculator  of  Fitch)  lives 
in  the  scrotum  of  the  squirrel,  which  it  is  known  to  emasculate. 


406 


DIPTERA. 


Mr.  S.  S.  Rathvon  has  reared  C.  buccata  Fabr.  (Fig.  326,  and 
side  view)  from  the  body  of  a  striped  squirrel,  the  larvae  having 
emerged  from  the  region  of  the  kidneys."  (American  Ento- 
mologist, p.  116.)  Other  species  live  in  the  Opossum  and 
.different  species  of  field-mice.  Cuterebra  Tiorripilum  Clark  is 
found  throughout  the  United  States,  and  C.  cuniculi  Clark  lives 
in  the  hare  and  rabbit,  in  the  Southern  States,  and  is  found, 
according  to  Coquerel,  in  the  bots  of  horses. 

The  genus  Dermatobia  includes  the  Ver  macaque,  of  Cayenne 
and  Mexico,  found  beneath  the  skin  of  man  in  tropical  America, 
and  it  is  disputed  whether  it  be  a  true  indigenous  "CEstrus 
hominis,"  or  originally  attacks  the  monkey,  dog,  or  other  mam- 
mal, In  Cayenne  the  species  attacking  man  is  called  the  Ver 
Macaque ;  in  Brazil  (Para)  Ura ;  in  Costa 
Rica,  Torcel ;  in  New  Grenada,  Gusano 
peludo,  or  Muche.  The  D.  noxialis  Goudot? 
(Fig.  327)  Ver  moyocuil,  lives  on  the  dog, 
and  is  found  in  Mexico  and  New  Grenada. 
The  larvae  are  long,  cylindrical,  S- shaped, 
differing  greatly  in  form  from  others  of  this 
family.  The  flies  are  closely  allied  to  those 
of  the  preceding  genus. 

Dr.  Leidy  states  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Philadelphia  Academy  (1859),  that  several 
specimens  of  the  larva  of  a  bot-fly  were  ob- 
rig.  327.  tained  by  Dr.  J.  L.  Leconte  in  Honduras, 

from  his  travelling  companions.  They  were  "usually  found  be- 
neath the  skin  of  the  shoulders,  breasts,  arms,  buttocks  and 
thighs,  and  were  suspected  to  have  been  introduced  when  the 
persons  were  bathing."  "Dr.  Leconte  informs  us  that  his  com- 
panions were  not  aware  of  the  time  when  the  eggs  of  the  larvae, 
obtained  by  him,  were  deposited  in  their  bodies.  He  also  states 
that  the  presence  of  the  larva  gave  rise  to  comparatively  little 
uneasiness." 

According  to  Krefft  a  species  of  Batrachomyia  is  parasitic 
upon  four  species  of  Australian  frogs.  The  larvae  are  found 
between  the  skin  and  the  flesh  behind  the  tympanum  ;  they  are 
of  a  yellow  color  and  may  be  squeezed  through  a  small  open- 
ing that  exists  over  them.  When  they  quit  the  frog  the  latter 


MUSCIDJS.  407 

dies.  The  change  to  the  pupa  state  is  usually  effected  on  the 
lower  surface  of  a  piece  of  rock  in  some  damp  locality.  The 
perfect  insect  emerges  in  thirty-two  days.  (Giinther's  Zoologi- 
cal Record,  1864.) 

MUSCLDJE  Latreille.  The  common  House-fly,  the  Blue-bottle 
fly,  and  the  Flesh-fly,  at  once  recall  the  appearance  of  this 
family,  which  is  one  of  great  extent,  and  much  subdivided  by 
entomologists.  The  antennae  are  three-jointed,  the  terminal 
joint  being  flattened  and  with  a  plumose  bristle  in  the  typical 
species.  The  proboscis  ends  in  a  fleshy  lobe,  with  porrect 
single-jointed  maxillary  palpi.  The  four  longitudinal  veins  of 
the  wing  are  simple ;  the  first  of  the  two  vejns  on  the  hinder 
edge  often  approaching  that  on  the  apex  of  the  wing ;  the  tarsi 
have  two  pulvilli,  and  the  abdomen  is  five-jointed.  The  larvae 
are  footless,  cylindrico-conic,  narrowing  in  front,  with  a  head 
variable  in  form,  and  with  hook-like  mandibles.  There  are  often 
two  pairs  of  spiracles,  one  on  the  terminal  ring  of  the  body, 
and  the  other  pair  on  the  prothoracic  segment.  The  pupa  is 
enclosed  in  the  puparium,  generally  cylindrical,  but  sometimes 
preserving  the  original  shape  of  the  larva.  The  celebrated 
"Tsetze"  fly  (Glossina  morsitans  Westwood)  is  a  member  of 
this  family.  It  kills  cattle  by  its  painful  bite,  though  its  in- 
jurious nature  is  said  to  have  been  overrated.  It  is  allied  to 
Stomoxys,  the  species  of  which  bite  very  sharply.  S.  cattricans 
has  a  well  developed  proboscis,  enabling  it  to  bite  severely. 
It  is  often  found  in  houses. 

The  species  of  the  genus  Tachina,  like  the  Ichneumonidae,  are 
parasitic  in  caterpillars,  and  others  are  found  in  the  nests  of 
bees.  They  are  stout  flies,  covered  with  bristles,  with  the  eyes 
much  larger  in  the  males  than  in  the  other  sex.  The  bristle 
of  the  antennae  is  bare  or  with  a  very  short  pubescence.  The 
thorax  is  short,  and  the  first  posterior  cell  is  closed,  or  but 
slightly  opened,  and  the  legs  are  short.  The  abdomen  is  oval 
or  cylindrical,  and  the  first  segment  is  much  shortened.  The 
larvae  are  oval,  with  the  segments  much  constricted  ;  they  have 
no  head  ;  the  last  segment  bears  two  spiracles.  T.  (Senomet- 
opia)  militant  Walsh  lays  its  eggs,  from  one  to  six  in  num- 
ber, on  the  Army  worm  (Leucania  unipuncta),  "fastening 


408 


DIPTEEA. 


them'  by  an  insoluble  cement  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  two 
or  three  first  rings  of  the  body.  The  eggs  hatch  often  after 
the  caterpillar  has  gone  under  ground  to  transform,  and  in 
fifteen  to  nineteen  days,  or  the  last  of  September,  the  flies  ap- 
pear. T.  (Lydella)  doryphorce  Biley  (Fig.  328)  preys  on  the 

larvae  of  the  Colorado  potato 
beetle.  Other  species  of  gen- 
era allied  to  Tachina,  accord- 
ing to  Dufour,  are  parasitic  on 
beetles,  etc  ;  thus,  Cassidomyia 
preys  on  Cassida,  Hyalomyia 
on  Brachyderes,  and  Ocyptera 
attacks  Pentatoma ;  and  he 
thinks  that  Cliartophila  floralis 
feeds  either  on  the  food  or  the 


Fig.  328. 


young  itself  of  Andrena. 


Sarcophaga,  the  Flesh-fly,  has  a  small  head,  with  the  aiitennal 
bristle  plumose  or  hairy,  naked  at  the  tip  ;  the  first  posterior 
cell  only  slightly  opened,  or  closed,  with  large  tegulse  and 
stout  legs.  The  flesh-fly,  Sarcophaga  carnaria  Linn.,  is  black, 
the  thorax  streaked  with  gray,  and  the  abdomen  checkered 
with  whitish.  The  female  is  viviparous,  that  is,  the 
larvae  hatch  and  live  within  the  oviduct.  The  ova- 
ries are  large,  arranged  in  a  spiral  manner  and  con- 
tain sometimes  20,000  eggs.  We  have  reared  Sarco- 
phaga  nudipennis  Loew  from  the  cells  of  Pelopaeus 
flavipes,  the  Mud-dauber,  which  had  been  stored  with 
spiders,  the  flies  making  their  appearance  on  the  first 
of  July,  a  few  days  before  the  wasps  issued  from  the 
cells.  The  parent  flies  had  probably  laid  their  eggs 
in  the  spiders  before  the  cells  were  closed  by  the 
wasps.  The  nests  .were  brought  from  Texas. 
Fig.  329.  Musca  has  plumose  antennae,  while  in  Stomoxys 
they  are  pectinated.  Dufour  states  that  the  allied  genera, 
Echinomyia,  Gonia,  Dexia  and  JSiphonia  are  also  viviparous. 
Musca  (Lucilia)  Caesar  Linn,  the  Blue-bottle  fly,  and  Musca 
(Calliphora)  vomitoria  Linn,  the  Meat-fly,  deposit  their  eggs 
(fly-blows)  upon  meat  and  decaying  animal  substances,  and 
during  the  late  war  were  grievously  tormenting  to  our  soldiers, 


MUSCIDJE.  409 

laying  their  eggs  in  the  wounds,  especially  of  those  left  on  the 
field  over  night.  The  larva  of  M.  Caesar  (Fig.  329)  is  of  very 
rapid  growth.  It  is  of  an  "elongated  conical  form,  pointed 
towards  the  head,  which  is  furnished  with  two  fleshy  horns," 
and  horny  mouth-parts,  and  a  pair  of  rudiments  of  branchiae 
on  the  prothoracic  ring.  The  body  is  suddenly  truncated,  the 
end  being  furnished  with  a  pair  of  stigmata.  The  pupa  trans- 
forms in  the  ground,  within  a  puparium  of  the  usual  long,  cy- 
lindrical form. 

Dr.  Chapman  of  Appalachicola,  writes  to  Mr.  Sanborn  that 
this  fly,  "  attracted  by  the  stench  of  a  mass  of  decaying  insects 
which  have  perished  in  the  leaf  of  Sarracenia,  ventures  in  and 
deposits  its  eggs,  and  the  larvae  devour  the  festering  heap. 
These  in  turn,  on  becoming  flies,  are 
unable  to  get  out  of  their  prison,  perish, 
and  are  added  to  the  putrefying  mass 
that  had  nourished  them." 

F.  Smith  notices  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  Entomological  Society  of  Lon- 
don, 1868,  the  "  Warega"  fly  of  Brazil, 
which  is  said  to  be  the  "pest  of  both 
man  and  animals ;  it  is  a  species  of 
Muse  a,  and  is  said  to  lay  its  eggs  in  the 
skin;  large  and  terrible  swellings  are 
formed.  The  mode  of  extracting  the 

maggot  is  to  cut  an  opening,  and  to  press  it  out — a  most 
painful  operation.  These  wounds  are  very  difficult  to  cure." 

The  House-fly,  Musca  domestica  Linn.,  is  common  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  year,  and  hibernates  through  the  winter.  A 
study  of  the  proboscis  of  the  fly  reveals  a  wonderful  adaptability 
of  the  mouth-parts  of  this  insect  to  their  uses.  We  have  already 
noticed  the  most  perfect  condition  of  these  parts  as  seen  in  the 
horse-fly.  In  the  proboscis  of  the  house-fly  the  hard  parts  are 
obsolete,  and  instead  we  have  a  fleshy  tongue-like  organ  (Fig. 
330),  bent  up  underneath  the  head  when  at  rest.  The  maxillae 
are  minute,  and  the  palpi  (mp)  are  single-jointed,  and  the  man- 
dibles (m)  are  comparatively  useless,  being  very  short  and 
small  compared  with  the  lancet-like  jaws  of  the  mosquito  or 
horse-fly.  But  the  structure  of  the  tongue  itself  (labium,  I)  is 


410  DIPTERA. 

most  curious.  When  the  fly  settles  upon  a  lump  of  sugar  or 
other  sweet  object,  it  unbends  its  tongue,  extends  it,  and  the 
broad  knob-like  end  divides  into  two  flat,  muscular  leaves  (7), 
which  thus  present  a  sucker-like  surface,  with  which  the  fly  laps 
up  liquid  sweets.  These  two  leaves  are  supported  upon  a 
framework  of  trachea!1  tubes,  which  act  as  a  set  of  springs 
to  open  and  shut  the  muscular  leaves.  In  the  preceding  figure, 
Mr.  Emerton  has  faithfully  represented  these  modified  tracheae, 
which  end  in  hairs  projecting  externally.  Thus  the  inside  of 
this  broad  fleshy  expansion  is  rough  like  a  rasp,  and  as  Newport 
states,  "is  easily  employed  by  the  insect  in  scraping  or  tearing 
delicate  surfaces.  It  is  by  means  of  this  curious  structure  that 
the  busy  house-fly  occasions  much  mischief  to  the  covers  of  our 
books,  by  scraping  off  the  albuminous  polish,  and  leaving  tra- 
A  cings  of  its  depredations  in  the  soiled  and  spotted 

M  a  appearance  which  it  occasions  on  them.  It  is 
by  means  of  these  also  that  it  teases  us  in  the  heat 
of  summer,  when  it  alights  on  the  hand  or  face 
to  sip  the  perspiration  as  it  exudes  from,  and  is 
condensed  upon,  the  skin." 

Every  one  notices  that  house-flies  are  most 
abundant  around  barns  in  August  and  Septem- 
ber, and  it  is  in  the  ordure  of  stables  that  the 
early  stages  of  this  insect  are  passed.  No  one 
Fig.  331.  has  traced  the  transformations  of  this  fly  in  this 
country,  but  we  copy  from  Bouche's  work  on  the  transforma- 
tions of  insects,  the  rather  rude  figures  of  the  larva  (Fig.  331), 
and  puparium  (a)  of  the  Musca  domestica  of  Europe,  wrhich  is 
supposed  to  be  our  species.  Bouche  states  that  the  larva  is 
cylindrical,  rounded  posteriorly,  smooth  and  shining,  fleshy, 
and  yellowish  white,  and  is  four  lines  long.  The  puparium  is 
dark  reddish  brown,  and  three  lines  in  length.  It  remains  in 
the  pupa  state  from  eight  to  fourteen  days.  In  Europe  it  is 
preyed  upon  by  minute  ichneumon  flies  (Chalcids).  Idia 
Bigoti,  according  to  Coquerel  and  Mondiere,  produces  a  disease 
in  the  natives  of  Senegal,  probably  by  ovipositing  on  the  skin, 
thus  giving  rise  to  hard  red  fluctuating  tumors,  in  which  the 
larva  of  this  fly  resides. 

The  species  of  the  genus  Antliomyia,  seen  about  flowers,  in 


411 

the  larva  state  live  in  decaying  vegetable  matter  and  in  privies. 
They  are  smaller  flies  than  the  foregoing  genera,  with  smaller 
alulae,  and  the  fourth  longitudinal  vein  of  the  wing  is  straight, 
thus  leaving  the  first  posterior  cell  fully  open.  The  larvae  are 
generally  much  like  those  of  the  meat-fly,  but  are  thicker, 
while  others,  described  as  belonging  to  this  genus,  are  said  to 
be  flattened  and  hairy. 

The  Radish-fly,  Anthomyia  raphani  Harris,  abounds  in  the 
roots  of  the  radish,  the  fly  appearing  towards  the  end  of  June. 
Another  species,  the  Onion-fly,  Anthomyia  ceparum  (Fig.  332), 
causes  the  leaves  of  the  onion  to  turn  yellow  and  die  from 
the  attacks  of  the  larvae  in  the  roots.  The  larvae  mature  in 
two  weeks,  transform  in  the  root,  and  two  weeks  later  disclose 
the  flies.  Mr.  Walsh 
suggests  that  the 
larvae  may  be  de- 
stroyed by  pouring 
boiling  hot  water 
over  the  young 
plants,  which,  with- 
out injuring  the  on- 
ions, destroys  the 

maggots.      The  Fig.  332. 

Seed-corn  Maggot,  the  larva  of  Antliomyia  zece  Riley  (Fig.  344, 
p.  419,  a,  larva;  6,  puparium ;  c,  kernels  eaten),  destroys, 
in  New  Jersey,  the  kernels  of  sprouted  corn  before  it  comes  up. 
The  Cabbage  maggot,  the  larva  of  A.  brassicce  Bouche,  a  com- 
mon fly  in  Europe,  has  been  found  in  Michigan  to  be  injurious 
to  the  cabbage.  (Riley.)  The  hairy  maggots  of  A.  cunicularis 
or  an  allied  species,  live  in  rotten  turnips.  (Harris.)  The  pu- 
parium (Plate  3,  fig.  5,  5 a)  of  another  species  has  been  found 
by  Mr.  F.  W.  Putnam  in  'the  nests  of  the  humble  bee. 

In  Ortalis  the  front  is  quite  prominent,  the  clypeus  is  greatly 
developed,  the  opening  of  the  mouth  wide,  and  the  proboscis 
much  thickened.  This  genus  comprises  variously  banded  and 
spotted  flies,  which  may  be  seen  walking  along  leaves  vibrating 
their  wings.  They  feed  on  the  leaves,  and  afterwards  the 
pulpy  fruit  of  the  cherry,  olive  and  orange.  Another  Onion- 
fly,  discovered  by  Dr.  Shinier  in  Illinois,  is  the  Ortalis  flexa 


412 


DIPTEKA. 


of  Wiedemann  (Fig.  333  ;  a,  larva).  The  fly  differs  from  the 
Anthomyia  ceparum,  besides  more  important  respects,  in  hav- 
ing black  wings  with  three  broad  curved  bands.  The  maggot 
feeds  in  the  root  thus  killing  the  top  of  the  plant. 

A  species  of  Trypeta,  according  to  F.  Smith,  which  in  Brazil 
is  called  the  "Berna"  fly,  deposits  its  eggs  in  wounds,  both 
on  man  and  beast.  "It  is  remarkable  from  having  the  apical 

segment  of  the  ab- 
domen elongated 
into  a  long  oviposi- 
tor. Mr.  Peckolt 
says  the  negroes 
suffer  much  from 
the  attacks  of  this 
fly,  which  frequent- 
a  Fig.  333.  ty  deposits  its  eggs 

in  their  nostrils  whilst  they  are  sleeping,  and  such  are  the 
effects  of  its  attacks,  that,  in  some  cases,  death  ensues." 
(Transactions  of  the  Entomological  Society,  London,  1868, 
p.  135.) 

To  the  genus  Lonchcea,  Osten  Sacken  refers,  with  consider- 
able doubt,  a  fly,  which  I  have  found  in  abundance,  raising 
blister-like  swellings  on  the  twigs  of  the  willow.  They  were 

fully  grown  in  April. 
The  larva  (Fig.  334, 
fly  ;  a,  the  larva  ;  6, 
the  pupa)  is  curved, 
cylindrical,  tapering 
nearly  alike  towards 
each  extremity, 
Fig.  334.  though  the  thoracic 

region  is  the  thickest.  The  rings  are  thickened  upon  their  pos- 
terior edges,  so  that  they  appear  contracted  in  the  middle.  It 
is  glassy  green,  with  two  little  elongated  tubercles  placed  near 
each  other  at  a  little  distance  from  the  end,  where  in  the  pupa 
they  are  terminal.  It  is  .15  of  an  inch  long  when  fully  ex- 
tended. The  pupa-case,  found  late  in  May,  is  oval,  long,  cy- 
lindrical and  obtuse  at  both  ends  ;  the  anterior  end  is  more 
blunt ;  the  first  segment  of  the  body  is  minute  and  forms  the 


MUSCIM3.  413 

lid,  which  opens  when  the  fly  makes  its  exit,  and  bears  two 
small  slender  tubercles  which  project  upwards.  The  posterior 
end  bears  two  terminal  spine-like  tubercles  similar  to  those  on 
the  head,  but  projecting  horizontally.  The  puparium  is  glassy 
green,  and  the  limbs  of  the  enclosed  pupa  can  be  partially  seen 
through  the  skin.  The  rings  are  (especially  on  the  thorax) 
spinose,  being  the  remnants  of  the  rows  of  spines  around  the 
hind  edge  of  the  larval  segments.  It  is  .15  of  an  inch  long. 
The  pupa  lies  a  short  distance  from  the  opening  of  its  burrow, 
which  is  about  half  an  inch  long,  and  is  situated  between  the 
wood  and  the  bark. 
The  larva  before  pupa- 
ting eats  away  the  bark, 
leaving  a  thin  outer 
scale,  or  roundish  black 
space  which  can  be 
folded  back  like  a  lid, 
which  the  fly  pushes 
open  when  it  emerges. 
Several  swellings  occur 
on  the  twig  in  the  space  Fig-  335- 

of  six  inches.  The  fly  appeared  the  25th  of  June.  Dufour 
states  that  in  Europe  Lonchcea  nigra  lives  in  the  outer  bark  of 
the  oak,  and  another  under  the  bark  of  the  poplar,  while  still 
another  species  makes  a  sort  of  gall  in  the  dogsgrass. 

The  genus  Spliyracepliala  is  remarkable  for  its  stalked  eyes, 
which  are  placed  on  long  stems  going  out  from  the  sides  of 
the  head.  Some  species  are  found  fossil  in  the  Prussian 
amber.  S.  brevicornis  Say  is  rather  rare. 

The  Cheese  maggot  is  the  larva  of  Piopliila  casei  (Fig.  335) 
a  shining  black  fly,  three-twentieths  of  an  inch  long,  with  the 
four  posterior  legs  yellowish,  and  with  transparent  wings. 
The  whitish  larva  is  cylindrical,  and  .22  of  an  inch  in  length, 
and  is  acutely  pointed  towards  the  head  and  truncated  behind, 
with  two  long  horny  stigmata  in  the  middle  of  the  truncature, 
and  two  longer  fleshy  filaments  on  the  lower  edge.  When 
moving  it  extends  its  mouth-hooks,  and  pulls  itself  along  by 
them.  Mr.  F.  W.  Putnam  has  called  my  attention  to  the 
power  of  leaping  possessed  by  the  maggot.  When  about  to 


414 


DIPTEKA. 


leap  the  larva  brings  the  under  side  of  the  abdomen  towards 
the  head,  while  laying  on  its  side,  and  reaching  forward  with 
\f===ys    ^s  head,  and  at  the  same  time  extending  its  mouth- 
/.- — ^  hooks,  grapples  by  means  of  them  with  the  hinder  edge 
of  the   truncature   and  pulling  hard,  suddenly  with- 
draws them,  jerking  itself  to  a  distance  of  four  or 
five  inches.     The  Wine-fly  (Fig.  336,  puparium)  also 
belongs  to  the   same   genus,  and  with  its   puparium 
may  be  found  floating  in  old  wine  and  cider. 

Several  species  of  the  genus  Ephydra   have   been 
Fig.  336.  found  living  in   salt  water.     Mr.  E.  T.  Cox  has  sent 
us  specimens  of  Ephydra  halophila  Pack.  (Fig.  337  ;  a,  wing ; 
&,  puparium),  which  in  the  pupa  state  lives  in  great  numbers 
in  the  first  graduation  house  of  the  Equality  Salt  Works  of 
Gallatin  County,  Illinois.     The  larva  itself  we  have  not  seen, 
but  the  puparium  is  cylindrical,  half  an  inch  long,  the  body 
ending  in  a  long  respiratory  tube  forked  at  the  end.     The  fly 
a  itself   is   coppery    green, 

with  pale  honey  yellow 
legs,  and  is  .15  of  an  inch 
in  length.  Another  spe- 
cies has  been  found  by 
Professor  B.  Silliman  liv- 
ing in  great  abundance  in 
Mono  Lake,  Cal.,  and  in 
the  Museum  of  the  Pea- 
body  Academy  are  pu- 
paria  of  this  genus  from 
Labrador,  and  from  under 
sea-weed  on  Narragansett 
r,  and  a  pool  of  brack- 


ish water  at  Marblehead ; 
Fig.  337.  they  are   noticed  by  the 

author  in  the  "Proceedings  of  the  Essex  Institute,"  vol.  vi. 

The  Apple  Fly,  or  Drosophila,  has  habits  like  the  apple 
midge.  Mr.  W.  C.  Fish  has  described  in  the  "American 
Naturalist,"  the  habits  of  an  unknown  species  (Fig.  338  ;  a, 
larva) ,  which  he  writes  me  has  been  very  common  this  year  in 
Barnstable  County,  Mass.  He  says  that  "it  attacks  mostly 


MUSCID^E.  415 

the  earlier  varieties,  seeming  to  have  a  particular  fondness  for 
the  old  fashioned  Summer,  or  High-top  Sweet.  The  larvae  en- 
ter the  apple  usually  where  it  has  been  bored  by  the  Apple- 
worm  (Carpocapsa) ,  not  uncommonly  through  the  crescent-like 
puncture  of  the  curculio,  and  sometimes  through  the  calyx, 
when  it  has  not  been  troubled  by  other  insects.  Many  of 
them  arrive  at  maturity  in  August,  and  the  fly  soon  appears, 
and  successive  generations  of  the  maggots  follow  until  cold 
weather.  I  have  frequently  found  the  pupae  in  the  bottom  of 
barrels  in  a  cellar  in  the  winter,  and  the  flies  appear  in  the 
spring.  In  the  early  apples,  the  larvae  work  about  in  every 
direction.  If  there  are  ^y> 
several  in  an  apple,  they 
make  it  unfit  for  use. 
Apples  that  appear  per- 
fectly sound  when  taken 
from  the  tree,  will  some- 
times, if  kept,  be  all  alive 
with  them  in  a  few  Fig.  338. 

weeks."  Other  species  are  known  to  inhabit  putrescent 
vegetable  matter,  especially  fruits.  Mr.  B.  D.  Walsh  also  des- 
cribes in  his  "First  Annual  Report  on  the  Noxious  Insects  of 
Illinois,"  another  apple  fly,  Trypeta  pomonella  Walsh,  which 
destroys  stored  apples,  and  has  been  found  troublesome  in  va- 
rious parts  of  the  country. 

In  England  Oscinis  granarius  Curtis*  lives  in  the  stems  of 
wheat.  The  Oscinis  vastator  Curtis  does  serious  damage  to 
wheat  and  barley  crops  in  England,  by  eating  the  base  of  the 
stalk.  The  larvae  are  fulty  grown  late  in  June,  and  a  month 
later,  the  fly  appears.  Their  attacks  are  restrained  by  numer- 
ous Pteromali,  and  a  minute  Proctotrupid  (Sigalphus  caudatus) 
oviposits  in  the  egg  of  the  Oscinis.  Other  allied  species  in  the 
larva  state  cause  the  stems  of  wheat  and  barley  to  swell  twice 
their  usual  size,  which  disease  is  termed  in  England  the  gout. 

The  larvae  of  Chlorops  lineata  Fabr.  in  Europe,  destroy  the 
central  leaves  and  plant  itself,  the  female  laying  her  eggs  on 
the  stems  when  the  wheat  begins  to  show  the  ear.  In  a  fort- 
night the  eggs  hatch,  and  the  fly  appears  in  September.  Curtis 
also  states  that  Chlorops  Herpinii  Guerin,  attacks  the  ears  of 


416  DIPTEKA. 

barley,  from  six  to  ten  larvae  being  found  in  each,  and  by  de- 
stroying the  flowers  render  the  ear  sterile.  Oscinis  frit  Linn, 
in  Europe  inhabits  the  husks  of  the  barley,  and  destroys  one- 
tenth  of  the  grain.  Linnaeus  calculated  the  annual  loss  from 
the  attacks  of  this  single  species  at  half  a  million  dollars. 
Ploughing  and  harrowing  are  of  no  use  in  guarding  against 
these  insects,  as  they  do  not  transform  in  the  earth ;  the  best 
remedy  lies  in  the  rotation  of  crops.  Many  of  these  small 
flies,  like  the  micro-lepidoptera,  are  leaf-miners,  and  are  not 

readily    distinguished    from 
them  when  in  the  larva  state. 
Of   the    genus    Phora,    a 
European  species  (P.  incras- 
sata  Fig.  339  ;   a,  larva ;  6, 
puparium)   frequents    bee 
hives,  and  is  thought  by  some 
to  produce    the    disease 
which  is  known  among  apiarians  as  "foulbrood." 

In  the  pupiparous  Diptera,  namely,  those  flies  which  are  born 
as  pupae  from  the  body  of  the  parent,  the  larva  state  having 
been  passed  within  the  oviduct,  the  thorax  is  more  closely 
agglutinated  than  before ;  the  head  is  small  and  sunken  in 
the  thorax,  and  in  the  wingless  species  this  consolidation  of 
the  head  and  thorax  is  so  marked  as  to  cause  them  to  bear  a 
remarkable  resemblance  to  the  spiders.  Spider-like  in  their 
looks,  they  are  spider-like  in  their  habits,  as  the  names  Spider- 
flies,  Bat-ticks  and  Bird-ticks,  imply  a  likeness  to  the  lower 
spiders  or  ticks.  The  antennae  are  very  deeply  inserted  and 
partially  obsolete ;  the  labrum  is  ensheathed  by  the  maxillae, 
and  the  thoracic  nervous  ganglia  are,  as  in  the  Arachnida, 
concentrated  into  a  single  mass. 

HIPPOBOSCID^E  Westwood.  The  Forest-flies  and  Sheep 
Ticks  are  characterized  by  the  horny  and  flattened  body,  the 
horizontal  flattened  head  received  into  the  front  edge  of  the 
thorax,  the  large  eyes,  the  rudimentary  papilla-like  antennae 
placed  very  near  together,  and  the  proboscis  is  formed  by  the 
labrum  and  maxillae,  whose  palpi  are  wanting ;  the  labium  is 
very  short ;  wings  with  the  veins  present  only  on  the  costal 


HIPPOBOSCID^. 


417 


edge,  the  others  either  aborted  or  only  partially  developed. 
They  resemble  the  lice  in  their  parasitic  habits,  living  beneath 
the  hairs  of  vertebrates,  ^opcoially  of  bats,  and  are  abundant 
beneath    the   feathers 
of  birds. 

These  flies  differ 
from  all  other  insects 
in  their  peculiar  mode 
of  development,  which 
reminds  us  of  the 
intra-uterine  life  of 
the  vertebrate  foetus. 
According  to  Dufour 
and  Leu  ckart  they 


Fjg.  340. 


have  an  irregular  uterus-like  enlargement  of  the  oviduct,  which 
furnishes  a  milk-like  secretion  for  the  nourishment  of  the 
larvae.  The  body  of  the  larvae,  for  each  female  produces  but^ 
one^ orjbwo  y oung^  when  first  hatched  is  not  divided  into  rings, 
but  is  smooth,  ovate,  egg-like,  forming  a  puparium-like  case  in 
which  the  larvae  transform  to  pupae  immediately  after  birth. 

The  Forest-fly  or  Horse-tick,  Hippobosca,  Latreille,  has  no 
ocelli,  with  five  stout  veins  on  the  costal  edge  of  the  wing ; 
thorax  broad,  and  the  proboscis  short  and 
thick.  We  figure  a  species*  of  this  genus 
(Fig.  340)  which  was  found  on  the  Great 
Horned  Owl.  Its  body  is  much  flattened, 
adapted  for  its  life  under  the  feathers,  where 
it  gorges  itself  with  the  blood  of  its  host. 
The  genus  Lipoptena,  which  has  ocelli,  with 
only  three  costal  veins,  a  long  slender  probos-  rig.  341. 
cis,  and  a  small  thorax,  is  remarkable  for  living  in  its  wing- 
less state  on  the  Deer,  but  when  the  wings  are  developed  it  is 
found  on  the  Grouse  (Tetrao).  The  Bird-tick,  Ornitlwmyia, 
has  ocelli,  a  short  proboscis  and  six  costal  veins,  and  there 
are  numerous  species,  all  bird  parasites. 

*  Hippobosca  bubonis  n.  sp.  female.  Uniform  horn  color,  with  a  reddish  tinge, 
and  blackish  hairs;  legs  paler,  with  dark  tarsi,  body  beneath  paler;  tip  of  abdo- 
men black,  with  long  bristles.  Length  of  body  .30  inch;  of  a  wing  .34  inch.  Dif- 
fers from  H.  equinte  in  being  larger,  and  in  its  uniform  reddish  color.  Taken  Oct. 
5;  Museum  of  the  Peabody  Academy  of  Science. 

27 


t 


418 


DIPTERA. 


In  the  wingless  Sheep-tick,  Melophagus  ovinus  Linn,  which 
is  often  very  troublesome  (Fig.  341,  and  puparium),  the  head 
is  wider  than  the  thorax,  the  proboscis  is  as  long  as  the  head 
itself,  the  limbs  are  short  and  thick,  and  the  bristly  abdomen 
is  broad  and  not  divided  into  joints. 

The  genus  Carnus,  which  was  placed  in  the  Conopidce  by 
Nitzsch,  seems  rather  to  belong  here.     C.  hemapterus  Nitzsch, 
is  "of  the  size  of  a  flea,  with  minute  rudi- 
ments of  wings,  and  is  parasitic  on  birds 
of  the  genus  Sturnus." 

NYCTERIBID^:  Leach.  The  Bat-ticks  are 
remarkably  spider-like,  with  a  beaker-like 
head,  without  eyes,  having  four  ocelli, 
or  else  entirely  blind.  The  finger-like, 
two-jointed  antennae  are  situated  on  the 
under  side  of  the  head.  The  proboscis  is 
feather-like,  the  palpi  very  large  and  por- 
rect ;  the  legs  are  of  great  size,  with  the 
basal  joint  of  the  tarsi  of  remarkable  length,  and  the  hairy 
abdomen  is  composed  of  six  segments.  They  are  very  small 
parasites,  one  or  two  lines  in  length.  Westwood  has  extracted 
the  puparium  from  the  body,  showing  the  close  relationship 
of  these  strange  forms  to  Hippobosca.  Nycteribia  Westwoodii 
Guerin  (Fig.  342)  is  an  East  Indian  species. 

BRAULINA  Gerstaecker.     The  Bee-lice  are  wingless,  minute, 
blind  insects,  with  large  heads  ;  the  thorax  is  transverse,  ring- 
shaped,  half  as  long  as 
a  the  head  ;  the  abdomen 

is  round,  five-jointed, 
and  the  legs  are  thick, 
with  long  claws  ena- 
bling them  to  cling  to 
the  hairs  of  bees. 

The    genus    Braula 
may  be  compared  with 
•  3*3.  the  flea,  its  body  being 

flattened  vertically,  while  that  of  the  flea  is  flattened  lat- 


BKATJLINA.  419 

erally.  While  the  transformations  of  Braula  show  it  to  be 
undoubtedly  a  degraded  Muscid,  with  a  true  puparium  ;  those 
of  the  flea,  with  its  worm-like,  more  highly  organized  larva, 
and  the  free  obtected  pupa  show  that,  though  wingless,  it 
occupies  a  much  higher  grade  in  the  dipterous  series.  Braula 
coeca  Nitzsch  (Fig.  343,  and  larva)  is  found  living  parasitically 
on  the  honey  bee  in  Europe,  and  has  not  been  detected  in  this 
country. 

The  antennae  are  short,  two-jointed  and  sunken  in  deep 
pits.  It  is  from  one-half  to  two- thirds  of  a  line  long.  The 
larva  is  headless,  oval,  eleven-jointed  and  white  in  color.  On 
the  day  it  hatches  from  the  egg  it  sheds  its  skin  and  changes 
to  an  oval  puparium  of  a  dark  brown  color.  It  is  a  body  para- 
site, one  or  two  of  them  occurring  on  the  body  of  the  bee, 
though  sometimes  they  greatly  multiply  and  are  very  trouble- 
some to  the  bee. 

Fig.  344. 


We  now  take  up  the  second  series  of  suborders  of  the  hexa- 
podous  insects,  in  which  the  different  segments  of  the  body 
show  a  strong  tendency  to  remain  equal  in  size,  as  in  the  larva 
state ;  in  other  words  there  is  less  concentration  of  the  parts 
towards  the  head.  In  all  these  groups  the  prothorax  is  greatly 
developed,  generally  free,  while  the  wings  tend  to  conceal  the 
two  posterior  thoracic  segments,  and  the  body  generally  is 
elongated,  flattened  or  angulated,  not  cylindrical  as  is  usually 
the  case  in  the  preceding  and  higher  series.  The  degraded 
wingless  forms  resemble  the  worm-like  Myriapods,  while,  as  we 
have  seen  above,  the  wingless  flies  resemble  the  Arachnida. 
The  imago  (especially  in  the  Hemiptera,  Orthoptera  and  cer- 
tain Neuroptera)  resembles  the  larva ;  that  is,  the  metamor- 
phosis is  less  complete  than  in  the  preceding  groups. 


420 


COLEOPTEKA. 


COLEOPTEKA. 

IN  the  highest  suborder  of  this  series,  the  Coleoptera,  we 
find  the  most  complete  metamorphosis  and  the  greatest  speci- 
alization of  parts,  with 
a  more   complete   con- 
centration of  them  to- 
wards the  head  than  in 
the    lower     suborders. 
They  are  at  once  rec- 
ognized by  the  elytra, 
or  thickened  horny  fore 
wings,   Which   are    not 
actively  used  in  flight 
(the  hind  wings  being 
especially   adapted  for 
that     purpose) ,    while 
they  Cover  and  encase 
the  two   posterior  seg- 
ments   of   the    thorax 
and  the  abdomen.    The 
prothoracic  ring   is 
greatly  enlarged,  often 
excavated  in  front  to  re- 
ceive the  head.     These 
characters  are  very  per- 
sistent ;    there  are  few 
aberrant  forms  and  the 
suborder  is  remarkably 
homogeneous  and  easily 
limited. 

The  head  is  free  from 
Fig.  345.  the  thorax,  but  less  so 

than  in  the  preceding  suborders  ;  it  is  scarcely  narrowed  behind, 
and  its  position  is  usually  horizontal.     The  eyes  are  usually 

FIG.  345,  under  surface  of  Harpalus  caliginosus.  (After  Leconte.)  a,  ligula; 
&, paraglossae ;  c,  supports  of  labial  palpi;  d,  labial  palpus;  e,  mentum;/,  inner 
lobe  of  maxilla;  g,  outer  lobe  of  maxilla;  h,  maxillary  palpus;  i,  mandible;  &, 


COLEOPTEEA. 


421 


quite  large,  and  there  is  but  a  pair  of  ocelli,  when  present,  or 
there  may  be  but  a  single  ocellus.  The  antennae  are  generally 
inserted  just  in  front  of  the  eyes,  and  rarely  between  them  as 


Fig.  346. 

in  the  previous  suborders.  They  are  either  filiform  where  the 
joints  are  cylindrical,  as  in  the  Carabidce,  not  enlarging 
towards  the  end,  or  serrate,  as  in  the  Elateridce,  where  the 

buccal  opening;  Z,  gula  or  throat;  m,  m,  buccal  sutures;  n,  gular  suture;  o,  pro- 
sternum;  p,  episternum  of  prothorax;  p',  epimeron  of  prothorax;  q,  q1,  q",  coxae; 
r,  r',  r",  trochanters;  s,s',s",  femora  or  thighs;  tf,  t',t",  tibiae;  v,va,«?', etc.,  ventral 
abdominal  segments ;  w,  episterna  of  mesothorax  (the  epimeron  is  just  behind  it) ; 
x,  mesoternum;  y,  episterna  of  rnetathorax;  y',  epimeron  of  metathorax;  z,  meta- 
sternum. 

FIG.  346,  upper  surface  of  Necrophorus  Americanus.  (After  Leconte.)  a,  man- 
dible; 6,  maxillary  palpus ^c,  labrum;  d,  epistoma;  e,  antennae;  /,  front;  g,  vertex; 
ft,  occiput;  i,  neck;  k,  eye;  I,  pronotum  (usually  called  prothorax);  m,  elytron;  nt 
hind  wing;  o,  scutellum  (of  mesothorax);  />,  metanotum  (or  dorsal  surface  of  meta- 
thorax); q,  femur  or  thigh;  r,  r,  r,  tergites  of  the  abdomen;  s,  s3,  s3,  spiracles  or 
stigmata;  t,  t',  t",  tibiae;  v,  tibial  spurs;  w,  tarsi. 


422 


COLEOPTERA. 


joints  are  triangular  and  compressed,  giving  thereby  a  serrate 
outline  to  the  inner  edge;  or  clavate,  as  in  the  Silphidce, 


Fig.  347. 

where  the  enlarged  terminal  joints  give  a  rounded  club-shaped 
termination ;  lamellate,  when  the  terminal  joints  are  prolonged 


Fig.  348. 

internally,  forming  broad  leaf-like  expansions,  as  in  the  Sca- 
rabeidce,  while  the  geniculate   antenna  is  produced  when 

FIG.  347.  Different  forms  of  antennae :  1,  serrate ;  2,  pectinate;  3,  capitate  (and 
also  geniculate);  4,  5,  6,  7,  clavate;  8,  9,  lamellate;  10,  serrate  (Dorcatoma);  11,  ir- 
regular (Gyrinus) ;  12,  two-jointed  antenna  of  Adranes  caecus. 

FIG.  348.  1,  bipectinate;  2,  flabellate  antennae;  3,  maxillae  of  Bembidium;  4,  of 
Hydrophilus;  5,  of  Pselaphus;  6,  maxillary  palpus  of  Ctenistes;  7,  of  Tmesipho- 
rusj  8,  of  Tychus.— From  Leconte. 


COLEOPTERA.  423 

the  second  and  succeeding  joints  make  an  angle  with  the  first. 
The  mandibles  are  always  well  developed  as  chewing  organs, 
becoming  abnormally  enlarged  in  Lucanus,  while  in  certain 
Scarabeidse  they  are  small  and  membranous. 

The  maxillae  (Fig.  348)  are  supposed  to  prepare  the  food  to 
be  crushed  by  the  mandibles.  The  body  of  the  maxilla  con- 
sists of  the  cardo;  a  second  joint,  stipes,  to  which  last  are 
attached  two  lobes  and  a  palpus.  In  certain  Cicindelidcv 
and  Carabidce,  the  outer  lobe  is  slender  and  two-jointed  like 
a  palpus.  The  maxillary  palpi  are  usually  four-jointed,  some- 
times with  one  joint  less,  and  in  but  a  single  instance  is  there 
any  additional  joint,  as  in  Aleochara. 

The  mentum  is  generally  square  or  trapezoidal,  varying  in 
size.  The  labium  bears  the  ligula,  and  supports  the  labial 
palpi,  and  varying  much  in  form,  is  thus  important  in  classifi- 
cation. The  labial  palpi  are  usually  three-jointed,  sometimes 
two-jointed,  or  with  no  joints  apparent,  as  in  certain  Stapliy- 
linidce,  according  to  Leconte. 

The  greatly  enlarged  prothorax  is  free  and  very  movable, 
the  pronotum  or  dorsal  piece,  considered  to  be  formed  origi- 
nally of  four  pieces,  is  usually  very  distinct  from  the  pieces 
composing  the  flanks,  though  sometime  they  are  continuous. 
The  two  hinder  rings  .of  the  thorax  are  covered  up  by  the 
wings  and  do  not  vary  in  form  so  as  to  be  of  much  use  in 
classification.  They  are  respectively  composed  of  a  praescutum, 
scutum  and  scutellum,  and  postscutellum,  the  first  and  fourth 
pieces  being  more  or  less  aborted.  The  pieces  composing  the 
flanks  are  partly  concealed  by  the  great  enlargement  of  the 
dorsal  parts  of  the  segment,  much  more  so  than  in  the  prece- 
ding suborders,  the  side  pieces  being  much  smaller  and  more 
difficult  to  trace ;  and  these  flank-pieces  (pleurites)  help  form 
the  under  surface  of  the  body,  where  in  the  Hymenoptera, 
Lepidoptera  and  Diptera,  they  are  greatly  enlarged,  forming 
the  bulging  sides  of  the  body. 

The  epimera  and  episterna  of  both  the  meso-  and  metatho- 
rax,  Leconte  states,  are  of  much  value  in  classification,  especi- 
ally those  of  the  mesothorax,  "  according  as  they  reach  the 
middle  coxae,  or  are  cut  off  from  them  by  the  junction  of  the 
episterna  with  the  metasternum."  The  thickened  horny  an- 


424  COLEOPTERA. 

terior  pair  of  wings  (elytra) ,  often  retain  traces  of  the  original 
veins,  consisting  of  three  or  four  longitudinal  lines.  Their 
office  in  flight  seems  to  be  to  assist  the  hind  wings  in  sustain- 
ing the  body,  as  but  rarely  when  the  insect  is  on  the  wing  do 
the  elytra  remain  quiet  on  the  back.  The  membranous  hind 
wings  are  provided  with  the  usual  number  of  principal  veins, 
but  these  are  not  subdivided  into  veinlets.  The  wing  is  long, 
naiTOW  and  pointed,  with  the  costal  edge  strong,  being  evi- 
dently adapted  for  a  swift  and  powerful  flight. 

In  the  running  species,  such  as  many  Carabidce,  the 
hind  wings  being  useless,  are  aborted,  and  very  rarely  in  some 
tropical  Lampyridce  and  Scarabceidce  are  both  pairs  of 
wings  wanting  in  both  sexes,  though,  as  in  the  Glow-worm 
and  some  of  its  allies  the  females  are  apterous.  The  legs 
are  well  developed,  as  the  beetles  are  among  the  most  power- 
ful running  insects.  The  coxae  are  large  and  of  much  use  in 
distinguishing  the  families.  The  trochantine  is  usually  present 
in  the  forelegs,  but  often  absent  in  the  middle  pair ;  the  tro- 
chanters,  or  second  joint  of  the  leg,  is  small,  circular,  ob- 
liquely cut  off,  and  the  femur  and  tibia  lying  next  beyond 
are  of  varying  form,  correlated  with  the  habits  of  thQ  insect, 
the  hinder  pair  becoming  oar-like  in  the  swimming  Dytiscidce 
and  some  Hydrophilidce ,  while  in m  the  Gyrinidce  both 
pairs  of  hind  legs  become  broad  and  flat.  The  number  of 
tarsal  joints  varies  from  the  normal  number,  five,  to  four  and 
three  joints,  the  terminal  joint  as  usual  being  two-clawed. 
These  claws  are  only  known  to  be  wanting  in  Phanaeus,  a 
Scarabseid,  and  the  aberrant  family  Styl  op  idee.  According 
to  the  number  of  the  tarsal  joints  the  families  of  Coleoptera 
have  been  grouped  into  the  Pentamera  (five-jointed),  the  Tet- 
ramera  (four-jointed),  the  Trimera  (three-jointed),  and  Hete- 
romera,  which  are  four-jointed  in  the  hind  pair,  while  the  first 
and  second  pairs  are  five-jointed. 

The  abdomen,  usually  partly  concealed  by  the  wings,  is  ses- 
sile, its  base  broad ;  in  form  it  is  usually  somewhat  flattened. 
The  tergal  and  sternal  portion  of  each  ring  is  connected 
usually  by  the  membranous  pleura!  piece,  which  represents 
the  epimera  and  episterna  of  the  thorax,  and  on  which  the  stig- 
mata are  situated.  While  in  the  other  suborders  the  typical 


COLEOPTEKA.  425 

number  of  abdominal  segments  is  ten,  no  more  than  nine  have 
been  traced  in  the  Coleoptera. 

A  few  genera  are  capable  of  producing  sounds  by  rubbing 
the  limbs  or  elytra  over  finely  wrinkled  surfaces,  which  in 
Trox  are  situated  on  the  side  of  the  basal  segments  of  the  ab- 
domen, and  in  Strategus  on  the  tergum  of  the  penultimate  seg- 
ment of  the  abdomen,  while  such  a  surface  is  found  in  Ligyrus 
on  the  surface  of.  the  elytra. 

The  nervous  system  is  subject  to  great  variation  in  the  Cole- 
optera. The  ganglia  may  be  fused  into  three  principal  mas- 
ses, as  in  the  Lamellicorns,  Curculionidce  and  Scolytidm, 
where  the  first  mass  corresponds  to  the  prothoracic  ganglia, 
the  second  and  larger  to  the  second  and  third  thoracic  ganglia, 
usually  separated  in  the  other  suborders,  while  the  third  oblong 
mass  represents  the  whole  number  of  abdominal  ganglia,  from 
which  radiate  the  nerves  which  are  distributed  to  the  muscles 
of  the  abdomen  and  the  reproductive  system.  In  the  Cistel- 
idce,  (Edemeridce  and  Cerambycidce,  the  abdominal  por- 
tion of  the  nervous  cord  occupies  the  whole  body,  and  there 
are  five  ganglia  in  the  abdomen.  These  two  types  of  the  ner- 
vous cord  sometimes  run  into  each,  but  are  always  distinct  in 
the  larva  state. 

The  alimentary  canal  is  very  simple  in  the  flesh-eating  spe- 
cies, going  directly,  without  many  convolutions  to  the  anus, 
but  in  the  vegetable  feeders  it  is  very  long  and  greatly  con- 
voluted. The  gizzard  is  oval  in  shape,  its  internal  folds  being 
armed  with  hooks.  There  are  two  salivary  glands.  The  urin- 
ary tubes  are  either  four  or  six  in  number. 

"The  phosphorescent  organs  of  the  Lampyridce  and  cer- 
tain Elateridce  consist  of  a  mass  of  spherical  cells,  filled 
with  a  finely  granular  substance  and  surrounded  by  numer- 
ous trachean  branches.  This  substance  which,  by  daylight, 
appears  of  a  yellow,  sulphur-like  aspect,  fills  in  the  Lam- 
pyridce,  a  portion  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  and  shines  on  the 
ventral  surface  through  the  last  abdominal  segments,  which  are 
covered  with  a  very  thin  skin  ;  while  with  the  Elateridce,  the 
illumination  occurs  through  two  transparent  spots,  situated  on 
the  dorsal  surface  of  the  prothorax.  The  light  produced  by 
these  organs,  so  remarkably  rich  in  tracheae,  is  undoubtedly  the 


426  COLEOPTESA. 

result  of  a  combustion  kept  up  by  the  air  of  these  Tessels. 
This  combustion  explains  the  remission  of  this  phosphores- 
cence observed  with  the  brilliant  fire-flies,  and  which  coin- 
cides, not  with  the  movements  of  the  heart,  but  with  those  of 
inspiration  and  expiration."  (Siebold.) 

The  tracheae  of  the  Coleoptera  are  always  highly  developed. 
In  the  larva  state  they  arise  from  two  principal  trunks.  In  the 
adult,  however,  they  branch  out  directly  near  each  stigma  and 
distribute  branches  which  communicate  with  other  main  trunks. 
In  those  species  which  fly  most,  both  the  fine  and  larger 
tracheae  end  in  vesicles,  which  are  distributed  in  great  abun- 
dance all  over  the  body.  In  the  Lucanidce  they  are  especi- 
ally numerous,  thus  lightening  the  bulk  of  the  enormously 
developed  head. 

The  ovaries  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  branches  of  few  or 
numerous  tri-  or  multilocular  tubes ;  the  receptaculum  seminis 
is  wedge-shaped  and  often  arcuate,  communicating  with  the 
copulatory  pouch  by  a  long  flexuous  spiral  seminal  duct,  and 
there  is  a  bursa  copulatrix  usually  present.  The  testes  vaiy  in 
consisting  of  two  long  coeca,  or  two  round  or  oblong  folli- 
cles, or  pyriform  and  placed  like  a  bunch  of  grapes  on  the 
extremity  of  the  vasa  deferentia,  or  as  in  the  Lamellicorns, 
Cerambycidce ,  Curculionidce  and  Crioceridce ,  they  are 
round,  flattened,  disc-like,  and  are  situated,  two  to  twelve  in 
number,  on  each  side  of  the  body.  The  organ  of  intromission 
is  very  extensible,  composed  of  the  terminal  segments  of  the 
body,  which  form  a  broad  flattened,  hairy  canaliculated  piece. 

The  larvae  when  active  and  not  permanently  enclosed  (like 
the  Curculio)  in  the  substances  that  form  their  food,  are  elon- 
gated, flattened,  wormlike,  myriapodous-looking,  with  a  large 
head,  well  developed  mouth-parts,  and  with  three  pairs  of  tho- 
racic feet,  either  horny,  or  fleshy  and  retractile,  while  there  is 
often  a  single  terminal  prop-leg  on  the  terminal  segment  of  the 
body  and  a  lateral  horny  spine.  The  larvae  of  the  Ceram- 
bycidce, are  white,  soft  and  more  or  less  cylindrical,  while 
those  of  the  Curculionidce  are  footless  or  nearly  so,  and 
resemble  those  of  the  Gall-flies,  both  hymenopterous  and  dip- 
terous. 

The  pupae  have  free  limbs,  and  are  either  enclosed  in  cocoons 


COLEOPTEEA.  427 

of  earth,  or  if  wood-borers  in  rude  cocoons  of  fine  chips  and 
dust,  united  by  threads,  or  a  viscid  matter  supplied  by  the  in- 
sect. None  are  known  to  be  coarctate,  though  some  Coccin- 
ellae  transform  within  the  old  larva  skin,  not  rejecting  it,  as 
usual  in  the  group,  while  other  pupae  are  enclosed  in  the  cases 
in  which  the  larvae  lived.  In  some  Staphylinidce,  the  pupa 
shows  a  tendency  to  become  obtected,  the  limbs  being  soldered 
to  the  body  as  if  it  were  enclosed  in  a  common  sheath.  Gen- 
erally, however,  the  antennae  are  folded  on  each  side  of  the 
clypeus,  and  the  mandibles,  maxillae  and  labial  palpi  appear  as 
elongated  papillae.  The  wing-pads  being  small,  are  shaped 
like  those  of  the  adult  Meloe,  and  are  laid  upon  the  posterior 
femora,  thus  exposing  the  meso-  and  metathorax  to  view. 
The  tarsal  joints  lie  parallel  on  each  side  of  the  middle  line 
of  the  body,  the  hinder  pair  not  reaching  to  the  tips  of  the 
abdomen,  which  ends  in  a  pair  of  acute  prolonged  forked  in- 
curved horny  hooks,  which  must  aid  the  pupa  in  working  its 
way  to  the  surface  when  about  to  transform  into  the  beetle. 

The  number  of  living  species  is  between  60,000  and  80,000, 
and  over  8,000  species  are  known  to  inhabit  the  United  States. 
There  are  about  1,000  fossil  species  known.  They  are  found 
as  low  down  as  the  Coal  Formation,  though  more  abundant  in 
the  Tertiary  deposits  and  especially  the  Amber  of  Prussia. 

Coleoptera  have  always  been  the  favorites  of  entomologists. 
They  have  been  studied,  when  in  their  perfect  state,  more  than 
any  other  insects,  but  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  finding  their 
larvae,  and  carrying  them  through  their  successive  stages  of 
growth,  the  early  stages  of  comparatively  few  species  are 
known. 

The  most  productive  places  for  the  occurrence  of  beetles  are 
alluvial  loams  covered  with  woods,  or  with  rank  vegetation, 
where  at  the  roots  of  plants  or  upon  their  flowers,  under  leaves, 
logs  and  stones,  under  the  bark  of  decaying  trees,  and  in 
ditches  and  by  the  banks  of  streams,  the  species  occur  in  the 
greatest  numbers.  Grass  lands,  mosses  and  fungi,  the  surfaces 
of  trees  and  dead  animals,  bones,  chips,  pieces  of  board  and 
excrement,  should  be  searched  diligently.  Many  are  thrown 
ashore  in  sea-wrack,  or  occur  under  the  debris  of  freshets  on 
river  banks.  Many  Carabidce  run  on  sandy  shores.  Very 


428  COLEOPTERA. 

early  in  spring  stones  can  be  upturned,  ants'  nests  searched, 
and  the  muddy  waters  sifted  for  species  not  met  with  at  other 
times  of  the  year. 

For  beating  bushes  a  large  strong  ring-net  should  be  made, 
with  a  stout  bag  of  cotton  cloth  fifteen  inches  deep.  This  is  a 
very  serviceable  net  for  many  purposes.  Vials  of 
alcohol,  a  few  quills  stopped  with  cork,  and  close 
tin  boxes  for  larvae  and  the  fungi,  etc.,  in  which 
they  live,  should  be  provided  ;  indeed,  the  collector 
should  never  be  without  a  vial  and  box.  Beetles 
should  be  collected  largely  in  alcohol,  and  the 
rig.  349.  colors  do  not  change  if  pinned  soon  after  being 
taken.  Coleoptera  should  be  placed  high  up  on  the  pin,  as  in- 
deed all  insects  should.  The  pin  should  be  stuck  through  the 
right  elytron  (Fig.  349)  so  that  it  shall  come  out  beneath  or 
between  the  middle  and  hind  pair  of  legs.  Small  species 
should  be  pinned  with  minute  pins,  which  can  be  afterwards 
mounted  on  higher  ones. 

CICINDELID^E  Leach.  The  Tiger  Beetles  have  very  large 
heads,  much  broader  than  the  prothorax,  very  long  curved  jaws 
and  long,  slender  legs.  The  outer  lobe  of  the  maxillae  is  biar- 
ticulate,  the  inner  usually  terminated  by  an  articulated  hook. 
The  eleven-jointed  antennae  are  inserted  on  the  front  above 
the  base  of  the  mandibles.  They  are  brownish  or 
greenish  with  metallic  and  purplish  reflections,  marked 
with  light  dots  and  stripes.  They  abound  in  sunny 
paths  and  sandy  shores  of  rivers,  ponds  and  the 
ocean,  flying  and  running  swiftly,  and  are  thus  very 
Fig.  350.  Difficult  to  capture.  The  larvae  (Fig.  350)  are  hideous 
in  aspect ;  the  head  is  very  large  with  long  jaws  ;  the  thoracic 
rings  large  and  broad,  and  the  ninth  ring  has  two  large  tuber- 
cles each  ending  in  two  hooks,  by  which  the  hunch-backed 
grub  can  climb  up  its  hole,  near  the  entrance  of  which  it  lies 
in  wait  for  weaker  insects.  These  holes  may  always  be  found 
in  sandy  banks  frequented  by  the  beetles. 

While  all  the  species  living  in  the  United  States  are  ground 
beetles,  in  the  tropics  there  are  some  which  live  on  trees.  H. 
W.  Bates  states  that  dtenostoma  and  its"  allies  have  a  greater 


CICINDELIDJ3. 


429 


resemblance  to  ants  than  to  the  Cicindelse  proper,  so  much  so 
that  when  the  insects  are  seen  prowling  in  search  of  prey  along 


Fig.  351.  Fig.  352.  Fig.  353. 

the  slender  branches  of  trees,  they  can  scarcely  be  distinguished 
from  large  ants  of  the  Ponera  group. 

The  genus  Ambtychila  has  the  third  joint  of  the  maxillary 


Fig.  354.  Fig.  355.  Fig.  356.  Fig.  357. 

palpi  longer  than  the  fourth,  and  the  first  joint  of  the  labial 
palpi  very  short,  while  the  epipleurse  are  wide.  Omus  differs 
in  the  wider  epipleurse  ;  both  genera  inhabit  the  Pacific  States, 


Fig.  358. 

and  the  former  is  found  as  far  east  as  Kansas.  Tetracha  (Fig. 
351,  T.  Virginica  Hope)  has  the  first  joint  of  the  labial  palpi 
elongated.  In  Cicindela  and  allies,  the  third  joint  of  the  max- 


430 


COLEOPTERA. 


illary  palpi  is  shorter  than  the  fourth.  This  country  is  very 
rich  in  species,  among  the  most  common  of  which  are  C.  gen- 
erosa  Dejean  (Fig.  352)  ;  C.  vulgaris  Say  (Fig.  353)  ;  C.  pur- 
purea  Olivier  (Fig.  354)  ;  C.  Jiirticollis  Say  (Fig.  355)  ;  C. 
sexguttcda  Fabr.  (Fig.  356),  a  bright  green  active  species  with 
six  golden  dots  ;  and  C.  punctulata  Olivier*  (Fig.  357). 

CARABID^E  Leach.  This  is  a  family  of  very  great  extent, 
and  one  very  difficult  to  limit.  In  form  the  species  vary 
greatly ;  the  antennae  are  inserted  behind  the  base  of  the  man- 
dibles under  a  frontal  ridge  ;  maxillae  with  the  outer  lobe  pal- 
piform,  usually  biarticulate,  while  the  inner  lobe  is  usually 


Fig.  359. 

curved,  acute  and  ciliate,  with  spines.  The  epimera  and  epi- 
sterna  of  the  prothorax  are  usually  distinct ;  the  three  anterior 
segments  of  the  abdomen,  usually  six,  rarely  seven  or  eight  in 
number,  are  connate.  The  legs  are  slender,  formed  for  run- 
ning ;  anterior  and  middle  coxae  globular,  posterior  ones  dilated 
internally,  and  the  tarsi  are  five-jointed,  t 

TIG.  358  illustrates  the  external  anatomy  of  this  family :— 1,  head  of  Cicindela; 
2,  maxilla  of  Cicindela;  3,  mentum  of  Omus;  4,  mentum  of  Tetracha;  5,  mentum 
of  Cicindela;  6,  antennae  of  the  same;  7,  abdomen  of  the  male  of  the  same;  8,  pos- 
terior coxa  of  the  same;  9,  anterior  tarsus  of  Omus  (male);  10,  anterior  tarsus  of 
Cicindela.  — From  Leconte. 

fFiG.  359  illustrates  the  external  anatomy  of  the  Car  abides :— 1,  extremity  of 
the  anterior  tibia  of  Carabus,  inner  face ;  2,  maxilla?  of  Cychrus ;  3,  head  of  Cychrus  ; 
4,  head  of  Carabus ;  5,  antenna  and  part  of  head  of  Loricera ;  6,  mentum  of  Carabus  ; 
7,  maxilla  of  Carabus;  8,  under  surface  of  Pasimachus;  9,  under  surface  of  meso- 
and  metathorax  of  Metrius;  10,  anterior  tibia  of  Metrius;  11,  under  surface  of 
meso-  and  metathorax  of  Physea;  12,  antennae  of  Pasimachus;  13,  mentum  of 
Pasimachus;  14,  maxilla  of  Pasimachus;  15,  anterior  tibia  of  Pasimachus;  16, 
head  of  Promecognathus ;  17,  mentum  of  Pseudomorphus,  showing  the  indistinct 
gular  suture.— From  Leconte. 


CAKABID.E. 


431 


They  are,  with  few  exceptions,  predaceous  beetles  ;  they  are 
runners,  the  hind  wings  being  often  absent.  Their  colors  are 
dull  metallic  or  black.  They  run  in  grass, 

or  lurk  under  stones  and  sticks,  or 

under  the  bark  of  trees,  whence 

they  go  out  to  hunt  in  the  night- 
time.    They  may  be   found   also 

in  great  numbers  under  the  debris 

of  freshets   and   under   stones  in 

the  spring. 
Fig.  36i.        The  iarvae  are  found  in  much 

the  same  situations  as  the  beetles,  and  are 

generally  oblong,  broad,  with  the  terminal 

ring  armed  with  two  horny  hooks 
or  longer  filaments,  and  with  a 
single  false  leg  beneath. 

The  genus  Omophron,  remark- 
able for  its  rounded  convex 
form,  and  wanting  the  scutellum, 
is  found  on  the  wet  sands  by 
rivers  and  pools,  where  also  Ela- 
plirus  occurs,  which  somewhat 
resembles  Cicindela.  It  has 
slightly  emarginate  anterior 
i-  tibiae,  with  large  prominent  eyes, 
and  rows  of  large  shallow  ocel- 

late    holes     on     the     elytra.      The 

genus    Calosoma     is    well     known, 

being  common  in  fields,  where  it  lies 

in  little  holes  in  the  sod,  in  wait  for  its 

prey.     I  have  seen  C.  calidum  Fabr. 

(Fig.  360)   attacking  the  June  bug 

(Lachnosterna   fusca)    tearing   open 

its   sides.     Its   larva    (Fig.   361)  is 

black.     C.  scrutator  Fabr.  (Fig.  362) 

is  a  still  larger  species  with  bright 

green  elytra.     It  is  known,  accord-         a         Fis-  363t 

ing  to  Harris,  to   ascend   trees  in   search  of  canker-worms. 
Carabus  has  similar  habits,  but  differs  in  having  the  third 


432 


COLEOPTEKA. 


joint  of  the  antennae  cylindrical,  while  that  of  Calosoma  is 

greatly  compressed.  C.  serratus  Say  (Fig.  363  ;  «,  pupa  of  the 
European  C.  auronitens)  is  black  bordered  with 
purple.  The  closely  allied  species  of  Cychrus,  of 
rich  purple  and  blue  tints,  differ  in  the  longer  head, 
the  deeply  bilobate  labrum,  and  in  having  four  of 
the  antennal  joints  smooth,  with  thickly  striated 
elytra.  (We  figure  some  unknown  larvae  of  this 
family'  which  are  allied  to 
Carabus ;  Fig.  364,  natural  ^ 
size ;  Fig.  365,  a  little  en-  Jl\ 
larged;  a,  mouth  parts;  6, 
end  of  the  body,  and  Fig. 
366,  a  larva  apparently  of  the 
Fig.  364.  same  genus.)  Pasimachus 

elongatus     Lee.    (Fig.    367)    has    been 

found,  according  to  Walsh,  to  prey  on 

the  Doryphora,  or  Potato  beetle. 
The  genus  Scarites  and  its  allies  have  Fig  .335. 

the  anterior  toothed  palmate  tibiae  more 


Fig.  367. 

illae  are  hooked 


or  less  produced  at  the  apex, 
pedunculate  abdomen.  In  Scar- 
ites and  Pasimachus  the  basal 
joint  of  the  antenna  is  very  long  ; 
the  former  having  the  maxillae 
rounded  at  the  tip,  and  the  tho- 
rax rounded  behind,  while  in 
Pasimachus,  the  thorax  is  dis- 
tinctly angulated,  and  the  max- 


with   a 


In  Clivina  the  basal  joint  of  the  an-  Fi#-  m- 
tennae  is  short,  the  mandibles  flat  and  acute,  and  the  clypeus 
is  not  emarginate. 

In  Harpalus  and  allies  the  epimera  of  the  mesotho- 
rax  do  not  extend  to  the  coxae,  and  the  mesosternum 
is  large,  widely  separating  the  middle  coxae.     Of  this 
group   Brachinus  (B.    fumans   Fabr.    Fig.   368),  the 
Bombardier  beetle,  with  its  narrow  head  and  cordate 
Fig.  368.   prothorax,  is  remarkable  for  discharging  with  quite 
an  explosion  from  its  anal  glands  a  pungent  fluid,  probably 


CARABID^. 


433 


of  use  as  a  protection  against  its  enemies.  They  are  yellow- 
ish red,  with  bluish  and  greenish  elytra.  Helluomorpha 
(H.  ,prseusta  Lap.  Fig.  369  ;  a,  mentum)  has  a 
large  mentum  and  much  compressed  antennae. 
Galerita  is  similar  but 
much  larger,  with  a  red 
thorax,  and  blue  or  black 
elytra.  Fig.  370  represents 
the  larva ;  Fig.  371  the  pupa  Fis- 
of  G.  Lecontei  Dejean,  a  Southern  species. 
Casnonia  has  a  rhomboidal  head,  with 
a  long  narrow  neck  and  a  cylindrical  tho- 
rax. C.  Pensylvanica  De- 
jean (Fig.  372)  is  not  un- 
common, being  found 
under  stones.  The  species 
of  Lebia  are  found  upon^ 
flowers,  especially  the 
golden  rod,  in  August  and 
September.  They  are  gaily 
colored,  with  the  head  con- 
stricted behind  and  the  Fig.  371. 
thorax  pedunculate.  The  species  of 
Platynus  (P.  cupripenne  Say,  Fig.  373) 
are  often  of  brilliant  metallic  green  and  red  colors.  In  Cymin- 
dis,  which  is  hairy,  the  head  is  not  constricted  behind,  and  the 
last  joint  of  the  labial  palpi  is  dilated.  In  Pterosti- 
chus,  which  is  a  genus  of  great  extent,  the  three  basal 
joints  of  the  antennae  are  smooth,  the 
J  anterior  tibiae  are  thickened  at  the  ex- 
J  tremity,  and  the  dilated  tarsal  joints  are 
triangular  or  cordate.  The  species  are  Fig.  372. 
black  and  of  common  occurrence.  Amara  differs 
in  the  head  not  being  narrowed  behind,  the  slightly 
Fig.  373.  emarginate  labrum  and  the  elytra  being  without 
the  usual  punctures.  Zimmerman  states  that  the  species  are 
annual,  or  double  brooded  annually ;  the  eggs,  which  are  laid 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil,  do  not  mature  for  several 
days  after  coupling ;  the  larvae  moult  once,  live  six  to  eight 
28 


434 


COLEOPTEKA. 


weeks,  and  the  pupa  lives  half  that  time ;  the  beetles  often 
hibernate.     The  larva  has  the  general  form  of  that  of  Poecilus. 

The  species  of  Harpalus  are  large, 
_  with  a  very  square   prothorax.     H. 
caliginosus  Say  (Fig.  374)  is  bene- 
ficial in  eating  cut-worms  and  other 
injurious  larvae.     Fig.  375  represents 
a  larva  supposed  to  belong  to  this  or  JJ 
an  allied  genus.     The  blind  Anoph-  f 
thalmus  Tellkampfii  Erichs.  from  the  ~% 
Mammoth  Cave,  has  no  eyes,  while  2 
the   legs    are  very  long,  especially 
the  narrow  fore  tibiae ;   but  in  Tre-     / 
chus,  which  is  closely  allied  to  the  blind  Cave  Beetle, 
the  eyes  are  as  large  as  usual,  and  the  legs  stouter.    Fig.  375. 

Bembidium    com- 

c^/?t\^  ,e  ,  prises  species   of 

very  small  size 
and  variable  in 
form,  in  which  the 
anterior  tibiae  are 
not  dilated  at  the 

base.  They  are  found  abundantly  under  the  refuse  of 
freshets  and  tides,  preying  upon  dead  animal  matter 
and  other  insects,  and  a  species  of  Cillenum, 
closely  allied  to  Bembidium,  is  known  to  seize 
the  beach-flea,  Gammarus,  and  devour  it. 
Pig.  376  (A,  a  little  enlarged;  B,  head;  c, 
mandible ;  e,  antenna ;  /,  labium  and  its  two- 
jointed  palpi ;  g,  maxillae ;  ft,  *,  j,  under  side 
of  different  abdominal  rings)  represents  the 
larva  of  a  Ground  beetle,  which,  according  to 
Fig.  377.  Walsh,  preys  upon  the  larva  of  the  Plum  cur- 
culio  while  under  ground.  Fig.  377  represents  the  Fig.  373. 
supposed  larva  of  a  European  species  of  Chlcenius,  and  Fig. 
378  what  we  suppose  is  the  larva  of  a  beetle  allied  to  Cillenum. 

AMPHIZOID^E  Leconte.     The  genus  Amphizoa  (Fig.  379,  A. 
insolens  ;  a,  antenna ;  &,  labrum ;  c,  mandibles  ;  cZ,  maxillae  ;  e, 


Fig.  376. 


DYTISCID^E. 


435 


ligula ;  /,  mentum ;  g,  prosternum,  front,  and  7i,  side  view ;  *, 
under  side  of  the  rest  of  the  body,  showing  the  six  ventral  seg- 
ments of  the  abdomen  ;  J,  anterior  tarsus  :  from  Horn)  found 
in  Northern  California,  is  the  sole  representative  of  this  family 
and  differs  from  the  preceding  family  in  the  metasternum  be- 


Fig.  379. 

ing  truncate  behind,  and  not  reaching  the  abdomen.  A.  inso- 
lens  Lee.  is  an  anomalous  form,  being  subaquatic,  and  in  its 
structure  and  habits  connecting  the  Car  abides  with  the  suc- 
ceeding family. 

DYTISCID.E  McLeay.  The  Diving  Beetles,  or  Water  Tigers, 
are  oval  flattened  elliptical  beetles,  which  differ  from  the  Car- 
ab idee  in  the  form  of  the  hinder  coxae,  which  are  very  large, 
touching  each  other  on  the  inner  edge,  and  externally  reaching 
the  side  of  the  body,  entirely  cutting  off  the  abdominal  seg- 
ments from  the  metathorax,  while  the  oar-like  swimming  legs 
are  covered  with  long  hairs,  and  the  hinder  pair  are  much  flat- 
tened. The  larvae  are  called  "water  tigers,"  being  long,  cy- 
lindrical, with  large  flattened  heads,  armed  with  scissor-like 
jaws  with  which  they  seize  other  insects,  or  snip  off  the  tails 
of  tadpoles,  while  they  are  even  known  to  attack  young  fishes, 
sucking  their  blood.  They  are  known  to  moult  several  times, 
four  or  five  days  intervening  between  the  first  two  periods  of 
moulting,  and  ten  days  between  the  latter.  The  body  ends  in 
a  pair  of  long  respiratory  tubes,  which  they  protrude  into  the 
air,  though  eight  pairs  of  rudimentary  spiracles  exist.  When 
about  to  transform  the  larva  creeps  on  to  the  land,  constructs 
a  round  cell,  and  in  about  five  days  assumes  the  pupa  state, 
and  in  two  or  three  weeks  the  beetle  appears,  if  in  summer,  or 


436  COLEOPTEKA. 

if  in  autumn  hibernates  as  a  pupa,  to  transform  to  a  beetle  in 
the  spring. 

In  Haliplus  the  antennae  are  ten-jointed,  bristle-shaped,  and 
the  legs  are  scarcely  adapted  for  swimming,  being  narrow. 
The  body  is  very  convex,  spotted  with  black  or  gray,  while 
the  elytra  are  covered  with  rows  of  punctures.  In  the  remain- 
ing genera,  the  types  of  the  family,  the  antennae  are  eleven- 
jointed  and  the  hind  legs  oar-like.  "The  larvae  differ  not  only 
by  their  dorsal  segments  being  armed  with  spines,  which  gives 
them  a  very  grotesque  appearance,  but  by  their  possessing  only 
one  claw,  and  by  their  anal  segment  (which  is  rudimentary 
in  all  other  Dytiscidae)  being  enormously  elongated  and  forked, 
so  that  the  anus  is  placed  on  the  under  side  of  this  pe- 
culiar tail,  and  the  spiracles  of  the  eighth  pair,  which  are  ter- 
minal and  tube-like  in  other  Dytiscidce  here  become  lateral 
and  quite  plain."  (Schiodte.)  In  Colymbetes  and  Agabus  the 
anterior  tarsi  of  the  males  are  broad,  oblong,  and  covered  be- 
neath with  cups  of  equal,  or  nearly  equal,  size.  Agabus  differs 
in  having  the  thorax  as  wide  at  the  base  as  at  the  middle,  or 
still  wider.  In  Dytiscus  the  ovate,  not  very  convex  body  is 
usually  broader  behind  the  middle,  and  the  last  joint  of  the 
palpi  is  not  elongated,  while  in  Adlius  which  is  usually 
banded,  the  intermediate  tarsi  of  the  male  are  not  dilated. 
The  males  of  these  two  genera  often  have  the  elytra  deeply 
furrowed,  while  those  of  the  females  are  smooth.  Dytiscus 
fasdventris  Say  and  Adlius  mediatus  Say  are  common  in  all 
our  ponds  northward. 

GTKINID^E  Latreille.  Whirligigs.  These  oval  bluish  black 
beetles  are  easily  distinguished  by  their  peculiar  form  and 
habits.  They  are  always  seen  in  groups,  gyrating  and  circling 
about  on  the  surface  of  pools,  and  when  caught,  give  out  a 
disagreeable  milky  fluid.  Like  the  previous  family,  upon  being 
disturbed,  they  suddenly  dive  to  the  bottom,  holding  on  by 
their  claws  to  submerged  objects.  They  carry  down  a  bubble 
of  air  on  the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  and  when  the  supply  is  ex- 
hausted rise  for  more. 

The  cylindrical  eggs  are  placed  by  the  female,  end  to  end, 
in  parallel  rows  on  the  leaves  of  aquatic  plants,  and  the  larvae 


^ 


HYDROPIJILID^E.  437 

are  hatched  in  about  eight  days.  They  are  myriapodous  in 
form,  with  a  pair  of  large,  long,  lateral  respiratory  filaments 
on  each  segment,  much  as  in  the  larva  of 
Corydalus.  They  become  fully  grown  in  Au- 
gust, crawl  out  of  the  water  and  spin  an  ovai 
cocoon,  within  which  the  pupa  remains  a 
month,  and  then  appears  as  a  beetle.  In  Gy- 
rinus  (Fig.  380,  G.  borealis  Aube ;  Fig.  381, 
larva  of  a  European  species)  the  scutellum  is  llg'  3S 
distinct ;  the  species  of  Dineutus,  of  which  D.  Ameri- 
canus  is  a  type,  are  larger,  and  lack  the  scutellum. 
Schiodte  states  that  the  larvae  of  Carabidce, 
Dytiscidce,  and  Gyrinidce  differ  from  those  of  other  Coleop- 
tera  in  having  double  claws,  while  in  the  others  the  tarsus  is 
undivided  and  claw-like. 

HYDROPHILID^E  Leach.  Carnivorous  as  larvae,  but  when 
beetles,  vegetable  eaters,  and  living  on  refuse  and  decaying 
matter,  this  family  unites  the  habits  of  the  foregoing  families 
with  those  of  the  scavenger  Silphids.  They  are  aquatic,  small, 
convex,  oval,  or  hemispherical  beetles,  in  which  the  middle  and 
posterior  feet  are  sometimes  adapted  for 
swimming ;  the  antennae  are  short,  and  the 
palpi  very  long  and  slender.  The  females 
spin  a  silken,  turnip- shaped  nidus  for  their 
eggs,  fifty  to  sixty  in  number,  which  ends 
in  a  horny  projection,  serving  as  a  respira- 
tory tube  to  supply  the  young  larvae  with 
air  as  they  are  hatched.  Others  carry  the 
cocoon  about  with  them  on  the  under  side 
of  the  body.  To  spin  this  large  amount  of 
silk,  they  are  provided  with  two  large  silk 
glands,  with  external  spinnerets.  The  larvae 
hatch  in  from  two  to  six  weeks,  and  moult 
three  times  ;  when  mature  they  are  long,  cy- 
lindrical, tapering  rapidly  towards  the  pos- 
terior end,  with  short  legs,  while  the  head  is  ms-  382- 
flattened  above  and  very  convex  beneath,  with  the  mandibles 
elevated  much  as  in  the  larva  of  Cicindela,  enabling  them  to 


438  COLEOPTERA. 

seize  their  food  by  throwing  their  heads  back  and  extending 
the  jaws.  The  larva  of  the  European  H.  piceus  Linn.  (Fig. 
382)  matures  in  two  months,  then  ascends  to  the  bank,  forms 
an  oval  cocoon,  and  transforms  to  a  beetle  in  about  forty  days. 
In  the  genus  Spercheus  (S.  tessellatus  Mels.)  the  middle  and 
hind  tarsal  joints  are  equal  in  length.  Hydropliilus  is  large, 
oval,  olive-black  and  with  smooth  elytra.  In  the  larva  the 
lateral  appendages  of  the  abdomen  are  soft,  flexible,  ciliated, 
and  assist  in  buoying  up  the  heavy,  fleshy  body  (for  which 
purpose  the  antennae  are  ciliated)  but  they  do  not  serve  for 
respiration  as  in  Berosus,  another  extensive  genus  of  this 
family.  (Schiodte.)  H.  triangularis  Say  is  a  large,  pitch}r 
black  species.  In  Hydrobiu*  the  last  joint  of  the  maxillary 
palpi  is  longer  than  the  preceding.  Spliceridium  and  its  allies 
are  characterized  by  an  ovate,  convex  or  hemispherical  form, 
with  ten  rows  of  punctures  or  striae,  though  in  Cyclonotum 
there  are  no  striae.  In  Cercyon  the  mesosternum  is  not  pro- 
duced, and  the  prosternum  is  keeled  over.  "In  the  larvae  of 
Cercyon  and  Sphceridium,  which  represent  the  Hydrophiline 
type  modified  for  life  on  dry  land  (though  in  humid  places), 
we  find  neither  lateral  abdominal  appen- 
dages, nor  even  true  feet,  the  animal  wrig- 
gling its  Way  through  the  debris  amongst 
which  it  lives,  whilst  the  last  abdominal 
segment  is  the  largest  of  all  and  is  often 
armed  with  hooks."  (Schiodte.) 


PLATTPSYLLID^:  Leconte.  The  only  spe- 
cies of  this  family  known  is  a  small  brown 
insect,  *16  inch  long  (Platypsytta  castoris 
Ritsema,  Fig.  3821,  enlarged),  found  on 
the  American  beaver.  The  body  is  broad,  Fis-  3821- 

flattened,  eyeless,  with  short  elytra,  and  spiny  on  the  legs  and 
salient  parts  of  the  body,  as  in  the  flea.  Leconte  remarks  that 
its  affinities  are  "very  composite,  but  all  in  the  direction  of  the 
Adephagous  and  Clavicorn  series,  though  chiefly  with  the  latter.' 

SILPHID^E  Leach.     The  Carrion  or  Sexton  beetles  are  useful 
in   burying   decaying   bodies,  in   which   they  lay  their   eggs. 


SCYDM^NHXE.  439 

The  laryse  are  crustaceous,  flattened,  with  the  sides  of  the 
body  often  serrated,  black,  and  of  a  fetid  odor.  They  undergo 
their  transformations  in  an  oval  cocoon.  In  Necroplwrus  (Fig. 
346,  N.  Americanus  Oliv.)  the  antennae  have  ten  apparent 
joints,  and  the  rounded  club  is 
four-jointed.  The  genus  Silpha,  of 
which  S.  Lapponica  Herbst  (Fig. 
383,  larva  fully  grown  ;  384,  young, 
from  Labrador)  is  a  common  spe- 
cies, differs  in  the  third  joint  of 
the  antenna  being  no  longer  than 
the  second,  but  shorter  than  the 
first.  In  NecropMlus  the  third  joint 
is  as  long  as  the  first.  N.  Surina- 
mensis  Fabr.  has  a  yellow  thorax 
with  a  central  irregular  black  spot. 
Catops  and  its  allies  live  in  fungi, 
carrion  and  ants'  nests,  and  are 
small,  black,  oval  insects.  The  Fig.  383, 
rig.  384.  eyeless  Adelops  liirtus  Tellk.  is  blind,  wanting  the 
eyes,  and  is  found  in  Mammoth  Cave.  Anisotoma  and  allies, 
with  eleven-jointed  antennae,  are  oval  and  sometimes  hemis- 
pherical, and  capable  of  being  rolled  up  into  a  ball. 
They  are  of  small  size  and  found  in  fungi,  or  under 
'  the  bark  of  dead  trees.  Agathidium  (Fig.  385,  larva 
of  the  European  A.  seminulum)  has  the  club  of  the 
antennae  three-jointed.  Clambus  and  allies  comprise 
exceedingly  minute  species,  found  in  decaying  vege- 
table matter. 

An  aberrant  form  is  Brathinus,  two  species  of  which, 
B.  nitidus  Lee.   and  B.  varicornis  Lee.,  have  been     M 
found  from  Lake  Superior  to  Nova  Scotia,  about  the  Fig-  385< 
roots  of  grass  in  damp  places.     According  to  Leconte,  they  are 
small  shiny  insects  of  graceful  form,  and  distinguished  by  the 
prominent  middle  coxae. 


Leach.  The  species  of  this  small  group  differ 
from  the  Pselaphidce  to  which  they  are  closely  allied  by  their 
long  elytra  and  distant  conical  posterior  coxae.  They  are  mi- 


440  COLEOPTEEA. 

nute,  oval,  brown,  shiny  insects  found  under  stones  nef  r  water, 
under  bark  and  in  ants'  nests.   Scydmcenus  is  the  typical  genus. 

PSELAPHID^E  MacLeay.  In  this  group  the  labial  palpi  are 
very  small,  while  the  four-jointed  maxillary  palpi  are  of  re- 
markable length ;  the  eyes  are  composed  of  large  lenses,  and 
are  sometimes  wanting ;  the  elytra  are  short,  truncated,  beneath 
which  the  wings,  when  present,  are  folded  and  the  legs  are 
long  and  the  femora  are  stout,  while  beyond  the  leg  is  usually 
slender.  "The  species  are  very  small,  not  exceeding  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  are  of  a  chestnut-brown  color, 
usually  slightly  pubescent ;  the  head  and  thorax  are  most  fre- 
quently narrower  than  the  elytra  and  abdomen,  which  is  con- 
vex and  usually  obtuse  at  tip.  Many  are  found  flying  in 
twilight ;  their  habits  at  other  times  are  various,  some  being 
found  in  ants'  nests,  while  others  occur  under  stones  and  bark. 
North  America  seems  to  be  rich  in  this  family  ;  more  than  fifty 
species  are  known  to  me,  and  several  of  the  genera  have  not 
occurred  in  other  countries.  This  family  closely  approaches 
the  Staphylinidce,  but  the  ventral  segments  are  fewer  in 
number,  and  not  freely  moving,  and  the  eyes  are  composed  of 
large  lenses."  (Leconte.)  The  genus  Claviger  and  its  allies 
Adranes  ccecus  Leconte,  which  is  found  in  ants'  nests  in  North- 
ern Georgia,  have  antennae  with  less  than  six  joints ;  it  is 
blind,  and  the  antennae  have  only  two  joints.  Pselaplius  and 
its  allies  have  eleven-jointed,  rarely  ten-jointed  antennae. 

STAPHYLINID^E  Leach.  The  Rove-beetles  are  easily  recog- 
nized by  their  long  linear  black  bodies,  with  remarkably  short 
elytra,  and  seven  to  eight  visible  horny  abdominal  segments. 
The  maxillae  are  bilobate,  usually  ciliated,  with  four-jointed 
palpi,  except  in  Aleochara,  when  there  is  an  additional  joint ; 
the  antennae,  variable  in  form  and  insertion,  are  usually  eleven- 
jointed,  and  while  the  legs  are  variable  in  length  and  form, 
the  anterior  coxae  are  usually  large,  conical,  prominent  and 
contiguous.  Though  sometimes  an  inch  in  length,  they  are 
more  commonly  minute,  inhabiting  wet  places  under  stones, 
manure  heaps,  fungi,  moss,  under  the  bark  or  leaves  of  trees. 
Many  species  inhabit  ants'  nests,  and  should  be  carefully 


STAPHYLINID^ .  44 1 

sought  for  on  dewy  mornings  under  stones  and  pieces  of  wood, 
which  should  be  taken  up  and  shaken  over  a  white  cloth  or 
paper ;  or  the  whole  nest  should  be  sifted  through  a  rather 
coarse  sieve,  when  the  small  beetles  will  fall  through  the 
meshes.  The  eggs  are  very  large.  The  larvae  (Fig.  386,  un- 
der side  of  a  larva  probably  belonging  to  this  family,  from 
Maine,  enlarged  twice)  closely  resemble  the  beetles,  being 
narrow,  the  segments  of  very  equal  size,  the  terminal  ring 
forming  a  long  prop-leg,  on  each  side  of  which  there 
is  a  long  ciliate  seta.  In.  the  pupae  the  hind  wings 
are  not  folded  beneath  the  elytra,  but  extend  below, 
meeting  upon  the  breast. 

In  the  true  Staphylini  the  anterior  coxae  are  promi- 
nent and  their  coxal  cavities  are  open  behind.  Aleo- 
chara  and  its  allies  are  difficult  to  distinguish,  as  the 
characters  separating  them  are  but  slightly  marked; 
they  have  the  maxillary  palpi  moderate  in  length,  with 
the  second  and  third  joints  also  of  moderate  length, 
the  fourth  small,  subulate,  distinct,  and  in  Aleochara  rig> 
itself  there  is  an  additional  very  small  fifth  joint.  In  Homa- 
lota,  numerous  in  species,  the  ligula  is  short  and  bifid,  and  the 
first  to  the  fourth  joints  of  the  hind  tarsi  decrease  in  length. 
In  Tacliyporus  and  allies  the  prothoracic  spiracles  are  visible ; 
the  anterior  coxae  are  large,  conical  and  prominent,  with  the 
trochanters  very  distinct,  while  the  antennae  are  inserted  under 
the  lateral  margin  of  the  front.  The  species  are 
usually  convex  above,  with  the  thorax  always  ample, 
arched  and  highly  polished,  and  the  abdomen  conical, 
sometimes*  very  short.  They  are  found  partly  in 
fungi,  partly  under  bark.  Dr.  Leconte,  whom  we 
have  been  quoting,  states  that  the  species  of  Bolito- 
bius  usually  have  the  head  much  elongatecl;  when, 
however,  the  head  is  oval,  they  approach  closely  to 
the  genus  Quedius  of  the  next  tribe,  but  are  recog- 
nized by  the  antennae  being  inserted  at  the  lateral  ris-  387- 
margin  of  the  front,  near  the  eyes,  and  not  at  the  anterior 
angle  of  the  frontal  margin,  as  in  Quedius. 

In  Stapliylinus  the  antennae  are  inserted  on  the  anterior  mar- 
gin of  the  front,  inside  of  the  base  of  the  mandibles,  but  dis- 


442 


COLEOPTERA. 


tant  from  each  other  ;  the  thorax  is  punctured  and  pubescent, 
the  middle  coxae  slightly  separate,  while  the  abdomen  is  nar- 
rowed at  the  tips.  Fig.  387  represents  the  larva  of  this  or  a 
closely  allied  genus  found  in  a  humble  bee's  nest.  Pliilontlius 
differs  in  having  the  femora  unarmed.  The  species 
live  in  decaying  matters  and  excrement.  The  spe- 
cies of  Pcederus  (Fig.  388,  the  larva  of  the  European 
P.  tempestivus  Erichs.)  are  found  under  stones,  etc., 
near  water. 

In  Stenus,  of  which  S.  stygicus  Say  and  8.  Juno 
Fabr.  are  types,  the  eyes  are  large  and  prominent,  so 
that  the  head  resembles  that  of  Cicindela  and  the 
Fig.  388.    antennae  are  inserted  upon  the  front   between  the 
eyes ;  the  labrum  is  entire  and  rounded  anteriorly,  the  para- 
glossae  are  dilated,  rounded,  and  the  body  is  coarsely  punctured, 
while  that  of  its  nearest  ally  Dianous  is  finely  punctured  and 
^  the  paraglossse  are  connate  and  indistinct. 
J      Another  small  group  of  genera  is  repre- 
sented by  Oxyporus,  which  is  found  in  fungi, 
and  which  has  a  large  head,  with 
large  long  mandibles  crossing  each 

A'y.  :-.;:k  JH//S     other,  and  five-jointed  tarsi ;   and 

/ISsfl          ?'  l  Oxytelus  which   is    found    in    wet 

places  and  in  dung,  and  has  three- 
jointed  tarsi,  with  a  row  of  spines 
front  tibiae,  and  the  middle  coxae 
separated. 

Anthophagus  ccesus?,    Harris  Correspond- 
ed, maxilla),  is  found  in  wet  ground  where 
spearmint  grows,  of  which  it  diffuses  a  strong  odor. 

In  Omalium  the  antennae  are  inserted  under  the  lateral  mar- 
gin of  the  front,  the  elytra  are  long,  and  the  tibiae  finely  spi- 
nous.  Micralymma  is  closely  allied,  but  differs  in  the  elytra 
being  very  short.  The  genus  Micropeplus  is  squarish  in  form 
and  connects  the  present  family  with  the  one  following. 

HISTERIDJE  Leach.  As  stated  by  Leconte,  "this  is  a  very 
well  defined  family  of  insects,  moderately  numerous,  nearly  all 
of  a  shining  black  color,  with  the  elytra  variously  sculptured 


Fig.  389. 

ence  (Fig.  389 


TRICHOPTERYGIDJE.  443 

with  striae  ;  some  few  species  of  Hister  and  Saprinus  have  the 
elytra  marked  with  red,  and  a  few  of  the  latter  genus  are 
metallic  in  color.  The  form  of  the  body  is  variable  ;  those  of 
the  first  group  are  oblong  and  flat,  with  prominent  mandibles ; 
the  others  are  round,  oblong  oval,  globose,  some  depressed 
and  some  convex.  The  species  live  under  the  bark  of  trees,  in 
excrement  and  in  carcasses.  When  disturbed  the  insects 
retract  the  antennae  and  feet,  appearing  as  if  dead.  The  an- 
tennae are  geniculate,  the  eighth  and  following  joints  forming 
a  compact  annulated,  rounded  or  (rarely)  triangular  club. 
The  elytra  are  truncate  behind,  leaving  two  segments  of  the 
abdomen  uncovered.  The  linear  flattened  larvae  have  the  ter- 
minal ring  ending  in  two  biarticulated  appendages,  and  a 
single  anal  prop-leg.  The  larva  of  the  European  Hister 
merdarius  (Fig.  390)  lives  in  cow  dung,  forming  a  cell  in 
which  it  transforms,  and  like  Anthrenus,  the  pale  brown 
pupa  retains  the  larva  skin  about  it.  In  Hister  the  head 
is  retracted  and  bent  downwards,  and  the  club  of  the 
antenna  is  round  and  annulated.  Hister  interruptus  Jj\? 
Beauv.  and  A.  marginicollis  Lee.  are  common  northward.  Fig.  390 
The  genus  Hetcerius  differs  in  the  antennal  club  being 
obconical,  truncate  and  solid.  The  species  are  found  only  in 
ants'  nests  early  in  the  spring.  In  Saprinus  the  antennae  are 
inserted  under  the  margin  of  the  front ;  the  antennal  cavities 
being  at  the  sides  of  the  prosternum  proper.  The  species  are 
mostly  found  in  carrion. 

SCAPHIDIID^E  MacLeay.  "This  family,"  according  to  Dr. 
Leconte,  "contains  small  oval  or  rounded  oval,  convex,  very 
shining  insects,  living  in  fungi.  The  sides  of  the  thorax  are 
oblique,  and  the  head  small,  so  as  to  make  the  body  somewhat 
pointed  in  front;  the  thorax  is  very  closely  applied  to  the 
front,  and  the  elytra  are  broadly  truncate,  permitting  the  tip 
of  the  conical  abdomen  to  appear."  In  Scaphidium  the  an- 
tennae are  clavate,  the  eyes  emarginate,  the  posterior  tibiae  are 
not  spinous,  and  the  first  joint  of  the  posterior  tarsi  longest. 

TRICHOPTERYGIDJE  (Trichopterygia  Erichson).  This  incon- 
siderable family  comprises  the  smallest  beetles  known.  The 


444  COLEOPTERA. 

eleven-jointed  antennae,  which  are  verticillate,  with  long  hairs, 

are  inserted  at  the  margin  of  the  front,  and  the  club  is  long 
and  loosely  articulated.  The  beetles  live  under  the  bark 
of  trees  and  in  ants'  nests.  The  larvae  are  carnivorous, 
being  very  active,  without  ocelli,  and  with  cylindrical 
bodies,  with  four-jointed  antennae  and  long  four-jointed 
legs.  Trichopteryx  is  known  by  its  pubescent  body, 
and  laminate  posterior  coxae.  One  species  is  one-third 
of  a  line  long;  others  are  still  smaller.  The  larva 

Fig.  391  ot-  the  European  jfm   intermedia  Gillmeister   (Fig.  391, 

enlarged)  feeds  on  Podurae. 

PHALACRIDJE  Erichson.  "A  small  number  of  oval  or 
rounded  oval,  convex,  shining  insects,  constitute  this  family. 
They  are  found  on  flowers,  and  sometimes  under  bark.  The 
elytra  have  sometimes  approximate  rows  of  small  punctures, 
but  more  usually  only  a  sutural  stria.  The  scutellum  is  larger 
than  usual,  triangular.  One  of  the  four  genera  (Tolyphus) 
of  this  family  is  wanting  in  our  fauna.  The  other  three  are 
separated  by  the  form  of  the  posterior  tarsi."  (Leconte.)  In 
Phalacrus  the  anterior  and  posterior  tarsi  are  of  the  same 
length.  The  larvae  are  vegetable  feeders,  living  in  the  flowers 
of  composite  plants. 

NITIDULARI^E  Latreille.  This  family  includes  small  oval  or 
elliptical,  flattened  beetles,  which  are  sometimes  almost  globu- 
lar. The  head  is  suddenly  narrowed  before  the  insertion  of 
the  antennae,  thus  forming  a  short  beak,  and  the  antennae  may 
be  partially  retracted  into  a  groove  under 
the  eyes.  The  larvae  are  both  carnivorous 
and  vegetable-feeders ;  they  are  elongated, 
with  two  to  four-jointed  antennae,  three  ocelli 
on  each  side,  with  a  flattened  hairy  body, 
ending  in  four  small,  horny,  recurved  tuber- 
cles. The  pupae  may  be  found  under  the 
surface  of  the  ground  in  earth  and  sawdust. 
Carpophilus  has  the  second  and  third  abdominal  segments 
short,  while  the  first,  fourth  and  fifth  are  longer,  and  the  claws 
are  simple.  Carpophilus  antiquus  Mels.  is  a  well  known  spe- 


COLYDIID^E.  445 

cies.  Nitidula  and  its  allies  are  elliptical  depressed,  often 
with  a  broad  margin  ;  the  elytra  covers  the  whole  abdomen,  or 
leaves  merely  the  tips  exposed.  In  Nitidula  the  last  joint  of 
the  labial  palpi  is  not  thicker  than  the  preceding,  and  the 
species  often  have  two  red  spots  on  the  elytra,  as  in  Nitidula, 
bipustulata  Fabr.  In  Epurcea,  which  is  found  under  stones  and 
bark,  the  last  joint  of  the  palpi  is  large  and  thick.  Omosita 
colon  Fabr.  is  also  spotted  twice  with  red ;  the  genus  may  be 
recognized  by  the  antennal  grooves  diverging  behind,  following 
the  outline  of  the  eyes,  while  in  the  males  the  sixth  abdominal 
segment  is  wanting.  Ips  is  much  longer  and  larger,  with  trun- 
cate elytra,  and  the  head  is  immersed  in  the  thorax  to  the 
eyes.  Ips  sanguinolentus  Say  has  a  broad  red  band  on  the 
elytra,  with  two  large  round  dots.  Ips  fasciatus  Say  (Fig. 
391,  and  larva ;  found  in  the  roots  of  the  squash  by  Mr.  M.  C. 
Read)  has  two  broad  interrupted  yellow  bands  on  the  elytra ; 
both  species  occur  about  flowing  sap  in  spring.  Ips  ferruginea 
of  Europe  lives  on  the  young  of  Hylesinus  ligniperda.  Rliizo- 
pliagus  depresses  is  known  in  Europe  to  attack  the  larvae  of 
Hylurgus  piniperda,  according  to  Dufour. 

MONOTOMIDJE  Chaudoir.  The  species  of  this  inconsiderable 
group  are  much  like  the  preceding  family  in  form,  but  as  Le- 
conte  states,  differ  from  them  in  the  anterior  coxa3  being  small, 
rounded  and  separated.  They  occur  under  the  bark  of  trees. 

~~~  ! 

TROGOSITID^E  Kirby.  This  group,  usually  united  with  the 
preceding  family,  is  distinguished  by  the  bilobate  maxillae,  with 
the  short,  four-jointed  maxillae  and  the  short  undilated  tarsi. 
They  generally  live  under  bark,  but  some  have  been  trans- 
ported over  the  whole  world  in  grain.  In  Trogosita,  which 
comprises  long  insects,  with  the  thorax  narrowed  behind,  the 
ligula  is  entire,  the  tibiae  are  not  spinous,  and  the  thorax  is 
prominently  angulated  in  front. 

COLYDIIDJE  Erichson.  The  small  globular  anterior  and 
middle  coxae,  and  the  four-jointed  simple  tarsi  will  enable  them, 
Leconte  states,  to  be  readily  distinguished  from  any  of  the 
neighboring  families.  The  species  are  of  small  size,  usually 


446  COLEOPTERA. 

rather  long  and  cylindrical,  and  occur  in  fungi,  in  the  earth,  or 
under  the  bark  of  trees.  Colydium  is  slender,  with  finely 
striate  elytra,  and  the  anterior  tibiae  have  one  spur  enlarged 
and  hooked ;  while  the  first  joint  of  the  tarsi  is  elongated. 
C.  elongatum  is  stated  by  European  authors  to  attack  the  larvae 
of  Platypus,  a  genus  allied  to  Scolytus. 

RHYSSODID^E  Erichson.  This  group,  by  some  authors  united 
with  the  preceding  family,  simulates  the  form  of  the  Carabids. 
The  antennae  are,  however,  composed  of  equal  globular  joints, 
and  the  head  is  strongly  constricted  behind  into  a  neck.  They 
are  found  under  bark.  In  Rhyssodes  the  ej^es  are  placed  upon 
the  side,  and  in  the  other  genus,  Clinidium,  upon  the  upper 
surface  of  the  head. 

CUCUJID.E  Latreille.  The  species  of  this  family  are  very 
much  flattened  long  insects,  with  flat,  strongly  emarginated 
elytra,  and  the  abdomen  has  five  full  segments,  equal  in  length. 
They  are  found  under  bark.  The  larvae  are  quite  transparent, 
with  the  terminal  joint  ending  in  two  horny  curved  hooks. 
The  antennae  are  four-jointed,  the  limbs  provided  with  a  single 
claw,  and  there  are  five  ocelli  on  each  side  of  the  head.  In  Syl- 
vanus,  which  is  of  small  size,  the  nine  to  eleven-jointed  an- 
tennae do  not  have  the  first  joint  elongated  as  usual,  while  the 
terminal  ones  are  enlarged.  Sylvanus  /Surinamensis  Linn,  is 
one-ninth  of  an  inch  long,  of  a  rusty  brown  color,  and  covered 
with  short  yellowish  hairs.  The  larva  is  a  flattened  yellowish 
white  grub,  with  the  terminal  joint  somewhat  conical.  It  breeds 
in  bran,  rice  and  wheat.  Cucujus  is  a  bright  scarlet  flattened 
insect,  with  punctured  elytra,  and  three  faintly  marked  smooth 
lines.  The  larvae  differ  from  those  of  Sylvanus  by  having  two 
horny  tubercles  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen;  they  are  often 
found  in  granaries. 

CRTPTOPHAGIDJE  Kirby.  This  family  differs  from  the  pre- 
ceding group  in  the  greater  length  of  the  first  abdominal  ring, 
the  thickened  body,  and  in  the  thorax  being  as  wide  as  the 
elytra.  Antherophagus  is  readily  known  by  its  resemblance  to 
Epuraea  among  the  Nitidulidw,  as  its  head  and  body  is  flat, 


MYCETOPHAGID^E.  447 

the  front  not  prolonged,  and  in  the  male  is  deeply  excised  at 

the  tip.     The  antennae  of  the  female  are  clubbed  as  usual,  and 

the  mandibles  are  prominent  and  suddenly  incurved  at 

the  tips.     It  is  often  found  on  flowers  in  the  perfect 

state.     We  have  found  the  larvae  (Fig.  393  ;  a,  end 

of  abdomen)  of  Antherophagus  ochraceus  Say  (Plate 

3,  fig.  4)  in  the  nests  of  humble  bees  during  July  and 

August.     They  are  whitish,  and  .32  of  an  inch  in 

length.     The  beetles  are  of  a  pale  honey  yellow,  with 

little  darker  antennae,  legs  and  elytra,  while  the  ends 

of  the  antennal  joints,  the  base  of  the  coxae  and  tibiae,  Fig.  393. 

and  tip  of  the  terminal  joint  of  the  tarsi  are  black. 

The  larva  of  the  European  Cryptophagus  hirtus  Gyll. 

(Fig.  394)  is  found  in  cellars. 


DERODONTIDJE  Leconte.  In  these  insects  the 
transverse  form  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  coxae 
Fig.  394.  (which  latter  are  slightly  separated),  dilated  inter- 
nally, forming  a  small  plate  to  protect  the  insertion  of  the 
thigh,  distinguishes  this  group  from  all  the  preceding 
families,  and  approximates  it  somewhat  to  the  families 
following  the  Elateridce. 

LATHRIDIID^E  Redtenbacher.     Leconte   states  that 
the  insects  of  this  small  family  are  of  very  small  size, 
found  flying  in  twilight,  and   also  under  bark   and 
stones  ;  they  are  of  graceful  form,  the  elytra  being 
usually  wider  than  the  thorax  ;  the  species  of  Bonvou-    v—V 
loiria  and  most  of  the   species  of  Lathridius  (Fig.      = 
395,  larva  of  L.   minutus  Linn.,  enlarged)   are  very  Fig>  395- 
remarkably  sculptured,   with  elevated  lines  on  the  thorax. 

OTHNIID^E  Leconte.  OtJmius  umbrosus  Lee.  is  the  type  of 
this  family.  It  occurred  in  Nebraska,  near  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. 

MYCETOPHAGHXE  Leach.  The  genus  Mycetophagus  is  finely 
punctured  with  closely  appressed  hairs  ;  the  anterior  coxal 
cavities  are  open  ;  the  tarsi  are  four-jointed  and  filiform,  the 


448  COLEOPTERA. 

anterior  pair  in  the  males  having  but  three  joints  ;  the  frontal 
suture  is  always  distinct  and  usually  deep  ;  the  eyes  are  trans- 
verse and  the  antennae  gradually  enlarged  externally. 

DERMESTIDJE  Leach.  These  well  known  insects  have  the 
head  small  and  deflexed,  with  short  mandibles,  rounded  eyes, 
with  a  single  ocellus  ;  the  prothorax  is  short,  sometimes  exca- 
vated for  the  reception  of  the  antennae,  which  are  in- 
serted in  front  of  the  eyes  and  are  usually  eleven-jointed, 
and  the  legs  are  short,  somewhat  contractile,  the  tarsi 
being  five-jointed.  In  Byturus  the  mandibles  have  sev- 
eral teeth,  and  the  claws  are  armed  with  a  large  basal 
rig.  396-  tooth.  They  are  small  oval  brown  beetles  found  eating 
flowers.  Mr.  J.  L.  Russell  of  Salem,  has  called  my  attention 
to  the  ravages  committed  by  B.  unicolor  Say  on  the  raspberry  ; 
it  eats  the  flowers,  being  most  abundant  during  June,  and  for 
two  or  three  summers  has  been  very  abundant.  Hand  picking 
was  found  to  be  the  best  remedy.  Every  entomologist  dreads 
the  presence  of  Dermestes  and  Anthrenus  in  his  cabinet. 
The  ugly,  bristly,  insidious  larva,  which  so  skilfully  hides 
in  the  body  whose  interior  it  consumes,  leaving  only 
the  shell  ready  to  fall  to  pieces  at  the  slightest  jar,  can 
be  kept  out  only  with  the  greatest  precautions.  Der- 
mestes lardarius  Linn.,  the  larger  of  the  two,  is  oblong 
oval,  with  short  legs,  black,  with  the  base  of  the  elytra 
gray  buff,  covered  by  two  broad  lines.  It  is  timid  and 
F;g.  397.  slow  in  its  movements,  and  when  disturbed  seeks  a 
shelter,  or  mimics  death.  We  have  found  the  larva  (Fig. 
396)  of  probably  another  species  of  Dermestes,  crawling  up 
the  side  of  an  out-house.  It  was  nearly  twice  the  size  of 
D.  lardarius.  Attagenus  pellio  Stephens  is  another  insect 
which  infests  museums.  It  is  shorter  than  Dermestes,  black, 
with  two  dots  on  the  wing  covers.  The  larva  (Fig.  397,  en- 
larged three  times)  is  long  and  slender,  cylindrical,  with  red- 
dish brown  hairs  closely  appressed  to  the  body,  giving  it  a 
silky,  shining  appearance.  The  abdomen  ends  in  a  long  pen- 
cil of  hairs.  It  has  been  known  to  eat  holes  in  carpets. 

Anthrenus  varius  Fabr.  (Fig.  398 ;   a,  larva;   5,  pupa)  is 
rounded  oval,  with  transverse  waved  lines.    Its  larva  is  thick, 


GEORYSSID^. 


449 


Fig.  398. 


with  long  bristles,  which  are  largest  on  the  end  of  the  body. 
They  are  generally  destructive  in  museums,  and  prey  on  stuffed 
specimens  of  all  sorts.  The  beetles  fly  about  early  in  spring 
and  then  lay  their  eggs.  The  insect  is  found  in  all  its  stages 
through  the  year.  They  may  be  killed  like  the  Clothes-moth, 
also  found  in  museums,  by  saturating  the  specimen  infested 
by  them  with  benzine.  To  pre- 
vent their  attacks,  they  should 
be  kept  out  of  collections  by 
keeping  benzine  in  constant 
evaporation  in  open  vessels. 
Camphor  and  turpentine  and 
creosote  are  also  very  useful. 
Insects  recently  prepared  should 
be  placed  in  quarantine,  so  we  may  be  sure  none  of  the  mu- 
seum pests  will  be  introduced  into  the  drawers  or  cases  of  the 
cabinet  while  either  in  the  egg  or  larva  state.  Their  presence 
in  cabinets  may  be  detected  by.  the  dust  they  make  falling  on 
the  white  surface  beneath.  Specimens  thoroughly  impregnated 
with  carbolic  acid,  or  arsenic,  or  corrosive  sublimate,  will  not 
be  attacked  by  them. 

BYRRHIDJE  Leach.  Pill  Beetles.  This  group  has  the  head 
retracted  under  the  thorax,  with  the  parts  of  the  mouth  more 
or  less  protected  by  the  prosternum ;  the  legs  are  short,  stout 
and  retractile,  and  the  antennae  are  clavate.  The  typi- 
cal species  are  "oval  or  rounded,  very  convex,  dull 
black  or  bronzed  insects,  covered  with  a  fine,  easily 
removed  pubescence,  forming  varied  patterns."  In 
Byrrhus  all  the  tarsi  are  retractile.  We  have  taken 
Byrrlms  Americanus  Lee.  in  Labrador,  on  the  stems 
of  the  "Labrador  tea."  They  are  found  in  cold 
mountainous  districts.  The  larvae  (Fig.  399,  larva  Fig<  m 
of  B.  pillula  Illiger,  a  European  species  found  in  moss)  are 
fleshy,  cylindrical,  with  the  last  two  rings  of  the  body  larger 
than  the  others. 

GEORYSSID.E  Heer.     This  family  consists  of  but  a  single 
genus,  characterized  by  Leconte  as  comprising  small,  rounded, 
29 


450  COLEOPTERA. 

convex,  roughly  sculptured,  black  insects,  found  at  the  mar- 
gins of  streams,  on  wet  sand ;  they  cover  themselves  with  a 
mass  of  mud,  so  that  no  part  of  the  insect  is  visible.  Georys- 
sus  pusillus  Lee.  is  our  only  species. 


MacLeay.  These  are  aquatic  beetles,  having  a 
retractile  head,  and  are  often  found  clinging  to  submerged 
stones,  both  in  the  larval  and  pupal  states.  The  body  of 
the  beetle  is  "clothed  with  a  fine  pu- 
bescence, enabling  a  film  of  air  to  be 
preserved  beneath  the  water."  The 
larvae  are  hemispherical  like  a  basin. 
"The  larva  of  Pseplienus  Lecontei 
Hald.  (Fig.  400,  under  side,  enlarged 
three  times)  is  an  elliptical  object, 
Fig.  400.  with  the  margins  widely  extended  be-  Elg' 
yond  the  body,  and  is  seen  on  stones  under  the  water  of  rapid 
streams ;  it  is  especially  abundant  in  the  rapids  of  Niagara, 
and  differs  in  no  important  particular  from  the  larva  of  Heli- 
chus  of  the  next  subfamily.  It  respires  by  branchial  fila- 
ments." (Leconte.)  Elmis  (Fig.  401,  larva  of  a  European 
species)  is  known  by  the  narrow,  elongate  scutellum. 

HETEROCERIDJE  MacLeay.  "This  family  consists  of  but  a 
single  genus,  Heterocerus;  it  is  represented  in  every  portion 
of  our  territory.  The  species  are  numerous,  but  very  similar 
in  form  and  color,  so  that  care  is  necessary  in  distinguishing 
them.  They  are  oblong  or  subelongate,  oval,  densely  clothed 
with  short,  silky  pubescence,  very  finely  punctuate,  and  of  a 
brown  color,  with  the  elytra  usually  variegated  with  undulating 
bands  or  spots  of  a  yellow  color.  They  live  in  galleries 
which  they  excavate  in  sand  or  mud  at  the  margin  of  bodies 
of  water,  and,  when  disturbed,  run  from  their  galleries  and  take 
flight,  after  the  manner  of  certain  species  of  Bembidium." 
(Leconte.) 

LUCANID^E  Latreille.  This  family  is  closely  allied  to  the 
next,  and  is  often  united  with  it,  as  it  differs  chiefly  from 
the  outer  lamellate  joints  of  the  antennae  not  being  so  closely 


451 


Fig.  402. 


united  into  a  compact  club,  as  in  the  Scarabeidce,  and  the 

mentum  is  usually  large.     The  genus  Lucanus,  called  the  Stag- 

horn  beetle,  is  of  large  size,  with  enormously  developed  jaws 

in  the  male,  as  in  Lucanus 

dama    Fabr.     (Fig.     402, 

$).     The    larva   of    Lu- 

canus dama  (Fig.  403,  and 

cocoon,   natural    size)    is 

long,  thick,  nearly  cylin- 

drical, and   the   corneous 

rust-colored  head  is  armed 

with  two  large  jaws.    Liv- 

ing in  rotten  wood,  like 

the     Cerambycidce,    it 

constructs  a  cocoon  of  the 

chips  it  makes.    The  larva 

of  the  European  L.  cervus 

is  stated  by  Roesel  to  live 

six  years.     Harris  states  that  they  lay  their  eggs  in  crevices  of 

the  bark  of  trees,  especially  near  the  roots.     The  larvae  resem- 

ble the  grubs  of  the  Scarabaeans  in  color  and  form,  but  are 

smoother,  being  less 
wrinkled.  Dorcas  bre- 
vis  Say  (Fig.  404)  is 
an  exceedingly  rare  in- 
sect whose  habits  are 
unknown.  In  Passalus 
cornutus  Fabr.,  belong- 
ing to  a  more  aberrant 
genus,  the  body  is  long 
Fig.  403.  and  flattened  with  a 

short  bent  hook  on  the  head,  and  the  elytra  deeply  striate. 

Madam  Merian  describes  the  larva  of  Passalus  as  being  a 

thick  fleshy  worm,  with  a  small  scaly  head,  six  legs,   and 

slender  posteriorly  ;  it  lives  in  decaying  wood. 


Erichson.  This  family,  the  LamelUcornia  of 
Latreille,  is  one  of  immense  extent,  being  divided  into  more 
than  700  genera,  comprising  some  6,000  species,  or  three- 


452 


COLEOPTERA. 


fourths  as  many  Coleoptera   as   are  known  to  live  in  this 
country.     They  comprise  the  mammoths  among  insects,  and  it 
is  in  the  tropics  that  we  meet  with  the  most  numerous  and 
bizarre,  as  well  as  gigantic  forms.     Always 
readily  recognized  by  their  clubbed  lamel- 
late  antennae,  the   terminal  joints   being 
expanded  into  broad  flat  leaves,  which,  at 
the  will  of  the  insect,  can  be  closely  shut 
into  a  compact  club,  or  loosely  expanded 
faivlike,  and  laid  under  the  projecting  cly- 
peus,  so  overhanging  the  mouth-parts  as 
to  give  rise  to  the  terms  beetle-horned, 
and   "beetling;"   these   insects,  by  their 
Fig.  404.  robust,  thick,  often  square  body,  short  fos- 

sorial  legs,  with  large  hooked  claws  for  seizing  leaves  and 
stems,  have  been  well  known  to  all  observing  persons,  however 
slight  their  entomological  knowledge.  The  larvae  are  thick 
and  fleshy  cylindrical  grubs,  with  a  corneous  head,  and  rather 
long  four-jointed  antennae ;  the  ocelli  are  generally  wanting ; 
the  legs  are  stout  and  long,  without  claws,  and  the  last  ab- 
dominal segment  is  soft  and  baggy.  The  body 
is  often  very  transparent,  the  tracheae  appear- 
ing through.  Fig.  405  represents  a  singular 
larva  (magnified  twice)  of  this  family  from 
Mr.  Sanborn's  collection. 

The  genus  Copris  and  allies  are  known  by 
their  rounded  form,  and  the  broadly  expanded 
clypeus,  which  covers  in  the  mouth-parts.  In 
some  species  (those  of  Deltochilum)  the  anterior 
tarsi  arc  wanting  either  in  the  females  or  both 
sexes ;  and  in  some  species  a  stridulating  ap- 
paratus is  found  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
abdomen.  In  Copris  the  labial  palpi  are  dilated, 
the  first  joint  of  the  autennal  club  does  not  receive  the  others, 
and  the  claws  are  distinct.  The  larva  of  C.  Carolina  Fabr., 
while,  according  to  Osten  Sacken,  having  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  larvae  of  the  Lamellicorns,  is  much  thicker  and 
curved  up,  the  back  being  much  swollen  and  "  distended  into 
a  hump-like  expansion.  It  is  about  two  inches  long  and  of  a 


Fig.  405. 


SCAEABJEID^EJ.  453 

dirty  yellowish  white.  Each  larva  was  found  enclosed  in 
a  globular  case  of  dung  or  earthy  matter,  about  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  in  diameter."  (Proceedings  of  the  Entomological 
Society  of  Philadelphia,  vol.  i,  pi.  1,  fig.  1.) 

The  closely  allied  Phaneus  carnifex  MacLeay  is  common 
southward,  and  easily  known  by  its  brilliant  copper  colored 
thorax  and  bright  green  elytra,  and  by  the  large  horn  on  the 
head  of  the  male.  These  insects  are  called  "Tumble-bugs,"  as 
they  enclose  their  eggs  in  pellets  of  manure,  holding  them  be- 
tween their  hind  legs,  and  rolling  them  away  to  a  place  of  safety. 
The  species  of  Aplwdius  live  also  in  manure ;  they  are  quite 
small,  nearly  cylindrical,  with  the  mouth-parts  concealed  by 
the  clypeus  ;  the  antennae  are  nine-jointed,  the  club  consisting 
of  three  joints,  and  the  lobes  of  the  maxillae  are  membrana- 
ceous,  unarmed,  while  the  upper  parts  of  the  eyes  are  visible  in 
repose.  Aphodius  fimetarius  Linn.,  which  is  black  with  bright 
red  elytra,  has  been  introduced  from  Europe,  and  is  abundant 
in  woods,  flying  over  dung  ;  it  is  now  common  in  the  carriage 
road  of  Mount  Washington.  Fig.  406  represents  the  larva  of 
the  European  A.  fossor  Linn.  Chapuis  and  Candeze 
found  it  in  manure  in  spring.  Geotrupes  has  eleven- 
jointed  antennae,  with  the  club  three-jointed,  the  mid- 
dle coxae  are  contiguous,  and  while  the  club  of  its 
nearest  ally,  Bolbocerus,  a  shorter  insect,  is  large 
and  lenticular  in  form,  that  of  the  present  genus 
is  lamellate,  as  usual.  Geotrupes  splendidus  Fabr.  is  Flg*  406> 
a  common  beetle,  with  a  bright  shining  green  body,  flying  in 
paths  and  wood  roads  late  in  the  summer.  The  species  of 
Trox  differ  in  having  slightly  fossorial  legs ;  they  are  oblong 
convex,  the  surface  being  very  rough  and  covered  with  dirt 
which  is  scraped  off  with  difficulty.  They  live  in  dried  decay- 
ing animal  matter,  and,  according  to  Leconte,  "possess  a  dis- 
tinct stridulating  organ ;  it  is  an  elliptical  plate,  with  pearly 
reflections,  occupying  the  upper  part  of  the  external  face  of 
the  ascending  portion  of  the  first  ventral  segment,  and  is  cov- 
ered by  the  elytra  ;  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  elytra,  near  the 
margin,  about  opposite  the  thorax,  is  an  oval,  smooth,  polished 
space,  which  has,  probably,  some  connection  with  the  stridu- 
lating organ."  The  larva  of  "  Trox  Carolina  Dej."  (T.  scabro- 


454 


COLEOPTERA, 


sus  Beauv.  Fig.  407),  is  described  by  Chapuis  and  Candeze  as 
coming  from  New  Orleans. 

Melolontha  and  its  allies  come  next  in  the  series.     They  feed 
exclusively  on  living  plants.     The  genus  Acratus  was  estab- 
lished by  Dr.  Horn  for  A.  Jlavipennis  Horn   (Fig. 
408  ;  a,  antenna ;  6,  maxilla ;  c,  mentum ;  d,  mandi- 
ble ;  6,  anterior  leg  and  tarsal  claw)  found  in  Ari- 
zona.    The  genus  Dichelonycha  is  distinguished  by 
the  front  margin  of  the  thorax  being  narrow  and 
rig.  107.  membranous,  with  equal  claws,  cleft  at  the  tip.     Di- 
chelonycha elongatula  Schonh.  Is  a  long  green  beetle,  'with  long 
legs,  and  of  a  metallic  green  color  ;  it  is  found  in  June  on  the 

e         leaves  of  the  birch. 
/^- — ?       Macrodactylus     sub- 
*f\  ^^  spinosus  Fabricius,  the 
2^i  well   known  Rose-bug 

^=^  or   Rose-  chafer,   is 

brown,  covered  with 
ochreous  scales ;  the 
legs,  tarsi  and  claws 
are  very  long  and  slender.  It  overruns  garden  plants,  especi- 
ally injuring  the  rose  leaves.  Dr.  Harris  has  observed  the 
transformations  of  this  insect.  The  nearly  globular  whitish 
eggs,  about  thirty  in  number,  are  deposited  by  the  female 
from  one  to  four  inches  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  are 
hatched  in  about  twenty  days.  The  whitish 
larva  becomes  fully  grown  in  the  autumn,  and 
is  then  three- quarters  of  an  inch  long  and  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  wide.  In  October  it  descends 
below  the  reach  of  frost,  and  in  the  next 
May  is  transformed  to  a  pupa  in  an  oval 
earthen  cell.  The  pupa  is  yellowish  white, 
somewhat  of  the  form  of  the  beetle,  with  short  wings';  its 
antennae  and  legs  folded  on  its  breast,  with  its  white  body 
surrounded  by  a  thin  film.  The  beetles  may  be  often  seen  in 
clusters  on  low  bushes  in  partially  cleared  fields  having  just 
appeared  from  their  cocoons.  Dr.  Horn  has  described  the 
genus  Plectrodes  for  a  Californian  species,  P.  pubescens  Horn 
(Fig.  409  ;  a,  maxilla  and  palpus  ;  6,  tarsal  claw).  The  well 


Fig.  408. 


SCARAB^EID^E. 


455 


known  June-bug  or  Dor-bug,  Lachnosterna  fusca  Frohl.(Fig. 
410,  411,  larva;  412,  side  view  of  pupa),  lives  as  a  larva  on 
the  roots  of  grass  and  is  often  turned  up  by  the  spade  or 
plough.  It  is  then  a  large  fleshy  grub,  very  com- 
monly met  with,  and  is  injurious  to  growing  corn 
and  wheat.  The  pupa  is  found  in  its  rude  earth- 


en cocoon  in  May.     The  beetles  are  very  injuri-  \ 
ous  to  the  leaves  of  fruit  trees.     They  are  chest-  : 
nut  brown,  with  yellowish  hairs  beneath,   and 
nearly   an  inch  in  length.     There   are   several 
smaller,  closely  allied  species.     Melolontha  (Poly-      Fi£-  41°- 
phylla)   variolosa  Harris  differs  in  its  enormously  developed 
six-jointed  lamellate  antennal  club,  that  of  the  female  being 
much  smaller. 

In  Anomala  the  body  is  small,  the  an- 
tennae nine-jointed,  and  the  mandibles  when 
at  rest  do  not  project  beyond  the  clypeus. 
Such  is  Anomala  varians  Fabr.,  which  is 
very  injurious  to  the  vine  in  June  and 
July.  Pelidnota  punctata  Linn,  has  similar 
habits.  It  is  oblong  oval,  very  convex 
Fig.  411.  above,  with  dull  brownish  yellow  elytra, 

with  three  large  black  dots  on  each  side.  It  is  often  abun- 
dant on  grape-vines  in  July  and  August,  and  proves  very 
injurious. 

The  Cotalpa  lanigera  Linn.  (Fig.  413  ;  a,  larva)  or  the  Gold- 
smith beetle,  is  nearly  an  inch  long,  bright  yellow,  with  long 
white,  woolly  hairs  beneath,  where  it  is  metallic 
green.  It  often  injures  fruit  and  shade  trees,  and 
Mr.  S.  Lockwood  states  that  in  the  larva  state  it 
destroys  the  roots  of  the  strawberry  plant.  He 
remarks  that  on  the  16th  of  June  a  pair  of  Cotal- 
pas  coupled,  and  in  the  evening  the  female  bur- 
rowed beneath  the  dirt,  reappearing  the  next 
morning,  having  meanwhile  laid  at  different 
depths,  and  singly,  fourteen  white,  long,  oval  eggs  ; 
on  the  13th  of  July  the  larvae  hatched,  being  five-sixteenths 
of  an  inch  long.  (American  Naturalist,  vol.  ii,  p.  441.) 
In  Dynastes  the  labial  palpi  are  inserted  on  the  sides  of  the 


Fig.  412. 


456 


COLEOPTERA. 


mentum,  which  is  acuminate  in  front ;  the  head  and  thorax  are 
armed  with  large  horns  in  the  males  ;  the  first  joint  of  the  pos- 
terior tarsi  is  not  elevated,  and  there  are  no  stridulating  or- 
gans. Our  only  species  is  Dynastes  Tltyus  Linn.,  found  in 
the  Southern  States.  It  is  over  two  inches  long,  of  a  greenish 
gray  color,  with  black  spots  scattered  irregularly  over  the  ely- 
tra. Dynastes  Hercules  Linn. ,  one  of  the  giants  of  the  family, 
is  about  six  inches  long. 

The  genus  Cetonia  and  its  allies  are  flower  beetles ;  their 
mandibles  are  feebly  develope'd  and  in  part  membranous  and 
concealed  with  the  other  oral  organs  beneath  the  clypeus  ;  and 
in  flying  they  "do  not  raise  or  expand  the  elytra,  as  most  Cole- 
optera  do,  but  pass  the  wings  from  the  side,  under  the  elytra, 

which  do  not  at  all 
embrace  the  sides  of 
the  body."  (Leconte.) 
The  immense  Go- 
liath beetles  of  the 
western  coast  of 
Africa  belong  to  the 
genus  Goliathus,  in 
which  the  clypeus  of 
the  males  is  generally 
Fig-  413'  forked  or  armed  with 

horns.  Dr.  Harris  has  proposed  the  name  of  Hegemon  "for 
the  subgenus,  including  the  princely  Scarabceus  Goliathus  of 
Linnaeus,  together  with  the  still  more  magnificent  Goliathus 
Drurii  of  Westwood,  and  the  G.  Cacicus  of  Gory  and  Per- 
cheron."  Of  Hope's  subgenus  Mecynorhina,  the  Scarabaeus 
Polyphemus  of  Fabricius  is  the  type  ;  it  is  velvet  green  above, 
with  a  pale  buff  head  and  markings,  and  is  two  and  a  half 
inches  long,  exclusive  of  the  horns.  Dr.  Harris  has  also 
described  as  new  to  science  M.  Savagii  which  has  a  velvet 
green  thorax,  and  velvet  black  elytra,  with  tawny  bands  and 
spots ;  it  is  about  two  inches  long.  The  G.  Goliathus  is  per- 
haps the  largest  of  all  the  Coleoptera ;  specimens  measuring 
nearly  four  inches.  Dr.  G.  A.  Perkins  of  Salem,  Mass.,  who 
collected  a  large  part  of  the  fine  series  of  specimens  of  these 
Goliath  beetles  in  the  Museum  of  the  Peabody  Academy  of 


SCAKAB^ID^B.  457 

Science,  informs  me  that  they  are  found  in  the  tops  of  trees 
where  they  feed  on  flowers  and  on  sap  exuding  from  wounds 
in  the  bark,  like  the  Cetonise,  and  that  the  natives  obtain 
them  by  jarring  the  trees.  Harris  states  that  "it  appears, 
from  the  observations  of  Dr.  Savage,  that  the  food  of  the 
Goliath  beetles  is  fluid,  like  that  of  the  Trichii  and  Cetoniae, 
insects  belonging  to  the  same  natural  family,  but  the  latter  live 
chiefly  on  the  nectar  of  flowers,  and  the  former  on  the  sap  of 
plants.  The  long  brushes  on  their  jaws,  and  the  diverging 
rows  of  hairs  that  line  their  lower  lips,  are  admirably  fitted  for 
absorbing  liquid  food ;  while  their  horny  teeth  afford  these 
beetles  additional  means  for  obtaining  it  from  the  leaves  and 
juicy  stems  of  plants,  when  the  blossoms  have  disappeared." 
From  Cetonia,  Lacordaire  has  separated  the  genus  Euryomia, 
distinguished  by  the  untoothed  maxillae,  by  the  clypeus  being 
usually  parabolic,  sometimes  parallel  and  rarely  emarginate  in 
front.  Euryomia  Inda  Linn,  attacks 
ripe  peaches,  spoiling  them  for  the 
market.  They  are  found  about  run- 
ning sap  in  April  and  flying  in  fields  in 
May,  and  a  new  brood  appears  in  Sep- 
tember. In  Osmoderma  the  elytra  are 
not  sinuate  on  the  sides,  the  prothorax 

is  narrower  than  the  elytra  and  usually  rounded  on  the  sides. 
Osmoderma  scabra  Dej.  is  a  large  long-legged  beetle  of  a  cop- 
pery purplish  black  color.  The  larva  lives  in  decaying  cherry 
and  apple  trees.  According  to  Harris  it  is  a  whitish  fleshy 
grub,  with  a  reddish  corneous  head,  and  closely  resembles  the 
grub  of  the  common  dor-beetle.  In  autumn  it  forms  an  oval 
cocoon  by  gluing  together  the  chips  it  makes,  and  the  beetle 
appears  in  July. 

BUPRESTIDJE  Leach.  This  very  extensive  family  is  known 
by  the  serrated  antennae,  the  outer  joints  of  which  are  usually 
furnished  with  pores,  which  are  either  diffused  on  the  sides, 
or  concentrated  in  a  cavity  (fovea)  on  the  under  side  or  at  the 
tip.  The  head  is  deeply  sunken  up  to  the  elliptical  eyes,  and 
the  labrum  is  small  and  prominent,  while  the  mandibles  are 
short  and  stout.  The  legs  are  short,  the  tibiae  are  usually 


458 


COLEOPTERA. 


slender,  and  the  species  are  generally  long,  flattened  beetles 
of  very  tough  thick  consistence,  and  are  found  on  flowers,  or 
sunning  themselves  on  the  bark  of  trees  in  midsummer.  The 
larvae  are  flattened  footless  grubs,  with  the 
prothoracic  ring  greatly  enlarged. 

In  Chalcophora  the  antennal  pores  are  dif- 
fused on  the  sides  of  the  joints,  or  only  on 
the  lower  margin ;  the  mesosternal 
suture  is  indistinct ;  the  antennae  are 
inserted  in  small  foveae,  and  the  pos- 
terior tarsi  have  the  first  joint  elon- 
gated. C.  Virginiensis  Drury  is  one 
of  our  most  common  species,  and 
may  be  seen  flying  about  pine  trees 
in  hot  days  in  May  and  June.  Its 
larva  bores  into  pines,  often  proving 
very  injurious.  rig.  415. 

Dicerca  is  noted  for  having  the  tips  of 
the  elytra  lengthened  out  and  diverging 
from  each  other.  Dicerca  divaricata  Say  is 
frequently  met  with ;  it  is  smoother  than 
usual  and  highly  polished  with  a 
bronzed  hue.  The  elytra  are 
marked  with  numerous  fine  irregu- 
lar impressed  lines  and  small  ob- 
long square  elevated  black  spots. 
The  larvae  attack  the  wild  cherry 
and  the  garden  cherry  and  peach. 
Dicerca  lurida  Fabr.  is  found  on 
the  trunks  and  limbs  of  the 
Fig.  416.  hickory. 

The  genus  Chrysobothris  differs  in  having  the 
antennae  inserted  at  the  inner  extremity  of  two  short 
oblique  grooves,  by  which  the  front  is  narrowed ; 
the  anterior  femora  are  strongly  toothed,  the  third 
joint  of  the  tarsi  is  truncate,  while  in  the  hind  tarsi  the  first 
joint  is  elongated.  The  species  are  rather  broad  and  flattened, 
with  impressed  bands  and  spots  on  the  elytra.  Chrysobothris 
femorata  Fabr.  (Fig.  414 ;  a,  larva ;  Fig.  415,  larva  of  the 


Fig.  417. 


BUPKESTIM}.  459 

same  genus,  found  under  bark  of  oaks)  is  greenish  black  above, 
with  a  brassy  polish ;  it  infests  the  apple  and  oak,  in  which  it 
lives  one  year.  C.  Harrisii  Hentz  inhabits  the  small  limbs  of 
the  white  pine.  It  is  also  very  injurious  to  apple  trees  and  red 
maples.  To  prevent  its  attacks  Fitch  recommends  placing  a 
piece  of  soap  in  a  fork  in  the  tree  so  that  it  will  be  washed 
down  by  the  rains  over  the  bark,  while  young  trees  may  be 
rubbed  with  soap ;  this  is  an  excellent  remedy  against  the 
attacks  of  all  kinds  of  borers. 

The  genuine  species  of  Buprestis  occur  in  Europe.  The 
largest  species  of  this  family  known  to  us  is  the  JEuchroma 
Columbica  Mann,  which  occurs  in  Central  and 
South  America.  It  is  two  and  a  half  inches 
long  and  metallic  green.  Mr.  McNiel  has  sent 
to  the  Museum  of  the  Peabody  Academy  sev-  J 
eral  immense  white  larvae  (Fig.  416,  natural 
size) ,  from  Nicaragua,  which  are,  without  much 
doubt,  the  young  of  this  gigantic  beetle. 

The  small,  flattened,  ovate,  angular  Brachys          Fig.  418. 
is  probably  a  leaf  miner,  as  such  are  the  habits  of  the  closely 
allied  genus  Trachys  (T.  pygmaea,  Fig.  417,  larva;  418, pupa), 
as  observed  in  Europe  where  it  mines  the  leaves  of  the  Malva 
and  Alcaea,  according  to  M.  Leprieur. 

THROSCIDJE  Laporte.  This  small  group  has  been  separated 
from  the  succeeding  family ;  the  species  differ  in  not  having 
the  power  of  leaping,  owing  to  the  immovable  thorax.  In 
Throscus  the  antennae  are  terminated  by  a  three-jointed  club. 

ELATERID^E  Leach.  A  very  large  and  easily  limited  family, 
in  which  the  serrate,  eleven-jointed  antennae,  are  inserted  upon 
or  under  the  margin  of  the  front,  in  grooves,  while  the  head  is 
retracted,  though  sometimes  free  as  usual  from  the  prothorax, 
between  which  and  the  mesothorax  is  a  loose  articulation, 
enabling  the  species  to  leap  in  the  air  by  a  sudden  jerking 
movement,  which  Dr.  Leconte  thus  describes:  "a  few  of  the 
species  of  the  first  subfamily  (Eucnemidae)  and  a  majority  of 
those  of  the  third  (Elateridae) ,  possess  the  singular  power 
of  springing  in  the  air  when  placed  on  the  back.  This  is 


460  COLEOPTERA. 

effected  by  extending  the  prothorax  so  as  to  bring  the  proster- 
nal  spine  to  the  anterior  part  of  the  inesosternal  cavity,  then 
suddenly  relaxing  the  muscles  so  that  the  spine  descends 
violently  into  the  cavity,  the  force  given  by  this  sudden  move- 
ment causes  the  base  of  the  elytra  to  strike  the  supporting 
surface,  and  by  their  elasticity  the  whole  body  is  propelled 
upward." 

The  larvae,  known  by  the  name  of  Wire-worms,  are  vegetable 
feeders,  living  on  the  roots  of  grass,  wheat,  corn,  potatoes, 
turnips  and  other  garden  vegetables.     Fig.  419  (enlarged 
4$  four  times)  represents  a  larva  of  this  family  found  by 
Mr.  Sanborn  in  the  roots  of  the  squash  vine.     The  eggs 
are  laid  probably  in  pastures  and  fallen  ground  where 
the  surface  is  undisturbed,  or  in  the  vicinity  of  rotten 
wood.     The  larvae  moult  three  times,  and  some  species 
are  known  to  live  in  this  state  five  years.     When  fully 
grown  they  transform  in  an  earthen  cocoon,  and  may 
be  seen  rising  out  of  the  ground  during  the  summer, 
Fig.  419.  especially  in  June.     The   larvae   are  very  long   cylin- 
drical (whence  their  name  wire-worm),  hard -bodied  and  diffi- 
cult to  kill,  and  are  generally  pale  testaceous,  or  yellowish  red 
in  color.     They  have  only  six  thoracic  legs,  and  a  slight  anal 
prop-leg ;  the  body  is  flattened  towards  the  head  and  tail. 

Eucnemis  differs  from  the  true  Elaters  in  the  serrate  an- 
tennae being  inserted  in  approximate  grooves  at  the  margin  of 
the  thorax  beneath,  which  makes  the  clypeus  narrow.  The 

^ _^..^ ^     species  do  not  leap  so  vigorously  as  those  of 

other  leaping  genera.  Fornax  differs  from 
Eucnemis  in  the  antennae  being  filiform. 
In  Adelocera  (Fig.  420,  A.  obtecta  Say)  the 
third  joint  of  the  antennae  is  equal  to,  or 
larger  than  the  fourth.  In  Elater  and  its 
allies,  the  antennae  are  widely  separated, 
being  inserted  in  small  cavities  (foveae) 
under  the  margin  of  the  front,  and  before 
rig.  420.  the  eyes.  Alaus  oculatus  Esch.  is  the  largest 

Elater  we  have,  the  scutellum  is  oval,  and  the  elytra  have  a 
broad  margin.  The  genus  Elater  has  the  front  of  the  head 
convex  and  margined  quite  broadly,  and  the  thorax  is  alwaj's 


M 


ELATERIDJE.  461 

narrowed  in'  front,  with  the  tarsi  ciliate  beneath,  and  entirely 
simple.  Elater  obliquus  Say  is  a  small  species  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  long,  of  a  leathery  brown  color,  and  yellowish  red 
on  the  prothorax  and  base  of  the  elytra.  In 
Agriotes  and  allies  the  front  is  very  convex, 
the  edge  of  which  is  higher  than  the  labrum ;  the 
antennse  are  slender,  scarcely  serrate,  the  first  / 
joint  being  a  little  longer  than  usual.  /  ; 

In  Ludius  the  front  is  convex,  but  not  mar- 
gined behind  the  labrum,  the  angle  of  the  hind 
coxae  are  acute  and  prominent,  while  the  meso-  Fi£-  42L 
sternum  is  not  prominent.  Mr.  Walsh  has  found  the  larva  of 
L.  attenuatus  Say  (Fig.  421  ;  fig.  422,  larva)  which  lived  in 
decaying  wood  for  two  years  in  his  breeding  jar.  The 
genus  Agriotes  has  the  margin  of  the  prothorax  bent 
down  in  front,  while  in  Dolopius  it  is  straight.  Agriotes 
mancus  Say  is  a  pale  reddish  brown  species,  while  A. 
stabilis,  much  more  abundant  northward,  is  slenderer, 
of  a  darker  hue,  with  a  dark  shade  along  the  inner 
edge  of  each  elytron.  D.  pauper  Lee.  is  a 
small  species  found  northward.  ™ 


Melanotus  includes  some  of  our  most  com- 
mon species,  such  as  M.  communis  Gyll.,  which 
is  of  the  usual  dull  brown  color.  The  genus 
may  be  known  by  the  front  being  moderately 
Fig.  422.  conveX)  margined  anteriorly,  and  the  antennse 
are  serrate,  with  the  first  joint  of  the  usual  size,  while 
the  prothorax  is  lobed  in  front,  and  the  claws  are 
strongly  pectinate. .  Fig.  423  represents  a  larva  prob- 
ably of  this  genus. 

In  Limonlus  and  Athous  the  front  is  margined,  the 
mouth  placed  farther  forward  from  the  prosternum, 
the  coxal  plates  are  narrow,  gradually  dilated  inwards, 
and  the  first  joint  is  only  moderate  in  length.  In  Fis-  423' 
Limonius  the  first  tarsal  joint  is  scarcely  longer  than  the 
second,  while  in  Athous  the  first  tarsal  joint  is  elongated,  and 
the  prosternal  lobe  is  long.  Limonius  plebeius  Lee.  and  L. 
ectypus  Say  are  obscure  reddish  brown  insects,  with  a  slight 
fine  pubescence. 


462 


COLEOPTERA. 


Fig.  424. 


In  Corymbites  the  front  is  more  or  less  flattened,  and  the 
coxal  plates  are  narrow  externally.  C.  ceripennis  Lee.  is  a 
shiny  dark  greenish  species  and  is  found  northward.  C.  viri- 
dis  Say  is  dull  mahogany  brown,  mottled  with  a  fine 
grayish  bloom.  C.  cylindriformis  Germ,  is  more  com- 
mon, and  of  the  usual  dull  reddish  brown.  C.  triun- 
dulatus  Lee.  is  frequently  found  in  New  England,  and 
kas  three  transverse  waved  bands  on  the  pale  elytra  ; 
it  is  found  on  the  blossoms  of  the  rhubarb  plant.  C.  hierogty- 
pliicus  Harris  (Fig.  424,  elytra)  is  a  similar  form. 

To  the  genus  Pyrophorus  belong  the  different  species  of  Fire- 
flies of  Central  and  South  America.     P.  noctilucus  (Fig.  425, 
natural  size)  is  dark'  rusty  brown,  and  has  two  large  eye-  like 
luminous  spots  on  the  sides   of  the 
thorax,  and  another  at  the  base  of 
the  abdomen.     Dr.  G.  A.  Perkins  in 
the   "American   Naturalist,"   vol.  ii, 
p.  428,  states  that   "by  placing  the 
luminous   parts   of  one   insect   quite 
near  the  paper,  very  fine  print  can  be 
|V  easily  read  by  its  aid,  though  I  can- 
not imagine  the  light,  even  of  a  large 
number,  to  be  sufficient  for  any  practi- 
\    cal  illuminating  purposes  as  has  been 


affirmed  by  some  writers.     The  Cuban 
ladies  make  a  singular  use  of  these 
rig.  425.         living    gems,    sewing    them    in    lace 
bags,  which  are  disposed  as  ornaments   upon  their  dresses, 
or  arranged  as  a  fillet  for  their  hair." 

The  species  of  Melanactes  are  large  shining  black  insects 
found  under  stones,  and  are  known  by  having  the  coxal  plates 
gradually  dilated  inwards.  The  larvae  (Fig.  426,  a  luminous 
larva  of  this  genus  discovered  by  Mr.  Sanborn  in  Roxbury, 
Mass.)  are  luminous  and  differ  from  others  of  this  family,  ac- 
cording to  Osten  Sacken,  by  their  small  sunken  head,  and  the 
presence  of  a  pair  of  ocelli.  The  abdomen  ends  in  a  prop-leg. 


Fig.  426. 


CEBRIONID^E  Westwood.     This  family  differs  from  the  pre- 
ceding group  in  the  greater  number  (six)  of  abdominal  seg- 


SCHIZOPODIDJE. 


463 


ments,  the  well  developed  tibial  spurs,  the  expansion  of  the 
anterior  tibiae  at  the  apex,  and  in  the  close  connection  between 
the  front  and  the  labrum.  The  females  are  found  at  the  en- 
trance of  holes  which  they  excavate  in  the  ground.  (Leconte.) 
In  Cebrio  the  labrum  is  separated  by  suture  from  the  front,  and 
the  anterior  tibiae  are  entire.  Cebrio  bicolor  Fabr.  is  found  in 
the  Southern  States. 


RHIPICERIDJS  Latreille.  In  this  small  group  the  head  is 
prominent  and  the  maxillae  have  usually  but  a  single  lobe  ;  the 
eleven- jointed  antennae  are  inserted  before  and  in  front  of 
the  eyes,  under  ridges,  and  are  serrate  in  the  females  and 
frequently  flabellate  in  the  males.  The  larvae,  in  their  general 
appearance,  resemble  those  of  the 
Elateridce  or  Tenebrionidce,  be- 
ing cylindrical,  the  head  almost  of  the 
same  breadth  as  the  body,  which  is 
hard  and  horny,  more  or  less  dark 
brown,  and  in  Zenoa  picea  Beauv.  is  a 
little  more  than  an  inch  in  length. 
"The  eighth  segment  is  punctate  all 
around,  and  more  densely  than  the  Fig.  427. 

others.  The  posterior  part  of  this  segment  is  obliquely 
truncate,  and  is  closed  posteriorly  by  a  round,  flat,  horny 
piece,  punctate  on  the  outside  and  which  can,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, be  opened  and  closed  like  a  lid,  being  connected  by  a 
hinge  superiorly,  and  an  expanding  membrane  inferiorly.  This 
lid  is  to  be  considered  as  the  ninth  segment  of  the  abdomen." 
(Osten  Sacken.)  The  larva,  with  the  adult  Zenoa  picea,  was 
found  under  bark  in  Southern  Illinois  by  Mr.  Walsh.  JSan- 
dalus  (S.  petrophya  Enoch,  and  tarsus,  Fig.  427),  with  short 
antennae,  flabellate  in  the  males,  is  found  in  various  species 
of  cedars. 

SCHIZOPODIDJE  Leconte.  This  small  group  is  represented 
by  only  a  single  species,  Schizopodus  Icetus  Leconte.  'It  resem- 
bles in  form  a  Galleruca ;  it  is  of  a  metallic  green  color, 
coarsely  punctured,  with  red  elytra,  and  is  nearly  six-tenths 
of  an  inch  long.  The  head  is  bent  down,  closely  affixed  to 


464  ,  COLEOPTERA. 

the  prothorax,  and  the  eleven-jointed  antennae  are  inserted 
immediately  in  front  of  the  eyes,  under  a  slight  promi- 
nence. 

DASCYLLID^:  Guerin.  This  group  embraces  genera  differ- 
ing much  from  each  other ;  the  head  is  usually  bent  down, 
sometimes  prominent ;  the  antennae  are  eleven-jointed,  distant 
at  their  insertion  immediately  in  front  of  the  eyes,  being 
placed  under  a  slight  ridge,  and  the  mandibles  are  not  promi- 
nent. They  all  live  on  aquatic  plants,  and  the  larvae  are 
either  like  those  of  the  Scarabceidce,  being  provided  with 
short  four-jointed  antennae,  and  without  ocelli,  as  in  Atopa;  or 
they  are  long,  ovate,  with  distinct  ocelli,  long  bristle-like  an- 
tennae and  very  well  developed  limbs,  as  in  Cyplion.  The  genus 
Prionocyplion  has  the  first  joint  of  the  antennae  much  dilated, 
and  the  joint  of  the  labial  palpi  is  inserted  on  the  side  of  the 
second ;  in  Cyplion  the  palpi  are  normal.  Baron  Osten  Sacken 
describes  the  larva  of  Prionocyplion  discoideus  Say  as  being 
long,  flattened  ovate,  like  a  sow-bug  (Oniscus)  with  sharp 
lateral  edges,  the  body  slightly  attenuated  before  and  behind, 
of  a  leathery  consistence,  dull  pale  yellowish,  and  four-tenths 
of  an  inch  in  length.  It  was  found  by  Mr.  Walsh  in  the  hol- 
low of  an  oak  stump  filled  with  water,  in  which  it  "vibrated 
vigorously  up  and  down  a  pencil  of  hairs  proceeding  from  a 
horizontal  slit  in  the  tail ;  this  pencil  is  composed  of  three 
pairs  of  filaments,  each  beautifully  bipectinate.  When  at  the 
surface  this  larva  generally,  but  not  always,  swims  on  its  back, 
keeping  its  body  slightly  below  the  surface,  and  striking  with 
its  feet,  so  as  to  jerk  from  point  to  point,  in  a  curved  line.  The 
pencil  of  hairs  touches  the  surface  all  the  time.  "Occasion- 
ally, says  Mr.  Walsh,  "a  bubble  of  air  is  discharged  from  the 
tail.  Generally,  when  it  is  beneath  the  surface,  the  anal  pencil 
is  retracted  entirely.  It  has  the  power  of  jerking  its  body  sud- 
denly round,  and  darting  up  and  down  with  great  vigor.  Its 
remarkably  long  antennae  are  constantly  vibrating,  like  those 
of  terrestrial  insects.  The  pupa  is  white,  with  large  black 
eyes  which  are  very  conspicuous  beneath,  and  two  short  black 
setae  on  the  occiput.  The  body  is  covered  with  a  short,  white, 
erect  down  or  pubescence.  The  antennae  are  about  two-thirds 


LAMPYEID^. 


465 


the  length  of  the  body,  placed  lengthwise  beneath,  side  by 
side.     The  body  is  scarcely  two-tenths  of  an  inch  long. 

LAMPYRID^E  Leach.  The  species  of  the  family  of  Fire-flies 
resemble  the  Elaters,  but  they  are  shorter  and  broader,  and 
of  softer  consistence.  The  head  is  usually  immersed  in  the 
thorax  ;  the  usually  eleven-jointed,  serrate,  rarely  pectinate  or 
flabellate  antennae  are  inserted  on  the  front  rather  closely 
together  in  the  typical  genera.  The  elytra  never  strongly 
embrace  the  sides  of  the  abdomen,  are  sometimes  short,  and 
in  some  foreign  genera  entirely  wanting  in  the  females.  The 
anterior  coxae  are  contiguous,  conical,  with  a  large  trochantine  ; 
the  middle  coxae  are  oblique,  and  the  hinder  ones  transverse ; 
while  the  legs  are 
slender  or  com- 
pressed and  of  mod- 
erate length.  The 
larvae  are  rather 
long,  flattened, 
blackish,  with  pale 
spots  on  the  angles 
of  each  segment. 

In  Lycus  the  an- 
tennae are  inserted 
in  fro\it  of  the  eyes, 
at  the  base  of  the 
long  beak  into  Fis- 432-  rig.  m  Fig.  428. 

which  the  head  is  prolonged,  and  the  sides  of  the  thorax  are 
somewhat  foliaceous.  The  female  of  the  Glow-worm,  Lam" 
pyris,  of  Europe  is  wingless.  She  lays  her  eggs,  which  are  of 
large  size,  in  the  earth  or  upon  moss  and  plants ;  the  larva 
(Fig.  428,  female  of  a  species  of  this  genus  from  Zanzibar), 
which  feeds  on  snails,  is  said  to  become  fully  grown  in  April, 
and  in  fifteen  days  assumes  the  imago  state.  An  anonymous 
French  author  states,  according  to  Westwood,  that  when  the 
larva  is  ready  to  assume  the  pupa  state,  instead  of  slitting 
the  skin  in  a  line  down  the  back,  a  slit  on  each  side  of  the 
three  thoracic  segments  is  made,  separating  the  upper  from 
the  lower  surfaces."  While  the  female  is  large  and  larva- 
30 


466 


COLEOPTERA. 


d 


Fig.  429. 


like,  the  much  smaller  male  has  broad  elytra  and  a  rather  nar- 
row slender  body. 

In  the  genus  Photinus,  of  which  there  are  numerous  species 
in  this  country,  the  antennae  are  compressed,  or  nearly  filiform, 

and  the  species  differ 
from  those  of  Lampy- 
ris,  by  the  females 
having  wings.  Nearly 
all  have  phosphor- 
escent glands  in  the 
last  abdominal  seg- 
ments. <  . 

The  editors  of  the  "American  Entomologist,"  p.  19,  give 
the  history  of  P.  pyralis  Linn.  (Fig.  429  ;  a,  larva ;  e,  under- 
side of  a  segment ;  /,  head  ;  d,  a  leg  ;  6,  pupa  in  its  cocoon  of 
earth ;  c,  the  adult) .  The  larva  lives  in  the 
ground,  feeding  on  earthworms  and  soft  bodied 
insects.  When  fully  grown,  or  during  the  latter 
part  of  June,  it  forms  an  oval  cavity  in  the  earth 
and  pupates,  and  in  ten  days  becomes  a  beetle. 
In  Plioturis  the  wings  and  elytra  are  complete 
in  both  sexes,  while  the  head  is  narrowed  behind, 
and  the  labrum  is  distinct.  P.  Pensylvanica  De- 
Geer  (Fig.  430,  and  431,  larva)  is  our  most  com- 
mon species,  and  the  larva  figured  I  regard  as 
belonging  to  this  species.  It  is  not  uncommonly  met  with  in 
the  evening  shining  brightly  as  it  crawls  along,  and  is  blackish 
and  crustaceous  like  a  pill  bug.  Another  Photuris 
larva  (Fig.  432)  I  have  fbund  under  a  stone  in 
May.  It  is  represented  as  in  the  act  of  walking, 
the  feet  on  one  side  of  the  body  moving  alter- 
nately with  those  on  the  other.  This  is  'the  mode 
in  which  insects  usually  walk. 

Fig.  433  (enlarged  three  times)  represents  a 
very  singular  larva,  evidently  belonging  to  this 
family,  and  related  to  the  genus  Drilus.  It  was 
found  by  Rev.  E.  C.  Bolles,  at  Westbrooke,  Maine,  under 
leaves,  and  it  probably,  like  other  larvae  of  this  family,  is 
carnivorous.  Its  body  is  very  flat,  with  the  sides  of  the  head 


Fig.  433. 


MALACHID^.  467 

and  each  ring  of  the  body  produced  into  a  remarkably  long, 
soft,  fleshy  tubercle,  while  there  are  two  rows  of  black  spots 
along  the  back. 

In  the  genus  Phengodes,  the  females  of  which  are  not  yet 
known  in  this  country,  the  third  and  following  joints  of  the 
antennae  emit  two  very  long,  slender  and  flexible  pubescent 
branches  from  near  the  base ;  the  second  and  third  joints  are 
very  short.  The  elytra  are  one-third  the  length  of  the  abdo- 
men, and  are  strongly  divergent  and  subulate.  Dr.  Leconte 
describes  Phengodes  plumosa  Oliv.  as  being  testaceous,  with  the 
antennae,  excepting  the  base,  and  the  narrow  tips  of  the  elytra 
fuscous,  and  the  sides  of  the  thorax  broadly  depressed  ;  it  oc- 
curs from  New  York  to  Texas.  In  ChauUognathus  the  antennae 
are  filiform ;  the  etytra  are  as  long  or  nearly  as  long  as  the 
abdomen  and  rounded  at  tip,  while 
the  anterior  margin  of  the  thorax  is  s?  A 
rounded.  C.  Pensylvanicus  DeGeer  ^(  (  u 
(Fig.  434 ;  a,  larva ;  &,  head  en- 
larged ;  c,  labium ;  d,  labrum ;  e,  a 
leg  ;  /,  maxilla  ;  g,  antenna  ;  7i,  man- 
dible), in  the  larva  state  devours  Fig-  434< 
the  grubs  of  the  plum  curculio.  (American  Entomologist,  i, 
p.  35.)  In  TelepJwrus  the  head  is  never  concealed  by  the  tho- 
rax, and  the  latter  is  rounded  from  the  sides  along  the  front 
margin,  the  front  of  the  head  is  emarginate  at  tip  ;  the  claws 
are  toothed,  being  rarely  cleft.  The  species  are  found  on  the 
leaves  of  trees  in  June.  Walsh  states  that  the  larva  of  T. 
Carolina  Fabr.  preys  on  wood-feeding  larvae.  Mr.  P.  S. 
Sprague  has  reared  the  larva  of  T.  bilineatus  Say.  He  found 
it  near  Boston  under  stones  in  spring,  when  it  pupates,  and 
early  in  May  becomes  a  beetle.  It  is  found  on  the  leaves  of 
the  birch  as  soon  as  they  are  expanded. 

MALACHID.E  Redtenbacher.  This  small  group,  often  united 
with  the  preceding  family,  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  an- 
tennae being  inserted  on  the  sides  of  the  front,  and  by  the  body 
in  some  genera  being  furnished  with 'soft  extensible  vesicles, 
while  the  abdominal  segments  are  in  part  membranous.  Mala- 
chius  and  its  allies  are  of  small  size.  Some  of  them  resemble 


468 


COLEOPTERA. 


Fig.  435. 


at  first  sight  some  Staphylinidae ;  they  frequent  flowers  and 
the  banks  of  ponds  and  streams.  The  females  of  Microlipus 
are  apterous. 

CLERID^E  Kirby.  These  beautiful  flower  beetles  are  known 
by  the  prominent  head,  the  usually  emarginate  eyes,  and 
the  usually  eleven-jointed  antennae  inserted  at  the  sides  of 
the  front,  and  either  serrate  or  pectinate,  with  the  outer  joints 
enlarged,  forming  a  serrate,  or  rarely  a  compact  club.  Their 
•bodies  are  slender,  with  slender  legs. 
They  are  rapid  in  their  movements, 
and  run  like  ants  (which  they  much 
resemble  when  in  motion)  over  flowers 
and  trees  to  feed  on  the  sweets  and 
sap.  The  larvae  are  carnivorous  and  infest  the  nests  of  bees. 
They  are  flattened,  hairy  grubs,  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  end- 
ing in  two  horny  points.  Those  of  the  genera 
Corynetes  and  Necrobia  live  on  dead  animal 
matter. 

In  Priocera  (Fig.  435,  P.  undulata  Say)  the  eyes 
are  coarsely  granulated ;  the  antennae  are  serrate, 
and    the    maxillary    palpi   are    cylindrical.     In 
Elasmocerus  (E.  terminatus  Say,  $ ,  Fig.  436)  the  antennae  are 
ten-jointed,   the  last  joint  being  very  long   and   flat. 

The  genus  Trichodes  is  known  by  the  maxillary  palpi  being 
somewhat  dilated,  otherwise  it  agrees  with  the  succeeding 

genus.  T.  Nuttallii  Kirby  is 
abundant  in  August  on  the 
flowers  of  Spiraea  alba ;  its  larva 
is  to  be  looked  for  in  the  nests 
of  bees.  In  Europe  T.  apiarius 
Linn.  (Fig.  437 ;  a,  larva ;  &, 
pupa)  has  long  been  known  to 
devour  the  young  bees.  In  its 
perfect  state  it  is  found  on 
flowers. 

In  Clerus  the  head  is  large,  the  eyes  not  very  prominent, 
finely  granulated,  the  antennal  club  is  somewhat  triangular; 
the  maxillary  palpi  are  not  dilated,  and  the  posterior  tarsi  are 


¥ 


Fig.  437. 


CUPESID.E.  469 

moderate  in  length  and  broadly  dilated.  TJianasimus  differs 
in  the  body  being  hairy,  while  the  posterior  tarsi  are  longer 
and  scarcely  dilated.  The  long  narrow  slender  pink  larvae  can 
be  found  under  the  bark  of  dead  pine  trees  where  they  probably 
prey  upon  the  larvae  of  Hylurgus  and  Hylobius.  The  larvae 
of  Clerus  are  of  a  beautiful  red  color.  The  European  Clerus 
alvearius  infests  the  nests  of  the  Mason-bees,  Osmia  and  Meg- 
achile.  "The  larva  when  hatched,  first  devours  the  grub  of 
the  bee  in  the  cell  in  which  it  is  born  and  then  proceeds  from 
cell  to  cell,  preying  upon  the  inhabitant  of  each  until  arrived 
at  maturity.  It  is  in  this  situation,  also,  that  it  undergoes  its 
changes  in  a  small  cocoon,  which  it  has  previously  constructed, 
making  its  escape  from  the  nest  in  the  beetle  state,  where  the 
hardness  of  its  covering  sufficiently  defends  it  from  the  stings 
of  the  bees."  (Westwood.) 

LYMEXYLID^E  Leach.  This  small  group,  chiefly  interesting 
as  containing  a  genus  which  has  proved  of  great  mischief  to 
the  ship  timber  of  Europe,  from  its  boring  habits,  is  distin- 
guished by  the  head  being  bent  down  and 
narrowed  behind  ;  by  the  usually  very  large 
eyes,  the  two  ciliate  lobes  of  the  maxillae, 
the  palpi  of  which  are  stout,  four-jointed, 
and  in  the  male  very  large  and  flabellate, 
while  the  mandibles  are  short  and  obtusely 
bidentate.  The  body  is  long  and  narrow,  F]s-  438- 

with  slender  legs.  The  genus  Lymexylon  has  five  abdominal 
segments.  The  larva  is  very  long  and  slender,  Vith  the  first 
thoracic  segment  dilated  into  a  large  hood,  while  the  terminal 
ring  is  produced  into  a  large  obtuse  lobe.  In  Europe  it 
greatly  injures  oak  trees  and  ship  timber,  but  our  species 
(Lymexylon  sericeum  Harris,  Fig.  438,  and  antennae,  legs  and 
palpi)  is  too  rare  to  be  of  any  harm  at  present. 

CUPESID.E  Lacordaire.  Leconte  states  that  "the  affinities 
of  this  family  are  very  obscure  ;  in  the  form  and  insertion  of 
the  antennae  it  is  similar  to  the  first  genera  of  the  next  family, 
but  other  characters,  such  as  the  form  of  the  coxae  and  the  re- 
tractility of  the  legs,  are  at  variance.  The  body  is  covered 


470 


COLEOPTERA. 


Fig.  439. 


with  small  scales  as  in  the  genera  alluded  to."  Cupes  capitata 
Fabr.  is  black  with  the  head  red ;  while  Cupes  cinerea  Say  is 
pale  gray,  with  darker  lines.  They  are  found  under  the  bark 
of  decaying  trees,  and  also  occasionally  in  houses.  (Leconte.) 

PTINID^E  Leach.  These  are  small  beetles,  often  of  an  ob- 
scure brown  color,  somewhat  oval  in  shape,  and  truncated 
behind ;  the  nine-jointed  filiform  antennae  are  inserted  on  the 
front,  or  sides  of  the  front ;  the  head  is  retractile,  frequently 

protected  by  the  prothorax  ;  the 
labrum  is  distinct ;  the  maxillae 
have  two  ciliate  lobes,  and  the 
maxillary  palpi  are  short  and 
four-jointed.  The  legs  are  slen- 
der, contractile,  and  the  insect 
when  disturbed  draws  them  up 
and  feigns  death.  In  Ptinus 
the  antennae  are  inserted  on  the 
front  very  close  together,  the 
legs  are  long,  not  contractile,  with  large  trochanters  ;  the  teeth 
of  the  mentum  are  acute,  and  the  labrum  is  rounded.  The 
males  differ  from  the  short  and  thickened  females  in  being  long 
and  narrow.  The  beetles  are  found  about  out-houses,  the  wood 
of  which  they  perforate  in  various  directions.  Ptinus  fur  Linn. 
(Fig.  439, ;  a,  larva),  the  most  commonly  diffused 
species,  is  known  to  attac^:  museums  and  collec- 
tions of  insects.  It  is  .15  of  an  inch  in  length, 
<ind  uniformly  chestnut  brown  in  color.  The  larva 
here  figured  was  found  eating  the  dried  contents 
of  a  shell  in  the  Museum  of  the  Peabody 
Academy  of  Science. 

Sitodrepa  panicea  Fabr.  (Fig.  440,  pupa)  is  a 
Fig.  440.  smaii  insect  like  Anobium,  of  a  pale  reddish 
brown  color,  with  much  paler  dense  hairs.  It  is  .13  of  an  inch 
long.  The  larva  resembles  in  its  form  that  of  Ptinus,  but  the 
body  is  much  thicker,  not  growing  smaller  towards  the  head 
as  in  that  genus ;  the  end  of  the  body  is  smooth,  obtusely 
rounded,  with  fine  hairs ;  it  is  .08  of  an  inch  long  and  un- 
doubtedly grows  larger.  It  occurred  in  all  its  stages  and  in 


PTINID^E.  471 

great  abundance  in  several  nests  of  Vespa  in  the  Museum 
of  the  Peabody  Academy,  where  it  undoubtedly  eat  the  dried 
remains  of  the  wasps ;  it  was  extensively  preyed  upon  by  a 
Pteromalus-like  Chalcid. 

The  genus  Anobium  is  cylindrical,  the  eleven-jointed  an- 
tennae are  distant  from  each  other  at  base  and  inserted  immedi- 
ately in  front  of  the  eyes,  the  mesosternum  is  flat,  and 
the  anterior  coxae  are  nearly  contiguous.  The  larva 
is  thick  and  fleshy,  resembling  some  Scarabaeid  larvae 
in  the  fleshy  baggy  tip  of  the  abdomen,  except  that 
they  do  not  lay  on  their  side  when  walking.  They 
construct  a  silken  cocoon  interweaving  the  particles 
of  dust  they  make.  A.  notatum  Say  is  blackish  Flg' 
above,  varied  with  ashen,  and  the  posterior  angles  of  the  pro- 
thorax  are  rather  acute.  In  Europe  they  are  called  Death- 
ticks,  as  the  ticking  made  by  them  in  the  walls  of  houses,  a 
familiar  sound  in  this  country,  was  supposed  by  the  supersti- 
tious to  announce  the  death  of  persons,  though  it  is  but  a 
sexual  call.  Doubt  having  been  thrown  on  the  statement  that 
Anobium  causes  the  ticking  noise,  Mr.  H.  Doubleday  states 
in  the  "Entomologist,"  vol.  iii,  p.  66,  "I  can  speak  positively 
with  regard  to  the  Anobium,  and  I  assure  you  that  this  little 
beetle  produces  the  loud  ticking  sound  by  raising  itself  upon 
its  legs  as  high  as  it  can,  and  then  striking  the  head  and  under 
part  of  the  thorax  against  the  substance  upon  which 
it  is  standing,  generally  five  or  six  times  in  succes- 
sion, and  it  always  chooses  a  substance  which  pro- 
duces the  most  sound.  It  is  evidently  a  call  note 
from  one  individual  to  another,  as  you  very  rarely 
hear  one  rap  without  its  being  immediately  answered 
by  another."  Mr.  Sanborn  has  reared  the  larva  (Fig.  441,  en- 
larged) of  Ernobius  mollis  Fabr.,  which  is  a  near  ally  of  Ano- 
bium. 

Bostriclius  and  its  allies  are  distinguished  by  their  long 
bodies,  the  head  being  usually  bent  down  and  covered  by  the 
hood -like  thorax ;  the  antennae  are  distant  and  the  anterior 
coxae  are  contiguous.  They  are  found  in  fungi  or  under  bark. 
In  Bostriclius  the  front  is  margined  on  the  sides.  In  Amplii- 
cerus  the  front  is  not  so  margined.  The  apple  twig  borer,  A. 


472  COLEOPTERA. 

bicaudatus  Say  (Fig.  442)  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  is 
very  injurious  to  apple  trees,  boring  under  the  bark  of  small 
twigs  "just  above  one  of  the  buds,  and  on  cutting  into  them 
it  will  be  noticed  that  a  cylindrical  hole,  about  the  size  of  a 
common  knitting  needle,  extends  downwards  from  the  perfora- 
tion above  the  bud,  through  the  very  heart  of  the  twig,  for  the 
length  of  an  inch  and  a  half."  (Walsh.)  The  larva  which  I 
have  received  from  Dr.  Shimer,  has  much  the  same  form  as 
that  of  Lyctus,  but  the  head  is  more  prominent  and  also  the 
sides  of  the  body.  The  anterior  half  of  the  body  is  consider- 
ately thicker  than  behind  and  the  legs  are  provided  with  long 
hairs  ;  the  end  of  the  body  is  smooth  and  much  rounded.  It 
is  .30  of  an  inch  long. 

Specimens  of  RMzopertha  pusilla  have  been  introduced,  Le- 
conte  states,  into  wheat  distributed  from  the  Patent  Office. 
In  this  last  genus  the  eighth  and  ninth  joints  of  the  antennae 
are  triangular. 

In  the  genus  Lyctus  the  head  is  prominent,  the  body  long 
and  narrow,  and  the  club  of  the  antenna  is  two-jointed,  while 
the  outer  apical  angle  of  the  anterior 
tibiae  is  prolonged.     We  have  received 
from  Dr.  H.  Shimer,  L.  opaculus  Lee., 
in  all  its  stages  (Fig.  443;  a,  larva; 
&,   pupa).      The    beetle    is    chestnut 
brown,  with  short  yellowish  hairs  and 
Fig.  443.  puiicto-striate  elytra ;  it  is  .20  of  an 

inch  in  length.  The  larva  is  white,  its  body  is  cylindrical, 
thick  and  fleshy,  with  a  small  head  and  strong  black  mandibles  ; 
the  thoracic  rings  are  thickest.  It  is  .17  of  inch  long.  Ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Shimer  it  eats  -  the  wood  of  dead  grape  vines. 

CIOID^E  Leach.  This  small  group  is  known  by  the  maxillae 
being  exposed  at  the  base,  the  two  ciliate  lobes  of  which  are 
flattened,  and  the  eight  to  ten-jointed  clavate  antennae  are  in- 
serted at  the  anterior  margin  of  the  eyes  ;  the  head  is  protected 
by  the  prothorax,  which  is  cylindrical,  rounded  in  front,  with 
the  lateral  margin  distinct.  The  species  of  the  genus  (7is, 
which  have  ten-jointed  antennae,  are  very  small,  cylindrical, 
dark  colored,  gregarious  beetles,  which  live  under  the  bark  of 


TENEBRIONnXE.  473 

trees,  and  in  dry,  woody  species  of  fungi.     Some  males  have 
the  head  and  anterior  margin  of  the  thorax  horned. 

TENEBRIONID^E  Latreille.  This  is  not  a  very  easily  limited 
family ;  the  most  trenchant  characters,  however,  are  stated  by 
Leconte  to  be  these :  the  two-lobed  maxillae  have  the  smaller 
lobe  sometimes  armed  with  a  terminal  corneous  hook ;  the 
palpi  four-jointed  ;  the  mandibles  are  usually  short,  robust  and 
furnished  with  a  basal  tooth ;  the  eyes  are  usually  transverse, 
and  the  antennae  are  generally  inserted  under  the  sides  of  the 
head,  or  at  least  under  a  small  frontal  ridge,  and  are  usually 
eleven-jointed,  clavate,  subserrate  'or  very  rarely  pectinate,  as 
in  Rliipidandrus.  The  elytra  are  rounded  at  tip,  covering  the 
abdomen,  and  frequently  embracing  its  sides  very  far  down, 
while  the  hind  wings  are  frequently  wanting.  The  legs  vary 
in  length ;  the  anterior  coxae  are  globose,  without  any  Q 
trochantine ;  the  hind  tarsi  are  four-jointed,  and  the  ab- 
domen has  five  free  segments,  the  first  three  appearing 
more  closely  united  than  the  others.  The  larvae  are 
slender,  flattened,  horny,  resembling  the  wire-worms ; 
from  two  to  five  ocelli  on  each  side,  or  wanting  entirely, 
and  the  last  ring  of  the  body  often  has  two  spines.  The 
larvae  (Fig.  444,  larva  of  an  unknown  species)  moult 
several  times,  and  when  about  to  transform  make  no  co- Fig>  *** 
coon,  the  beetles  appearing  in  about  six  weeks.  Dr.  Leconte 
says  that  the  distribution  of  the  genera  of  this  family  is  very 
remarkable.  Of  those  without  wings  scarcely  any  are  common 
to  the  two  continents.  With  the  exception  of  three,  they  are 
not  represented  in  North  America,  east  of  the  longitude  of 
the  mouth  of  the  Platte  or  Nebraska  River ;  from  that  point 
they  increase  in  number  of  genera,  species  and  individuals, 
until  in  California  they  form  the  characteristic  feature  of  the 
insect  fauna." 

We  can  only  notice  a  few  genera,  interesting  to  the  general 
reader,  and  refer  the  special  student,  as  heretofore,  to  Dr.  Le- 
conte's  able  treatment  of  the  Coleoptera  previously  cited.  - 

The  genus  Blaps,  in  which  the  hind  wings  are  obsolete,  does 
not  occur  in  this  country,  being  represented  by  numerous  spe- 
cies of  Elodes  and  Promus.  The  European  Slaps  mortisaga  is 


474 


COLEOPTERA. 


the  Church-yard  beetle.  Dr.  Pickells  states,  according  to  West- 
wood,  that  "one  of  these  beetles  was  immersed  repeatedly 
in  spirits  of  wine,  but  revived  after  remaining  therein  all 
night,  and  afterwards  lived  three  years."  The  larvae  are  eaten 
by  the  women  in  Egypt,  after  being  roasted. 

In  Upis  the  legs  are  long,  with  small  tibial  spurs,  while  the 
tarsi  are  clothed  beneath  with  a  silky,  golden  pubescence,  the 

hind  tarsi  being  long,  and 
the  epipleurse  are  gradually 
narrowed  towards  the  base 
of  the  elytra.  Upis  ceram- 
boides  Linn,  is  a  fine  large, 
deep  purple  black  beetle, 
with  roughly  shagreened 
elytra,  and  is  found  under 
the  bark  of  trees.  In  Tene- 
brio the  body  is  long  ovate 
Fis- 445-  and  winged,  the  legs  are 

slender,  the  femora  swollen  less  than  usual,  with  larger  tibial 
spurs ;  the  tarsi  are  clothed  with  a  rigid  pubescence,  and  the 
epipleurse  extend  to  the  tip  of  the  elytra.  Tenebrio  molitor 
Linn.,  the  Meal  worm,  is  found  in  all  its  stages  about  corn 
and  rye  meal;  it  is  frequently  swallowed  with  food.  "It  is 
also  very  destructive  to  ship-biscuits  packed  in  casks,  which 
when  opened  are  found  eaten  through  in  holes  \>y  these  insects 
and  their  larvae."  (Westwood.)  The  larva  is  about  an  inch 
long,  cylindrical,  smooth  and  glossy,  with  the  terminal  seg- 
ment semicircular,  slightly  serrated  on  the  edges,  and  termi- 
nated in  a  single  point.  An  allied  beetle  in  Brazil  is  known 
to  eject  a  caustic  fluid,  and  in  Europe  some  are  known  to  cover 
themselves  with  this  fluid.  In  Boletophagus  the  antennae  are 
eleven-jointed  and  the  eyes  are  entirely  divided.  B.  cornutus 
Panzer  (Fig.  445,  ?,  a,  larva ;  6,  pupa,  <?),  as  its  name  im- 
plies, lives  in  those  fungi,  which,  according  to  Dr.  Leconte, 
either  grow  upon  trees  or  under  bark,  and  may  be  known  by  the 
front  of  the  head  being  prolonged  and  margined  anteriorly  and 
on  the  sides,  covering  the  mouth  above,  often  thus  dividing 
the  eyes,  while  the  dull  black  body  is  covered  with  stout  tuber- 
cles, it  is  found  in  all  its  stages  in  fungi,  in  August.  The 


MELANDKYIM:.  475 

larva  is  long  and  narrow,  cylindrical,  the  head  free  from  the 
body,  rounded,  with  stout,  broad,  triangular  mandibles  ;  the 
tip  of  the  abdomen  is  square,  with  a  sharp  spine  on  each 
side.  It  is  .80  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  of  a  dark  chestnut 
brown  color. 


Leconte.     This  family  is  represented  by  a  sin- 
gle species,  ^gialites  debilis  Lee.,  from  Eussian  America. 

CISTELID^E  Latreille.  This  group,  as  Leconte  states,  "ap- 
proaches very  nearly  to  the  more  degraded  forms  of  the  Tene- 
brionidce,  and  the  degradation  of  structure  is  carried  still 
farther  by  the  anterior  coxae  becoming  conical,  prominent,  and 
contiguous  in  certain  genera.  The  only  characters  to  be  relied 
on  for  isolation  in  this  family  are,  first,  the  pectinate  claws  ; 
and  second,  the  anterior  coxal  cavities  being  closed  behind. 
They  are  found  on  leaves  and  flowers,  or  under  bark."  Alle- 
cula  at  first  sight  somewhat  resembles  an  Elater.  Cistela  dif- 
fers from  its  allies  in  having  the  last  joint  of  the  maxillary 
palpi  longer  than  wide. 


Westwood.  This  inconsiderable  family  differs 
from  the  Tenebrionidce,  in  the  greater  prominence  of  the 
anterior  coxae,  and  the  dilated  penultimate  joint  of  the  tarsi, 
though  the  larvae  differ  in  being  rather  long,  almost  as  wide  as 
long,  convex  above,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  large  head 
are  thickly  covered  with  hairs.  There  are  two  genera,  Artliro- 
macra  and  Statyra,  which  are  found  on  leaves  and  under  bark. 

MONOMMID^E  Lacordaire.  This  little  group  is  a  very  distinct 
one,  composed  of  small,  black,  oval,  flattened  beetles.  Mbn- 
omma  is  confined  to  the  Eastern  Continent,  and  a  species  of 
Hyporliagus  is  found,  one  on  the  eastern,  the  other  on  the 
Pacific  side  of  this  country. 

MELANDRYIDJE  Leach.  This  group  comprises  a  few  species 
of  elongate  form,  with  two  basal  impressions  on  the  prothorax, 
and  the  first  joint  of  the  hind  tarsi  is  always  much  elongated. 
They  are  found  under  bark  and  in  fungi.  In  Melandrya  the 


476  COLEOPTERA. 

head  is  bent  forward,  the  base  of  the  prothorax  is  sinuous, 
but  not  distinctly  lobed,  and  the  elytra  are  striate.  M.  striata 
Say  is  found  in  the  Atlantic  States. 

PYTHIDJE  Lacordaire.  This  is  a  small  group  of  mostly 
northern  species  found  living  under  bark  and  stones.  Pytho 
and  its  allies  resemble  some  Tenebrionidce. 

CEDEMERID.E  Latreille.  This  group  comprises  insects  of 
moderate  size,  and,  according  to  Leconte,  generally  found  on 
plants,  though  some  species  of  Asclera  live  on  the  ground  near 
water,  and  Microtonus  sericans  is  a  very  small  brown  sericeous 
insect,  found  on  leaves  in  the  Atlantic  States. 

CEPHALOID^:.  Leconte  places  in  a  distinct  family,  the  single 
species,  Cephaloon  lepturides  Newman,  which  is  found  on 
plants  northward. 

MORDELLIDJS  Leach.  These  are  curious  small,  wedge- 
shaped,  glistening,  pubescent,  black  beetles,  which  occur  in 
abundance  on  the  flowers  of  Golden-rods  and  asters,  and  when 
disturbed  leap  off  like  fleas,  or  slip  suddenly  to  the  ground. 
Anaspis  has  the  fourth  joint  of  the  anterior  and  middle  tarsi 
very  small,  and  the  body  is  fusiform,  with  oval  eyes.  In  Mor- 
della  the  body  is  wedge-shaped,  the  eyes  are  finely  granulated, 
the  scutellum  is  triangular,  and  the  last  joint  of  the  maxil- 
lary palpi  triangular  or  securiform.  The  larvae  are  said  to  live 
in  the  pith  of  plants  during  autumn,  and  are  long,  subcylin- 
drical,  and  the  sides  of  the  rings  are  furnished  with  fleshy 
tubercles.  Mordellistena  differs  in  the  hind  tibiae  having  sub- 
apical  and  oblique  ridges. 


Latreille.  Of  this  small  group,  Notoxus  anchora 
Hentz  is  noted  for  having  the  head  prolonged  over  the 
mouth  into  a  horn  ;  it  is  found  in  marshy  places.  Leconte 
states  that  Tanarthrus  salinus  Lee.  flies  and  runs  on  salt  mud 
like  a  Cicindela  ;  it  occurs  in  the  Colorado  desert.  The  nu- 
merous species  of  Anthicus  live  in  sandy  places  near  water. 
Formicomus  is  ant-like,  being  wingless. 


MELOID^E.  477 

PYROCHROID^  Latreille.  A  small  group  of  beetles  which 
are  found  under  the  bark  of  trees  ;  they  generally  have  a  red- 
dish thorax  contrasting  with  the  black  head  and  elytra.  "The 
branches  of  the  pectinate  male  antennae  are  rigid  in  Pyrochroa, 
and  very  slender  and  flexible  in  Dendroides;  in  Schizotus  they 
are  of  an  intermediate  form,,  and  somewhat  flexible."  (Le- 
conte.)  The  larva  of  Dendroides  is  a  very  flat  whitish  grub, 
with  two  large  curved  spines  on  the  tail;  it  lives 
under  the  bark  of  pines  and  other  trees.  Two  species 
of  this  genus,  D.  concolor  Newman  and  D.  Canadensis 
Latr.,  are  equally  common  in  New  England.  Fig. 
446,  enlarged,  represents  the  larva  of  a  species  of 
Pyrochroa,  of  which  P.  flabellata  Fabr.  is  a  type. 


MELOID^E  Gyllenhal.  This  is  a  family  of  great  in- 
terest from  the  parasitic  habits  of  the  larvae,  which  dif- 
fer remarkably  from  the  adult  forms.  The  head  is 
much  bent  forwards,  and  is  suddenly  constricted  far  Fi&-  446< 
behind  the  eyes  into  a  small  neck ;  the  eleven-jointed  antennae 
are  inserted  at  the  sides  of  the  front,  before  the  eyes ;  the 
elytra  are  variable  in  form,  but  when  abnormally  shortened, 
are  ovate,  rather  than  square  at  the  tip,  and  the  hind  wings  are 
often  absent.  The  legs  are  long,  the  hind  tarsi  are  four- 
jointed,  the  penultimate  joint  usually  cylindrical.  They  are 
soft-bodied,  cylindrical,  slender  beetles,  and  are  always  found 
on  flowers.  The  larvae  are  ovate,  flattened,  often  very  minute 
and  then  somewhat  resembling  the  Pediculi  in  habits.  Meloe 
is  a  large  dark  blue  beetle  found  about  buttercups  and  crawl- 
ing on  grass  in  May  and  again  late  in  August.  The  elytra  are 
small  and  short,  overlapping  each  other  on  the  large  ovate 
full  abdomen ;  the  claws  are  cleft,  the  male  antennae  are 
twisted  and  knotted.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  ground,  prob- 
ably near  the  nests  of  bees,  for  in  the  early  spring,  the  young 
larvae  recently  hatched  are  found  on  the  bodies  of  various 
bees,  such  as  Bombus,  Halictus  and  Andrena,  and  also  various 
Syrphi  and  Muscae  frequenting  the  flowers  of  the  willow  in 
April,  whence  they  are  conveyed  by  the  agency  of  the  bees. 
On  these  flowers  we  have  found  them  in  abundance.  They  are 
very  active  in  their  habits,  and  difficult  to  rear  in  confinement, 


478 


COLEOPTERA. 


which  can  only  be  done  by  confining  the  bees  on  which  they 
are  found,  and  supplying  them  with  flowers.  When  the  bee 
becomes  exhausted  by  the  loss  of  fluids  drawn  out  by  its  para- 
site, it  is  quickly  deserted  by  these  minute  torments  for  a 
newly  introduced  and  more  lively  bee.  The 
length  of  the  larva  at  this  period  (Fig.  447) 
is  .06  of  an  inch.  It  differs  very  remarkably 
from  those  of  the  neighboring  families,  which 
are  generally  oval,  being  long  and  linear- 
oblong,  flattened.  The  three  thoracic  rings 
are  of  equal  size,  transversely  oblong,  the 
head  being  of  nearly  the  same  size  with  one 
of  the  thoracic  segments,  and  provided  with 
short  antennae.  The  legs  have  long  claws 
with  an  intermediate  long  pad.  From  the  tip 
of  the  abdomen  proceed  two  pair  of  setae,  the 
rig.  447.  inner  one  much  longer  than  the  other  pair. 
It  is  shorter  than  that  of  M.  violaceus,  figured  by  Newport,  who 
has,  with  great  sagacity,  cleared  up  the  remarkable  history  of 
this  genus.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  young  of  our  common  Meloe 
angusticottis  Say  (Fig.  448).  The  larvae  are  conveyed  by  the 
bees  themselves  into  their  nests  where  they  prey  on  the  larvae 
and  bee  bread.  When  full-fed  and  ready  to  pass  through  their 
transformations,  instead  of  at  once  as- 
suming the  .  pupa  state,  they  pass 
through  what  has  been  called  by  Fabre 
a  u  hypermetamorphosis."  In  other 
words  the  changes  in  form  preparatory 
to  assuming  the  pupa  state  are  here 
more  marked  than  usual,  and  are  al- 
most coequal  with  the  larva  and  pupa 
states,  so  that  the  Meloe  instead  of 
Fig.  448.  passing  through  only  three  states  (the 

egg,  larva  and  pupa)  in  reality  passes  through  these  and  two 
others  in  addition  which  are  intermediate.  Fabre  states  that 
the  larva,  soon  after  entering  the  nest  of  its  host,  changes  its 
skin  and  assumes  a  second  larval  form  (Fig.  449)  resembling 
a  lamellicorn  larva.  Newport,  however,  who  with  Siebold  has 
carefully  described  the  metamorphosis  of  Meloe,  does  not  men- 


MELOID^E. 


479 


tion  this  stage  in  its  development.  In  this  stage  the  larva  is 
said  to  be  motionless  ;  the  head  is  mask-like,  without  movable 
appendages,  and  the  feet  are  represented  by  six  tubercles. 
This  is,  properly  speaking,  the  "semipupa."  This 
form,  however,  according  to  Fabre,  changes  its  skin 
and  turns  into  a  third  larval  form  (Fig.  450) .  After 
some  time  it  assumes  its  true  pupa  form  (Fig.  451) 
and  finally  moults  this  skin  to  appear  as  a  beetle. 

In  Horia  and  allies  the  head  is  large,  square  behind,  Flg'  M9' 
and  the  front  is  not  prolonged  beyond  the  base  of  the  antennae . 
Horia  sanguinipennis  Say  is  now  placed  by  Leconte  in  the 
genus  Tricrania,  which  differs  in  the  last  joint  of 
the  maxillary  palpi  being  longer  than  the  third,  and 
by  the  triangular  head.  It  is  found  in  the  nest  of 
the  humble  bee,  and  in  the  West  Indies  a  species 
of  Horia  is  found  in  the  nests  of  Xylocopa  teredo,  a 
species  of  carpenter  bee. 

SitariSj  an  European  genus,  has  much  the  same 
Fig.  450.  jjgjjftg  as  jfe£0£.  Its  eggs  are  laid  near  the  entrance 
of  bees'  nests,  and  at  the  very  moment,  according 
to  Fabre,  that  the  bee  lays  her  egg  in  the  honey- 
cell,  the  flattened,  oval,  Sitaris  larva  drops  from 
>the  body  of  the  bee  upon  the  egg  and  feasts  upon 
its  contents.  It  then  feeds  on  the  honey  in  the 
cell  of  the  bee  and  changes  into  a  white,  cylindri- 
cal, nearly  footless  grub,  and  after  it  becomes  full- 
fed,  and  has  assumed  the  supposed  "pupa'' 
state,  the  skin,  without  bursting,  encloses  a  kind 
of  hard  "pupa"  skin  which  is  very 
similar  in  outline  to  the  former  larva,  Fig.  451.  ~ 
and  within  this  skin  is  found  a  whitish  larva,  which 
directly  changes  into  the  true  pupa.  These 
changes  M.  Fabre  calls  a  "  hypermetamorphosis," 
but  it  will  probably  be  found  that  the  two  so- 
called  "pupa"  states,  immediately  preceding  the 
final  genuine  pupa  state  he  describes,  are  but 
changes  of  the  semipupa,  and  can  be  paralleled  in  some  de- 
gree by  the  remarkable  changes  of  the  bee  and  moth  noted 
by  us  previously. 


Fig.  452. 


480 


COLEOPTERA. 


The  Blister  beetles,  of  which  Lytta  (Cantharis)  affords  many 
species,  secrete  the  substance  known  as  "Cantharadine."    The 

Spanish-fly  is 
used  in  commerce, 
and  is  a  bright 
shining  green  spe- 
cies. Our  native 
forms,  which  as 
"well  as  Meloe, 
when  dried,  can 
Fig.  453.  "be  used  for  pro- 

ducing blisters,  are  dark  colored.  Their  larvae  have  the  same 
form  as  that  of  Meloe  ;  it  remains  yet  to  ascertain  their 
true  habits,  though  Latreille  states  that  they  live  beneath  the 
ground  feeding  on  the  roots  of  vegetables.  Among 
the  species  of  Blister  beetles  which  are  especially 
injurious  to  the  potato  are  Lylta  vittata  Fabr.  (Fig. 
452),  L.  cinerea  Fabr.  (Fig.  453,  a),  L.  murina  Lee. 
(Fig.  453,  6),  and  L.  marginata  Fabr.  (Fig.  454). 
Phodaga  alticeps  Lee.  (Fig.  455  ;  1 ,  front  of  male  ; 
2,  profile  of  male ;  3,  anterior  tibia  and  tarsus ;  4, 
Fig.  454.  middle  tibia ;  5,  claw ;  from  Horn)  is  a  Californian 
species,  remarkable  for  the  great  differences  between  the1 
sexes,  in  the  form  of  the  legs  and  tarsi. 

RHIPIPHORID^E  Gerstaecker.  This  family  is  characterized 
by  Leconte  as  having  a  vertical  head,  with  perfect  mouth- 
parts,  affixed  to  the  prothorax  by  a  very  slender  neck,  which 
is  entirely  contained  within  the  prothorax,  while  the  vertex  is 
5  3  usually  elevated.  The  eleven-jointed 
antennae  (ten-jointed  in  the  female  of 
certain  species)  are  pectinate  or  flabel- 
late  in  the  males,  and  frequently  serrate 
in  the  females.  The  prothorax  is  as 
large  as  the  elytra  at  base,  much  narrowed  in  front,  and  the 
elytra,  rarely  covering  the  abdomen,  are  usually  narrowed  be- 
hind, diverging  on  the  back.  The  legs  are  long  and  slender, 
with  filiform  tarsi,  and  the  claws  are  pectinate  or  toothed,  be- 
ing rarely  simple.  They  are  found  on  flowers.  The  larval 


Fig.  455. 


STYLOPIDJE.  481 

forms  are  not  yet  known.  Rliipiphorus  is  a  wedge-shaped 
genus,  not  found  in  America.  R.  Finnicus  Paykull  is  said  to 
be  a  parasite  on  Chrysis,  the  cuckoo  wasp.  It  is  here  repre- 
sented by  two  genera,  Macrosiagon  and  Emmenadia  which  are 
wedge-shaped,  with  coarsely  punctured  and  sparsely  pubescent 
bodies,  with  the  vertex  of  the  head  much  elevated.  In  Myo~ 
dites  the  elytra  are  very  small.  The  species  are  found  on  Soli- 
dago  or  Golden-rod  in  August.  The  genus  Metoecus  is  allied 
to  Myodites.  Metoecus  paradoxus  Linn,  is  in  Europe  a  para- 
site in  the  nests  of  wasps  (Vespa)  eating  the  larvae. 

In  the  genus  Rliipidius  the  males  have  short  pointed  de- 
hiscent elytra,  while  the  females  are  entirely  wingless  and 
worm-like.  It  is  a  parasite  on  Blatta  Germanica.  They  are 
to  be  looked  for  in  this  country,  where  they  have  not  yet 
occurred. 

STYLOPID^E  Kirby.  This  most  anomalous  family,  both  as 
regards  the  structure  and  the  habits  of  the  few  species  compos- 
ing it,  were  for  a  long  time  excluded  from  the  Coleoptera  by 
systematists  generally,  and  by  Gerstaecker  they  are  even  now 
placed  in  the  old  "order"  Strepsiptera.  They  are  minute 
forms,  and  have  been  characterized  thus  by  Dr.  Leconte. 
' '  Oral  organs  atrophied  except  the  mandibles  and  one  pair  of 
palpi.  Head  large,  transverse,  vertical,  prolonged  at  the  sides, 
forming  a  stout  peduncle,  at  the  end  of  which  are  situated  the 
eyes,  which  are  convex  and  very  coarsely  granulated.  Antennae 
inserted  on  the  front,  at  the  base  of  the  lateral  processes  of 
the  head  ;  forked  in  one  genus.  Prothorax  exceedingly  short. 
Mesothorax  short,  bearing  at  each  side  a  slender,  coriaceous 
club-shaped  appendage,  with  the  inner  margin  membranous : 
this  appendage  represents  the  elytra.  Metathorax  very  large, 
greater  in  bulk  than  the  rest  of  the  body,  with  the  sutures  of 
the  dorsal  pieces  all  distinct.  The  postscutellum  is  conical  and 
prolonged  far  over  the  base  of  the  abdomen  ;  wings  very  large, 
fan-shaped,  with  a  few  diverging  nervures ;  the  epimera  are 
very  large,  and  project  behind  almost  as  far  as  the  postscutel- 
lum. Abdomen  small,  with  from  seven  to  nine  segments. 
Legs  short ;  anterior  and  middle  coxae  cylindrical,  prominent ; 
hind  coxae  very  small,  contiguous,  quadrate ;  tibiae  without 
31 


482 


COLEOPTERA. 


spurs ;  tarsi  without  claws,  joints  each  with  a  membranous 
lobe  beneath."  The  females  are  sac-like.  They  live  enclosed 
in  the  body  of  the  bee. 

In  Stylops  the  antennae  are  six-jointed,  and  in  Xenos  they 
are  four-jointed.  From  the  middle  of  May  until  late  in  June 
both  sexes  of  Stylops  may  be  found  in  "stylopized"  individu- 
als of  Andrena  and  Polistes.  The  flattened  triangular  head 
of  the  female  may  be  seen  projecting  from  between  the  abdomi- 
nal segments  of  the  bee,  and  sometimes  there  are  two  or  three 
of  them.  On  carefully  drawing  out  the  whole  body  of  a  female 

Stylops  Children!  (Fig.  456  ;  a,  ab- 
domen of  bee  enclosing  the  female 
Stylops  ;  6,  top  view),  which  is  very 
extensible,  baggy  and  full  of  a  thin 
fluid,  and  examining  it  under  a  high 
power  we  found  multitudes,  at 
least  three  hundred,  of  very  minute 
Stylops  larvae,  like  particles  of  dust 
issuing  in  every  direction  from  the 
body  of  the  parent.  Most  of  them 
escaped  from  near  the  head,  over 
which  they  ran,  as  they  must  do, 
when  the  parent  is  in  its  natural 
position,  in  order  to  get  out  upon 
the  surface  of  the  bee.  It  thus  ap- 
pears that  the  young  (Plate  3,  fig.  6,  6  a)  are  hatched  within 
the  body  of  the  parent,  and  are  therefore  viviparous.  The 
head  of  the  female  is  flattened,  triangular,  nearly  equilaterally 
so,  with  the  apex  or  region  of  the  mouth  obtuse,  and  the  two 
hinder  angles  each  containing  a  minute  simple  eye  ;  the  larger 
part  of  the  head  above  consists  of  the  epicranium,  which  is 
narrow  in  front,  with  the  edge  convex ;  the  mandibles  are 
obsolete,  being  two  flattened  portions  lying  in  front  of  the 
gena  and  separated  from  that  region  by  a  very  distinct 
suture ;  no  clypeus  or  labrum  can  be  distinguished.  The 
mouth  is  transverse  and  opens  on  the  upper  side  of  the  head, 
while  in  front,  owing  to  the  position  of  the  mouth,  lies  the 
rather  large  labium  and  the  rounded  papilliform  maxillae. 
The  larva  is  elliptical  in  form,  the  head  semioval,  while  the 


Fig.  456. 


STYLOPID^.  483 

tip  of  the  abdomen  is  truncate ;  the  sides  of  the  body  are 
straight,  there  being  no  well  denned  sutures  between  the  seg- 
ments ;  seen  laterally  the  larva  is  thickest  at  the  metathoracic 
ring.  Two  simple  eyes  are  situated  near  the  base  of  the  head. 
The  body  is  so  transparent  that  the  intestine  can  be  traced 
easily  to  just  before  the  tip,  where  it  ends  in  a  cul  de  sac.  The 
two  anterior  pairs  of  legs 
are  much  alike ;  coxae 
short ;  femora  and  tibiae 
small,  cylindrical ;  a  slen- 
der tibial  spur  ;  the  tarsi 
consisting  of  a  single 
clavate  joint  equalling 
the  tibia  in  length,  being 
much  swollen  at  the  tip, 
and  without  claws.  The 
hind  tarsi  are  longer,  Fi&- 457- 

very  slender,  two-jointed,  the  terminal  one  being  bulbous.  The 
terminal  styles,  inserted  in  the  tenth  abdominal  ring,  are  a  little 
more  than  one-half  the  length  of  the  body,  which  is  covered 
with  long  setose  scales.  In  their  movements  these  infinitesi- 
mal larvae  were  very  active,  as  they  scrambled  over  the  body 
of  the  parent,  holding  their  caudal  setae  nearly  erect. 

On  the  last  of  April  we  caught  a  male  Stylops  Cliildreni  West- 
wood  (Fig.  457,  and  458)  in  the  same  net  with  a  stylopized 
Andrena  placida,  and  as  the  abdo- 
men of  the  male  was  long  and  very 
extensile,  its  tip  being  provided  with 
a  capacious  forceps  for  seizing  the 
body  of  the  female,  it  is  most  proba- 
ble that  the  female  described  belonged  to  the  same  species,  and 
that  at  this  time  the  short-lived  male,  for  this  one  lived  but  for 
a  day  in*  confinement  after  capture,  unites  sexually  with  the 
female.  It  appears  then  that  the  larvae  are  hatched  during 
the  middle  or  last  of  June,  from  the  eggs  fertilized  in  April, 
and  which  are  retained  within  the  body  of  the  parent.  The 
larvoa  then  crawl  on  to  the  body  of  bees  and  penetrate  within 
the  abdomen  of  those  that  are  to  hibernate,  and  live  there 
through  the  winter.  The  entire  body  of  the  male  is,  with  the 


484  COLEOPTERA. 

head  and  antennae,  of  a  velvety  black,  the  abdomen  slightly 
brownish,  while  the  legs  and  anal  forceps  are  pale  resinous 
brown,  and  the  tips  of  the  tibiae  and  the  tarsal  joints  pale 
testaceous.  It  is  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length. 

The  succeeding  families  comprise  the  divisions  Tetramera 
and  Trimera  of  early  authors,  in  which  the  penultimate  joint 
of  the  tarsi  is  but  slightly  developed,  forming  an  enlargement 
at  the  base  of  the  last  joint,  with  which  it  is  closely 

united. 

•i 

BRUCHID^E  Leach.  This  small  family  comprises  Curculio-like 
beetles  of  short  rounded  form  which  are  noted  for  their  activity 
and  readiness  to  take  flight  when  disturbed.  They  differ  from 
the  Curculionidcem  the  proboscis  being  folded  on  the  chest, 
the  antennae  being  short  and  straight  and  inserted  in  a  cavity 
next  to  the  eyes.  There  are  300  species  of  Bruchus  known. 
Bruchus  pisi  Linn.,  the  Pea  weevil  (Fig.  515),  is  found  in  seed 
peas  in  the  spring.  It  appears  soon  after  the  pea  is  in  flower, 
ovipositing  on  the  young  pods  (Glover).  The  young  larva 
feeds  in  the  growing  pod,  on  the  pulp  of  the  pea.  Peas  infested 
with  them  should  be  soaked  in  boiling  hot  water  before  sowing. 
Bruchus  varicornis  Lee.,  in  like  manner  infests  the  bean. 

CURCULIONID^E  Latreille.  The  weevil  family  may  be  at  once 
recognized  by  the  head  being  lengthened  into  a  long  snout  or 
proboscis  (used  for  boring  into  objects  when  about  to  oviposit), 
near  the  middle  of  which  are  situated  the  long,  slender,  elbowed 
antennae.  At  the  extremity  of  the  snout  are  situated  the 
mouth-parts,  which  are  much  reduced  in  size,  the  palpi  having 
small  rounded  joints.  Their  bodies  are  hard  and  generally 
round  and  often  very  minute.  They  are  very  timid  and 
quickly  feign  death.  The  larvae  are  white,  thick,  fleshy,  foot- 
less grubs,  with  fleshy  tubercles  instead  of  legs,  and  are  armed 
with  thick  curved  jaws.  They  feed  on  nuts,  seeds,  the  roots, 
pith  and  bark  of  plants,  leaves  or  flowers,  and  especially 
the  fruits,  while  some  are  leaf-miners  and  others  are  said  to 
make  galls.  Preparatory  to  transforming  they  spin  silken 
cocoons.  The  number  of  species  already  known  is  immense, 
being  not  less  than  from  8,000  to  10,000,  and  upwards  of  630 


CURCULIONID^. 


485 


genera  have  been  already  described  by  Schonherr  and  others, 
of  which  we  can  notice  but  a  few  of  the  most  important. 

Brentlms  and  its  allies  differ  from  the  following  genera  in 
their  remarkably  long  and  slender  bodies,  the  snout  being 
stretched  straight  out,  not  bent  down  as  usual;  while  the 
slightly  clavate  antennae  are  not  elbowed.  Dr.  Har- 
ris gives  the  history  of  B.  septemtrionalis  Herbst 
(Fig.  459).  The  female  in  midsummer  punctures 
with  her  long  snout  the  bark  of  the  white  oak. 
The  grub,  when  hatched,  bores  into  the  solid  wood  ; 
it  is  nearly  cylindrical,  whitish,  except  the  last  seg- 
ment, which  is  dark  brown  and  horny,  and  is  Fis- 
obliquely  hollowed  at  the  end,  which  is  dentate,  forming  a 
scoop  by  which  the  larva  clears  its  gallery  of  chips.  There 
are  three  pairs  of  legs  and  an  anal  prop-leg.  The  pupa  is 

described  as  being  white,  with  the 
head  bent  on  the  chest  between  the 
wings  and  legs.  On  the  back  are 
rows  of  sharp  teeth,  with  two  larger 
thorns  at  the  anal  tip. 

Harris  states  that  "the  different 
kinds  of  Attelabus  are  said  to  roll 
Fig.  460.  Fig.  461.    Up   the    edges    of   leaves,   thereby 

forming  little  nests  of  the  shape  and  size  of  thimbles  to  con- 
tain their  eggs  and  to  shelter  their  young,  which 
afterwards  devour  the  leaves."  A.  analis  Illiger 
(Fig.  460)  is  dull  red,  with  dark  blue  antennae 
and  legs.  In  Rhyncliites  the  head  is  not  con- 
tracted behind  into  a  neck.  R.  Ucolor  Fabr. 
injures  various  roses,  wild  and  cultivated.  It 
is  red  above,  with  the  antennae,  legs  and  sides 
of  the  body  black. 

The  little  seed  weevils,  Apion,  are  pear-shaped 
and  generally  black.  Apion  Sayi  Schonh. 
(Fig.  461)  lives  in  the  pods  of  the  wild  Indigo, 
and  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  length.  Balaninus,  the  nut- 
weevil,  is  oval  in  shape,  with  a  very  slender  snout,  nearly  as 
long  as  the  bo$y.  B.  nasicus  Say  (Fig.  462)  is  found  on 
hazel  bushes,  and  probably  infests  the  nuts.  Harris  describes 


Fig.  462. 

It  is  black 


486 


COLEOPTERA. 


it  as  being  dark  brown,  and  clothed  with  very  short,  rust- 
yellow,  flattened  hairs,  which  are  disposed  in  spots  on  its 

wing  covers.  It  is  nearly 
three-tenths  of  an  inch  long, 
exclusive  of  the  snout. 

The  genus  Hylobius  has 
the  antennae  inserted  before 
the  middle  of  the  snout,  not 
far  from  the  sides  of  the 
mouth.  The  Pine  weevil, 
Hylobius  pales  Herbst,  is 
very  destructive  to  pines,  the  pitch-pine  especially.  This 
deep  chestnut  colored  weevil  is  very  abundant  in  May  and 
June.  It  has  a  line  on  the  thortix,  and  yellowish  white  dots 
scattered  over  the  body,  while  the  thighs  are  toothed  beneath, 
and  the  slender  cylindrical  snout  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  tho- 
rax. The  larvae  are  found  under  the  bark.  In  old  trees  it 
burrows  under  the  bark,  its  galleries  extending  irregularly  over 
the  inner  surface  of  the  bark  and  in  the  sap  wood. 

The  White-pine  weevil,  Pissodes  strobi 
Peck  (Fig.  463;  a,  larva;  6,  pupa), 
equally  destructive  writh  the  former,  is  a 
smaller  beetle,  more  slender,  and  oblong 
oval  in  form.  It  is  rust-colored  brown, 
with  two  white  dots  on  the  thorax",  a 
white  scutellum,  and  behind  the  middle 
of  the  elytra,  which  are  punctured  in 
rig.  464.  rows,  is  a  transverse  white  line.  .  Harris 

states  that  its  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  leading  shoots  of 
the  pine,  probably  on  the  outer  bark,  and  the  larva  when 
hatched  bores  into  the  shoot,  and  thus  distorts  the  tree  for  life. 
The  pupa  is  found  just  under  the  bark,  the  beetles  appearing 
in  the  autumn,  though  in  much  greater  numbers  in  May. 

We  have  found  this  insect,  in  all  its  stages  of  growth, 
under  the  bark  of  the  white  pine  the  last  of  April,  the 
larvae  being  the  most  numerous.  T^e  larva  is  white,  foot- 
less, cylindrical,  with  a  pale  reddish  head.  It  is  .32  of  an 
inch  long,  and  transforms  in  a  cell.  The  pupa  is  white,  ihe 
tip  of  the  abdomen  being, square,  with  a  sharp  spine  on  each 


CURCULIONID^.  487 

side.  It  is  .30  of  an  inch  long.  An  insect  that  would  be 
readily  mistaken  for  the  Hylobius  pales  is  the  Otiorhynchus  sul- 
catus  of  Fabricius  (Fig.  464),  which  is  of  much  the  same  color, 
but  with  a  thicker  body. 

The  Plum  Gouger,  Anthonomus  pi^unicida  Walsh,  resembles 
the  Plum  curculio  in  its  habits,  and,  according  to  Walsh,  is 
equally  as  common  in  Northern  and  Central  Illinois.  It  makes 
a  round  puncture  in  the  plum,  sometimes  five  or  six,  from 
which  the  gum  copiously  exudes.  Instead  of  living,  however, 
in  the  pulp,  it  devours  the  kernel  and  usually  transforms  inside 
the  stone  of  the  fruit.  "The  thorax  of  the  plum  gouger  is 
ochre-yellow  ;  the  head  and  hinder  parts  slate-color,  the  latter 
with  irregular  white  and  black  spots.  In  common  with  the 
other  species  of  the  genus  to  which  it  belongs  its  snout  usually 
projects  forward,  whereas  that  of  the  Curculio  usually  hangs 
perpendicularly  downwards."  (Walsh.)  A.  sycophanta  Walsh 
is  brown-black  and  was  bred  by  Mr.  Walsh  from  the  galls  of 
various  saw- flies  found  on  the  willow,  and  he  supposes  that  this 
species,  "while  in  the  larva  state,  must  destroy  the  egg  or  the 
very  young  larva  of  the  gall-making  Nematus,  just  as  A.  cra- 
tcegi  Walsh  evidently  does  ;  which  was  found  in  an  undescribed 
Cecidomyian  gall  on  the  thorn  bush,  and  just  as  the  larva  of 
A.  scutellatus  Schonh.  gradually  destroys  the  young  plant-lice 
among  which,  it  lives  ;  otherwise  the  two  larvae  would  exist  in 
the  same  gall."  Walsh  has  also  bred  A.  tessellatus  Walsh  from 
the  Cecidomyian  gall,  C.  s.  brassicoides.  It  is  "a  very  con- 
stant species  and  easily  recognizable  by  the  tessellate  appear- 
ance of  the  elytra."  A.  quadrigibbus  Say  punctures  the  apple, 
making  from  one  to  twenty  holes  in  the  fruit. 

The  Cranberry  weevil,  as  we  may  call  it,  or  the  Anthonomus 
suturalis  Lee.,  is  a  minute  reddish  brown  beetle,  with  the  beak 
one-half  as  long  as  the  body,  just  beyond  the  middle  of  which 
the  antennae  are  inserted.  The  head  is  darker  than  the  rest 
of  the  bodjr,  being  brown  black.  The  thorax  is  a  little  darker 
than  the  elytra  .and  covered  very  sparsely  with  short  whitish 
hairs  ;  the  'scutellum  is  whitish,  and  the  elytra  are  shining  red- 
dish brown,  with  the  striae  deeply  punctured,  the  interstices 
.  being  smooth.  It  is  .13  of  an  inch  long  including  the  beak. 
Mr.  *W.  C.  Fish  writes  me  that  in  the  middle  of  July  he 


488 


COLEOPTERA. 


Fig.  465. 


detected  this  little  weevil  laying  its  eggs  in  the  buds  of  the 
cranberry.  "It  selects  a  bud  not  quite  ready  to  open,  and 
clinging  to  it,  works  its  snout  deep  into  the  centre  of  the  bud. 
An  egg  is  then  deposited  in  the  hole  made,  when  the  beetle 
climbs  to  the  stem  and  cuts  it  off  near  where  it  joins  the  bud, 
which  drops  to  the  ground  and  there  decays  ;  the  egg  hatching 
and  the  grub  going  through  its  transformations  within."  The 

larva  is  long  and  rather 
slender,  cylindrical,  the 
body  being  of  uniform 
thickness  and  curved  ;  the 
head  is  pale  honey  yel- 
low ;  the  jaws  tipped  with 
black ;  the  rings  are  very 
convex,  especially  the  pro- 
thoracic  one  ;  it  is  white, 
with  a  few  fine  pale  hairs,  and  is  .08  of  an  inch  in  length. 

The  Magdalinus  olyra  Herbst  (Fig.  465  ;  a,  larva  ;  fr,  pupa  ; 
the  thorax  of  the  larva  is  enlarged  by  the  pupa  growing  be- 
neath ;  the  pupa  from  which  the  drawing  was  made  is  not  fully 
developed,  since  the  tip  of  the  fully  grown  pupa  ends  in  two 
spines)  may  be  found  in  all  its  stages  early  in  May  under  the 

bark  of  the  oak.  The  larva  is 
white,  with  the  head  freer  from 
the  body  than  in  Pissodes  strobi 
(though  it  is  not  so  represented 
in  the  figure) .  The  body  of  the 
beetle  is  black,  punctured,  and 

.^gte^       I  -4{j8B£fc'    the  thorax  has  a  lateral  tubercle 
ulMB       on  the  front  edge,  while  the  tarsi 
•"^      "CTl*          crfiSn      are  brown  with  whitish  hairs.     It 

is  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long. 

Conotrachelus  nenuphar  Herbst, 
a,  larva  ;  6,  pupa ;  c,  beetle  ;  d, 
plum  stung  by  the  weevil)  is  a  short,  stout,  thick  weevil, 
and  the  snout  is  curved,  rather  longer  than  the  thorax, 
and  bent  on  the  chest  when  at  rest.  It  is  dark  brown, 
spotted  with  white,  ochre^ellow  and  black,  and  the  surface  is 
rough,  from  which  the  beetle,  as  Harris  says,  looks  like  a 


Fig.  466. 

the  Plum -weevil  (Fig.  466 


CURCULIONID^E . 


489 


dried  bud  when  shaken  from  the  trees.  When  the  fruit  is  set, 
the  beetles  sting  the  plums,  and  sometimes  apples  and  peaches, 
with  their  snouts,  making  a  curved  incision,  in  which  a  single 
egg  is  deposited.  Mr.  F.  C.  Hill  shows  that  the  curculio 
makes  the  crescent-shaped  cut  after  the  egg  is  pushed  in  "so 
as  to  undermine  the  egg,  and  leave  it  in  a  kind  of  flap  formed 
by  the  little  piece  of  the  flesh  of  the  fruit  which  she  has  under- 
mined. Can  her  object  be  to  wilt  the  piece  around  the  egg 
and  prevent  the  growing  fruit  from  crushing  it?"  (Practical 
Entomologist,  ii,  p.  115.)  The  grub  hatched  therefrom  is  a 
little  footless,  fleshy  white  grub,  with  a  distinct  round  light 
brown  head.  The  irritation  set  up  by  these  larvae  causes 
the  fruit  to  drop  before  it  is  of  full  size,  with  the  larva  still 
within.  Now  full-fed,  it 
burrows  directly  into  the 
ground  and  there  trans- 
forms during  the  last  of 
the  summer.  In  three 
weeks  it  becomes  a  beetle 
It  also  attacks  many  other 
garden  fruits,  such  as  the 
cherry,  peach  and  quince. 
Drs.  Harris,  Burnett  and 
others,  think  the  larva  is 
but  a  temporary  occupant 
of  the  wart  on  plumb  and  cherry  trees,  and  not  a  cause  of 
the  disease.  The  best  remedy  is  jarring  the  trees,  and  catch- 
ing the  larvae  in  sheets  and  burning  them.  Dr.  Hull's  "cur- 
culio catcher"  is  an  excellent  invention  for  destroying  these 
insects ;  it  consists  of  a  large  inverted  white  umbrella,  fixed 
upon  a  large  wheelbarrow  split  in  front  to  receive  the  trunk 
of  the  tree,  against  which  it  is  driven  with  force  sufficient 
to  jar  the  curculios  from  the  tree  into  the  umbrella. 

The  genus  Ceutorhynchus  is  a  small,  short,  thick  curculio, 
which  attacks  the  seeds  of  the  radish  and  allied  plants.  We 
have  noticed  a  pale  gray  species  on  the  radish,  which  probably 
inhabits  the  seeds. 

The  genus  Calandra  has  a  slender  snout  slightly  bent  down- 
wards, a  coarsely  punctured  thorax  nearly  half  as  long  as  the 


490 


COLEOPTERA, 


whole  body,  while  the  elytra  are  furrowed  and  do  not  quite 
cover  the  tip  of  the  abdomen.  O.  palmarum  Linn,  is  a  large 
black  weevil,  which  lives  in  the  trunks  of  palms.  The  Grain 
Weevil,  Sitophilus  granarius  Linn.  (Fig.  467 ;  e,  and  natural 
size;  5,  pupa,  enlarged),  is  pitchy  red  in  color 
and  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  long,  and  is  im- 
mensely prolific.  This  great  pest,  both  as  a 
larva  and  beetle,  consumes  wheat  after  it  is  stored 
up,  being  very  abundant  in  granaries.  The  larva 
devours  the  inside  of  the  hull,  leaving  the  shell 
whole,  so  that  its  presence  is  not  readily  de- 
tected. To  prevent  its  attacks  Harris  recommends  that  the 
wheat  be  kept  cool,  well  ventilated,  and  frequently  stirred. 

A  similar  weevil,  /Sitophilus  oryzce  Linn.  (Fig.  467 ;  e,  and 
natural  size),  attacks  the  grains  of  rice  and  also  of  wheat;  it 
differs  in  having  two  large  red  spots  on  each  elytron,  and  it  is 
abundant  in  the  South,  where  it  is  called  the  * '  black  weevil." 
The  European  turnip  weevil,  Ceutorhynchus  assimilis  Payk., 
a  broad,  pale  gray  insect,  has  occurred  in  Maine  on  the  radish. 
The  Grape  Curculio,  Codiodes  incequalis  Say  (Fig.  468  ;  469  ; 
a,  grape  disfigured  by  the  larva  ;  5,  larva),  has  lately,  according 
to  Walsh,  been  very  destructive  to 
grapes,  stinging  the  fruit  and  thus 
destroying  whole  bunches  of  them. 
The  presence  of  the  larva  in  the 
grape  may  be  known  by  a  discolora- 
tion on  one  side  of  the  berry  as  if 
prematurely  ripening,  though  it  be 
the  last  of  June  or  early  in  July.  Late 
in  July  or  early  in  August  the  grub  may  be  found  fully  grown, 
when  it  drops  to  the  ground  and  descending  a  little  beneath 
the  surface  transforms,  and  the  beetle  appears  early  in  Sep- 
tember. It  is  grayish  black,  the  elytra  black  freckled  with 
gray  spots,  and  striated,  with  large  punctures.  The  legs  are 
dull  brick  red  ;  the  femora  are  unarmed,  while  the  four  anterior 
tibiae  have  a  large  rectangular  tooth  near  the  base.  It  is  from 
.09  to  .11  of  an  inch  in  length.  As  a  preventative  against 
their  attacks,  the  vines  should  be  thoroughly  shaken  each  day 
in  June. 


Fig.  469. 


SCOLYTID.E. 


491 


The  genus  Ptiytobius  is  closely  allied  to  the  preceding ;  the 
European  P.  velatus  Beck  has  the  habit,  as  we  learn  from 
Gerstaecker  (Handbuch  der  Zoologie)  of  living  under  water. 

The  Potato-stalk  Weevil,  Baridius  trinotatus  Say  (Fig.  470  ; 
larva  and  pupa  ;  471,  adult),  is  a  common  species  in  the  Mid- 
dle and  Western  States,  where  it  causes  the  stalk  to  wilt  and 
die,  hence  all  stalks  so  affected  should  be  burnt.  "  The  beetle 
is  of  a  bluish  or  ash  gray  color,  distinguished  as  its  name  im- 
plies, by  having  three  shiny  black  impressed  spots  at  the  lower 
edge  of  the  thorax.  The  female  deposits  a  single  egg  in  an 
oblong  slit  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long,  which  she  has  pre- 
viously formed  with  her  beak  in  the  stalk  of  the  potato.  The 
larva  subsequently  hatches  out  and  bores  into  the  heart  of  the 
stalk,  always  proceeding  downward  towards  the  root.  When 
fully  grown  it  is  a  little  over  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long,  and  is 
a  soft,  whitish,  legless  grub,  with  a  scaly  head."  (Riley.)  The 
larva  of  B.  vestitus  Sch.  (Fig. 
472),  infests  the  steins  of 
the  tobacco  plant  in  Mexico. 

Mr.  Huntington  has  ob- 
served the  Grape  Cane  gall 
curculio,  Baridius  Sesostris 
Lee.  (Fig.  473)  in  the  larval 
state  in  large  bunches  near  the  joints  of  the  Clinton  grape  on 
Kelly's  Island,  near  Sandusky,  Ohio,  and  has  also  found  the 
beetle  in  considerable  numbers.  The  larva  closely  resembles 
that  of  the  Potato  Baridius.  Riley  states  that  the  gall 
is  formed  during  the  previous  autumn  while  the  tender 
cane  is  growing.  "It  has  almost  invariably  a  longitu- 
dinal slit  or  depression  on  one  side,  dividing  that  side 
into  two  cheeks,  which  generally  have  a  rosy  tint." 
It  pupates  late  in  June,  and  early  in  July  the  adult  Fig.  472. 
appears.  It  may  be  known  by  its  polished  elytra  and  punc- 
tured thorax.  It  is  pale  reddish,  with  a  stout  beak,  equalling 
the  body  in  length,  and  each  elytron  has  a  swelling  on  the 
outer  edge  near  the  base,  and  another  near  the  tip.  It  is  a 
tenth  of  an  inch  long.  It  is  the  Madams  vitis  of  Riley. 


Westwood.     These  cylindrical  bark  borers  are 


492 


COLEOPTERA. 


rounded  beetles  of  an  elongate  cylindrical  form,  truncated  be- 
fore and  behind.  They  mine  under  the  bark  of  trees,  running 
their  winding  galleries  in  every  direction.  They  rarely  attack 
>  living  healthy  trees.  They  are  usually  brown 
or  black  in  color.  The  rounded  head  does  not 
end  in  a  snout  and  is  deeply  sunken  in  the 
thorax ;  the  clavate  antennae  are  somewhat  el- 
bowed, while  the  palpi  are  very  short ;  the 
elytra  are  often  hollowed  at  the  end,  and 
the  short  stout  legs  are  toothed  on  the  under 
side  of  the  femora,  and  the  tarsi  are  slender  and 
narrow.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  bark,  whence  the  larvae  on 
being  hatched  bore  straight  into  the  sap  wood,  or  mine  between 
the  bark  and  sap  wood.  They  are  like  those  of  the  preceding 
family,  fleshy,  cylindrical,  footless  larvae,  wrinkled  on  the  back. 
When  fully  grown  in  the  autumn  they  gnaw 
an  exit  .for  the  beetle,  taking  care  to  leave  a 
little  space  closed  in  front  of  their  burrow  to 
conceal  the  pupa.  The  bark  of  trees  infested 
by  them  should  be  scraped  and  whitewashed. 
Hylurgus  terebrans  Oliv.  (Fig.  474)  is  a  rather 
large  red  species,  very  abundant  in  spring.  Fig.  474. 
It  is  found  under  the  bark  of  pines  associated  with  Pissodes, 
though  the  larva  is  smaller  and  more  cylindrical.  It  mines  the 
inner  surface  of  the  bark,  slightly  grooving  the  sap  wood,  and 
pupates  in  April,  appearing  as  a  beetle  in  great  numbers  on 
warm  days  early  in  May.  Hylurgus  dentatus  Say 
infests  the  cedar. 

The  Scolytus  destructor  of  Olivier  often  does  much 
injury  to  old  and  decaying  elm  trees  in   Europe. 
Capt.  Cox  exhibited  to  the  Entomological  Society  of 
London  a  piece  of  elm  three  feet  long,  which  was 
scored  by  the  lateral  tubes  of  this  insect,  which  he 
Fig.  475.     estimate(j  must  have  given  birth  to  280,000  larvae. 
The  various  species  of  Scolytus,  Tomicus  and  Xyloterus  give 
rise  to  a  disease  similar  to  fireblight,  by  their  ravages  beneath 
the  twigs  of  fruit  trees,  causing  the  bark  to  shrivel  and  peal 
off  as  if  a  fire  had  run  through  the  orchard.     The  best  method 
of  restraining  their  attacks  is  to  peal  off  the  affected  bark,  ex- 


CERAMBYCID^J.  493 

posing  the  eggs  and  larvae  to  the  air,  when  the  birds  will  soon 
destroy  them.  T.  monographus  does  great  damage  by  drilling 
holes  in  malt-liquor  casks  in  India.  It  was  calculated  that 
sometimes  134,000  holes  were  drilled  in  the  staves  forming  a 
single  cask.  Immersion  in  boiling  water  has  been  found  an 
effectual  remedy.  (Morse.) 

Also  associated  with  Pissodes,  we  have  found  in  April  the 
galleries  of  Tomicus  pini  Say  branching  out  from  a  common 
centre.  They  are  filled  up  with  fine  chips,  and,  according  to 
Fitch,  are  notched  in  the  sides  "in  which  the  eggs  have  been 
placed,  where  they  would  remain  undisturbed  by  the 
beetle  as  it  crawled  backwards  and  forth  through  the  1 
gallery."  These  little  beetles  have  not  the  long  snout 
of  the  weevils,  hence  they  cannot  bore  through  the 
outer  bark,  but  enter  into  the  burrows  made  the  pre-  / 
ceding  year,  and  distribute  their  eggs  along  the  sides. 
(Fitch.)  T.  xylographus  Say  (Fig.  475)  is  often  a  Fig.  476. 
most  formidable  enemy  to  the  white  pine  in  the  North,  and  the 
yellow  pine  in  the  South.  The  genus  Cryphalus  is  a  slenderer 
form.  A  species,  probably  the  C.  materarius  of  Fitch  (Fig. 
476),  has  been  found  by  Mr.  Huntington  of  Kelly's  Island,  to 
bore  into  empty  wine  casks  and  spoil  them  for  use. 

CERAMBYCID^:  Leach.  (Longicornia  Latreille).  This  im- 
mense family,  numbering  already  nearly  4,000  known  species, 
comprises  some  of  the  largest,  most  showy,  as  well  as  the  most 
destructive  insects  of  the  suborder.  They  are  readily  recog- 
nized by  their  oblong,  often  cylindrical  bodies,  the  remarkably 
long,  filiform,  recurved  antennae,  and  the  powerful  incurved 
mandibles.  Their  eggs  are  introduced  into  the  cracks  in  the 
bark  of  plants  by  the  long  fleshy  extensile  tip  of  the  abdo- 
men. The  larvae  are  long,  flattened,  cylindrical,  fleshy,  often 
footless  whitish  grubs^  with  very  convex  rings,  the  prothoracic 
segment  being  much  larger  and  broader  than  the  succeeding, 
while  the  head  is  small  and  armed  with  strong  sharp  mandi- 
bles adapted  for  boring  like  an  auger  in  the  hardest  woods. 

These  borers  live  from  one  to  three  years  before  transform- 
ing, at  the  end  of  which  time  they  construct  a  cocoon  of  chips 
at  the  end  of  their  burrows,  the  head  of  the  pupa  lying  next 


494  COLEOPTEKA. 

to  the  thin  portion  of  bark  left  to  conceal  the  hole.  As  quoted 
by  Baron  Osten  Sacken  in  an  interesting  article  on  the  larval 
forms  of  some  of  our  native  beetles,  Erichson  states  that  "not- 
withstanding the  great  similitude  between  the  larvae  of  Longi- 
corns,  some  important  differences  in  the  structure  of  those 
belonging  to  the  four  subdivisions  of  this  family  may  be  no- 
ticed. The  larvae  of  the  Lamiidse  differ  more  than  the  others, 
on  account  of  the  total  absence  of  feet,  and  the  position  of  the 
first  pair  of  stigmata  which  is  placed  in  the  fold  between 
the  pro-  and  mesothoracic  segments,  less  abruptly  separated 
than  the  others.  The  other  larvae  have  this  first  pair  on  the 
sides  of  the  mesothorax,  and  have  feet, 
which,  however,  are  sometimes  so  small 
as  to  be  perceptible  only  when  magni- 
fied, even  in  large  sized  larvae.  The 
Cerambycidae  (Cerambyx,  Callidium  and 
allies)  have,  on  the  posterior  side  of  the 
prothorax,  above  and  below,  a  fleshy, 
transverse  fold,  separated  by  a  furrow 
from  the  horny  disc  of  this  segment. 
In  the  Prionidae  and  Lepturidae,  the 
same  fold  is  visible  only  on  the  under 
side.  The  Lepturce  have  a  large  flattened 
head,  as  broad  as  the  prothorax,  whereas 
Fig.  477.  in  the  other  Longicorn  larvae  the  head  is 

small  and  much  narrower  than  the  thorax.  The  larvae  of  the 
Prionidae  show  the  least  differences  from  those  of  the  Lep- 
turidae ;  and  that  of  Spondylis  is  remarkably  allied  to  the  lat- 
ter." "  The  pupa  is  at  first  soft  and  whitish,  and  it  exhibits 
all  the  par-ts  of  the  future  beetle  under  a  filmy  veil  which  in- 
wraps  every  limb.  The  wings  and  legs  are  folded  upon  the 
breast ;  the  long  antennae  are  turned  back  against  the  sides  of 
the  body,  and  then  bent  forwards  between  the  legs."  (Har- 
ris.) The  beetles  mostly  hide  by  day  and  fly  by  night. 

Parandra  brunnea  Fabr.  is  much  unlike  the  remaining  genera, 
being  Tenebrio-like  in  form,  with  abroad  head  and  short  an- 
tennae, and  shining  red  in  color.  The  larva  is  described  by 
Osten  Sacken  as  having  a  yellowish  cordate  head,  with  a  large 
prothorax  and  fleshy  tubercles  on  the  upper  and  under  side  of 


CERAMBYCIDJE. 


495 


(8 


the  segments,  with  the  first  pair  of  stigmata  placed  on  the 
sides  of  the  mesothorax.     It  is  found  in  dead  beach  trees. 

The  Orthosoma  unicolor  Drury  (Fig.  477)  is  a  light  bay  col- 
ored beetle  found  flying  from  the  middle  of  July  until  Septem- 
ber. We  have  found  the  larva  (Fig.  478)  in  the  rot- 
ten stumps  of  the  pine,  and  in  the  Western  States 
Riley  states  that  a  larva  (Fig.  479,  head  and  tho- 
rax seen  from  beneath),  probably  of  this  species, 
eats  the  roots  of  the  grape-vine,  hollowing  out  and 
sometimes  severing  the  root  and  killing  the  vine. 

Prionus  brevicornis  Fabr.  is  a  very  large,  not  un- 
common beetle,  of  an  ovate  shape  and  pitchy  black 
color,  with  short,  thick  jaws,  and 
antennae  about  half  as  long  as 
the  body.  The  larvae,  Harris 
states,  are  as  thick  as  a  man's 
thumb,  and  are  found  in  the 
trunks  and  roots  of  the  Balm  of 
Gilead  and  Lombardy  poplar.  Fig-  478- 

Crossidius  pulclirior  Bland  (Fig.  480), 
from  Nebraska,  is  a  pale  reddish  beetle,  with  the  antennas, 
head,  base  and  the  large  mark  on  the  disk  of  the  elytra  and 
legs  black.  An  allied  form  is  Eburia?  Ulkei  Bland 
(Fig.  481,  showing  the  sculpturing  of  the  head)  which  is 
described  as  coming  from  Cape  St.  Lucas,  Lower  Cali- 
fornia. 

The  larva  of  Stenocorus  putator  Peck  (Fig.  482 ;  a, 
larva,  just  about  transforming;  6,  pupa)  nearly  ampu-Flgl480* 
tates  the  branches  of  the  black  and  white  oaks.  After  becoming 
mature  in  the  trunk,  and  just  before  undergo- 
ing its  transformations,  it  gnaws  off  a  branch 
which  falls  to  the  ground,  containing  the  larva, 
which  changes  to  a  beetle  in  midsummer,  and 
lays  its  egg  near  the  axilla  of  a  leaf  stalk  or 
The  beetle  is  a  very  slender  one,  with  antennae 
longer  than  the  body  in  the  males,  the  third  and  fourth  joints 
of  which  are  tipped  with  a  small  spine  or  thorn.  It  is  dull 
brown,  with  gray  spots.  The  Banded  hickory  borer,  Chion 
(Cerasphorus)  tinctus  Drury,  makes  long  galleries  in  the 


Fig.  479. 


Fig.  481. 

small  stem 


496 


COLEOPTERA. 


trunks  of  hickory  trees,  the  worm  often  working  its  way  out  of 
the  wood  after  it  has  been  made  into  articles  of  furniture  or 

carriages.  The  Ase- 
mum  moestum  Halde- 
man  (Fig.  483  ;  a,  a, 
larva;  6,  pupa),  we 
have  found  in  all  its 
stages  under  the  bark 
of  oaks,  early  in  May. 
The  larva  is  footless, 
white ;  the  head  is 
rather  large,  white, 
with  strong  black  jaws* 

convex  on  the  outer  side;   the  body  is  uniform,  gradually 
diminishing  in  width  posteriorly ;  it  is  .60  of  an  inch  long. 
The  pupa  is  .44  of  an  inch  long.     The  beetle  is  about  half  an 
inch  long  and  is  dark  brown,  with  very  thick  femora,     na 
It  flies  the  last  of  May.     I  have  received  a  larva  of  this      g 
species  from  Dr.  Shimer,  Which  was  found  by  him  boring      H 
in  the  grape-vine.     The   genus  Callidium  has  antennae  Fig.  484 
of  moderate  length,  a  broad  rounded  prothorax,  and  a  flattened 
body  behind.    The  larvae  are  unusually  flattened,  with  a  broad 

horny  head,  small  stout  man- 
dibles, and  six  small  legs,  and 
they  are  said  to  live  in  this 
state  two  years.  Callidium 
antennatum  Newman  is  en- 
tirely blue ;  it  bores  in  pine 
wood  and  in  red  cedar,  min- 
ing under  the  bark.  C.  semi- 
circularis  Bland  (Fig.  484)  is 
reddish  brown,  with  a  white 
band  on  each  elytron,  enclosing  a  rather  large,  semicircular, 
black  spot.  It  was  discovered  in  Pennsylvania. 

Clytus  has  a  more  cylindrical  body,  and  spherical  prothorax, 
besides  being  beautifully  banded  with  golden,  on  a  dark 
ground.  Clytus  speciosus  Say  injures  the  maple.  We  have 
taken  the  beetle  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Katahdin  in  Maine. 
The  beetle  lays  its  eggs  in  July  and  August,  and  the  larvae 


Fig.  483. 


CEKAMBYCID.E, 


497 


Fig.  485. 


bore  in  all  directions  through  the  tree.  Osten  Sacken  de- 
scribes the  larva  of  C.  pictus  Drury,  the  Hickory-tree  borer 
(Fig.  485;  a,  larva;  6,  pupa),  as  being  usix  to  seven-tenths 
of  an  inch  in  length,  being  rather  long,  somewhat  flattened 
club-shaped,  the  thoracic  segments  being  considerably  broader 
than  the  abdominal  ones,  but  at 
the  same  time  distinctly  flattened 
above  and  below."  The  pupa  has  a 
numerous  pointed  granulations 
on  the  prothorax,  and  similar 
sharp  spines  on  the  abdominal 
segments.  "  On  the  penultimate 
segments,  these  projections  are  larger  and  recurved  anteriorly 
at  the  tip ;  there  are  six  in  a  row  near  the  posterior  margin,, 
and  two  others  more  anteriorly.  The  last  segment  has  four 
similar  projections  in  a  row."  The  male  of  the 
Locust  tree  borer,  C.  robinice  Forster  (Fig.  486, 
<£),  according  to  Walsh,  differs  from  that  of  C. 
pictus  "in  having  much  longer  and  stouter  an- 
tennae and  in  having  its  body  tapered  behind  to 
a  blunt  point,"  while  the  females  "are  not  dis- 
tinguishable at  all."  It  does  great  injury  to  the 
Locust  tree,  and  appears  in  the  beetle  state  in  September, 
while  C.  pictus,  the  Hickory  tree  borer,  appears  in  June.  0. 
araneiformis  Oliv.  (Fig.  487)  has  been  detected  on  a  wharf  in 
Philadelphia ;  it  was  first  described  as  coming  from 
St.  Domingo. 

The  Long- handed  Acrocinus,  A.  longimanus  Fabr. 
(Fig.  488,  larva,  natural  size),  is  a  gigantic  insect, 
allied  to  Prionus,  but  with  enormously  developed  fore 
legs,  the  whole  body,  including  the  fore  legs,  when  out- 
stretched measuring  ten  inches  ;  it  is  brown,  beautifully 
banded  with  red  and  buff.  M.  Salle  has  found  the  larva  Fig- 
at  Cordova,  Mexico,  under  the  bark  of  a  Ficus.  It  grows 
larger  in  Brazil.  Leiopus  is  a  diminutive  ally  of  Lamia.  Dr. 
Shimer  has  detected  the  larva  of  L.  xanthoxyli  Shimer,  under- 
mining the  bark  of  the  prickly-ash,  when  the  wood  has  recently 
died.  It  is  a  footless  borer,  "of  whitish  and  pink  orange 
colors,  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long."  In  the  burrows 
32 


Fig.  486. 


498 


COLEOPTERA. 


formed  by  the  larvae  he  found  May  25th,  several  pink-orange 
pupae,  "invariably  lying  with  their  heads  outwards  ;  their  long 
antennae  folded  over  the  wing-cases  obliquely  down  on  the 
sides,  passing  beneath  the  posterior  pair 
of  legs,  a  little  beyond  them  and  then 
curving  up  over  the  breast,  reach  the 
head."  The  beetle  is  related  to  L.  alpha 
Say,  and  is  gray,  with  bands  and  spots  of 
blackish  pubescence ;  it  is  .25  of  an  inch 
long.  Two  species  of  ichneumons  were 
found  by  Shimer  to  prey  upon  the  beetle. 
In  Monohammus  the  antennae  are  of 
great  length.  M.  titillator  Fabr.  is  brown 
mottled  with  gray  ;  while  a  slenderer  spe- 
cies, M.  scutettatus  Say,  of  a  peculiar  dark 
olive  green,  with  a  whitish  scutellum,  bores 
in  the  white  pine. 

The  singular  habits  of  the  Girdler,  Onci- 
deres  cingulatus  Say  (Fig.  489),  have  thus 
been  described  by  Professor  Haldeman 
in  the  Pennsylvania  Farm  Journal,  vol.  i, 
p.  34.  "This  insect  was  first  described 
by  Say  in  the  Journal  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences,  vol.  v,  p.  272,  1825,  and  its 
habits  were  discovered  by  us  and  published  in 
our  'Materials  towards  a  History  of  the  Col- 
eoptera  longicornia  of  the  United  States  ;'  Am. 
Phil.  Trans.,  vol.  x.  p.  52,  1837. 

"In  our  walks  through  the  forest  our  atten- 
tion was  frequently  drawn  to  the  branches  and 
main  shoots  of  young  hickory  trees    (Carya 
alba),  which  were  girdled  with  a  deep  notch  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  induce  an  observer  to  be- 
lieve that  the  object  in  view  was  to  kill  the 
branch  beyond  the  notch,  and  extraordinary  as 
it  may  appear,  this  is  actually  the  fact,  and  the        rig.  489. 
operator  is  an  insect  whose  instinct  was  implanted   by  the 
Almighty  power  who  created  it,  and  under  such  circumstances 
that  it  could  never  have  been  acquired  as  a  habit.     The  effect 


Fig.  488. 


CEKAMBYCID^.  499 

of  girdling  is  unknown  to  the  insect,  whose  life  is  too  short 
to  foresee  the  necessities  of  its  progeny  during  the  succeeding 
season. 

"  This  insect  may  be  seen  in  Pennsylvania  during  the  two 
last  weeks  in  August  and  the  first  week  in  September  feeding 
upon  the  bark  of  the  tender  branches  of  the  young  hickories. 
Both  sexes  are  rather  rare,  particularly  the  male,  which  is  rather 
smaller  than  the  female,  but  with  longer  antennae.  The  female 
makes  perforations  in  the  branches  of  the  tree  upon  which  she 
lives  (which  are  from  half  an  inch  to  less  than  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  thick) ,  in  which  she  deposits  her  eggs  ;  she  then  proceeds 
to  gnaw  a  groove  of  about  a  tenth  of  an  inch  wide  and  deep 
around  the  branch,  and  below  the  place  where  the  eggs  are 
deposited,  so  that  the  exterior  portion  dies  and  the  larva  feeds 
upon  the  dead  wood  and  food  which  is  essential  to  many 
insects,  although  but  few  have  the  means  of  providing  it  for 
themselves  or  their  progeny  by  an  instinct  so  remarkable. 

"Where  this  insect  is  abundant,  it  must  cause  much  damage 
to  young  forests  of  hop-poles  by  the  destruction  of  the  prin- 
cipal shoot.     We  have  known  insects  which,  from 
their  rarity,  could  hardly  be  regarded  as  '  noxious,' 
increase  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  very  destructive, 
and  the  locust  trees  (Robinia  pseudacacia)  have  had 
their  foliage  withered  during  the  few  last  summers 
from  such  a  cause  (Cecidomyia  robinise  Hald.)  which 
has  caused  these  trees  to  wither  since  that  period, 
particularly   in    August,    1868."      The    Tridentate 
Compsidea,  C.  tridentata  Oliv.  (Fig.  490,  larva,  en- 
larged three  times),  is  a  dark  brown  beetle,  with  a 
rusty  red  curved  line  behind  the  eyes,  two  stripes  on     Fi&-  49°- 
the  thorax,  and  a  three-toothed  stripe  on  the  outer  edge  of 
each  wing-cover,  and  is  about  half  an  inch  long.     It  lives  under 
the  bark  of  elms,  occasionally  doing  much  damage.  (Harris.) 

The  larva  ofPsenocerus  supernotatus  (described  by  Say)  which 
burrows  in  the  stem  of  a  climbing  plant,  supposed  to  be 
the  grape,  Osten  Sacken  describes  as  being  three-tenths  of  an 
inch  long,  subcylindrical  or  prismatical,  the  pro-  and  meso- 
thorax  being  a  little  broader  than  the  other  segments,  and  the 
whole  body  sparsely  beset  with  fine  golden  hairs. 


^ 


500  COLEOP1ERA. 

This  insect,  according  to  Fitch,  also  does  much  injury  to  the 
currant,  eating  the  pith  "through  the  whole  length  of  the 
stalk  and  leaving  it  filled  with  a  fine  powder.  It  is  about 
the  first  of  June  that  the  parent  insect  deposits  her  eggs  upon 
the  currant  stalks,  and  the  worms  get  their  growth  by  the 
close  of  the  season.  They  repose  in  their  cells  through  the 
winter,  changing  to  pupae  with  the  warmth  of  the  following 
spring,  and  begin  to  appear  abroad  in  their  perfect 
state  as  early  as  the  middle  of  May,  the  sexes  pairing 
immediately  after  they  come  out."  (Fitch.)  In  August, 
1868,  I  received  from  Dr.  P.  A.  Chadbourne,  President 
of  Madison  University,  several  branches  of  the  apple 
containing  larvae,  which  in  the  next  spring  changed  to 
this  beetle.  They  were  very  injurious  to  orchards  in 
Fig.  491.  hjg  vicinity,  and  this  seems  to  be 'the  first  instance 
of  its  occurrence  in  the  apple.  The  larva  (Fig.  491,  en- 
larged thrice)  is  nearly  half  an  inch  long;  it  is  footless, 
white,  with  the  head  scarcely  half  as  wide  as  the  body  and  con- 
siderably flattened  ;  the  segments  are  rather  convex,  each  hav- 
ing two  rows  of  minute  warts,  and  the  tip  is  rather  blunt,  with 
a  few  fine  golden  hairs.  It  devoured  the  sap  wood  and  under 
side  of  the  bark  and  also  the  pith,  thus  locally  killing  the 
terminal  twigs,  and  causing  the  bark  to 
shrivel  and  peel  off,  leaving  a  distinct  line 
of  demarcation  between  the  dead  and  living 
portions  of  the  twig.  Each  larva  seemed  to 
live  in  a  space  one  and  one-half  inches  long, 
there  being  five  holes  through  the  bark  within 
the  space  of  as  many  inches.  On  the  16th 
of  August  the  grubs  seemed  to  have  accom- 
plished their  work  of  destruction,  as  they 
rigt  492'  were  fully  grown.  The  beetle  is  from  .13  to 

.20  of  an  inch  long,  and  may  be  known  by-  its  dark,  reddish 
brown,  cylindrical  body,  with  a  high  tubercle  at  the  base 
of  the  elytron,  an  oblique  yellowish  white  line  on  the  basal 
third,  and  a  broad  curved  white  line  on  the  outer  third  of  the 
elytron,  or  wing-cover. 

Saperda  Candida  Fabr.  (bivittata  Say,  Fig.  492)  the  well 
known  Apple  tree  borer,  flies  about  orchards  in  July  in  New 


501 

England,  in  May  and  June  in  the  Western  States,  usually  at 
night,  but  we  once  observed  it  flying  in  the  hottest  part  of  the 
day.  At  this  time  the  female  lays  her  eggs  in  the  bark  near 
the  roots.  The  nearly  cylindrical  larvae  are  whitish  fleshy 
grubs,  with  a  small  horny  head,  while  the  prothoracic  ring, 
as  usual,  is  much  larger  than  the  others,  the  two  preceding 
ones  being  very  short,  and  from  thence  the  body  narrows  to 
the  tip.  It  bores  upward  into  the  wood,  where  it  lives  two  or 
three  years,  finally  making  a  cocoon  eight  or  ten  inches  from 
its  starting  point,  in  a  burrow  next  to  the  bark,  whence  it 
leaves  the  pupa  state  (which  begins  early  in  June)  in  midsum- 
mer. It  also  infests  the  wild  apple,  quince,  pear,  June-berry, 
mountain-ash  and  hawthorn.  Riley  advises  soaping  the  trunk 
of  the  tree  to  prevent  the  beetle  from  laying  its  eggs,  and 
when  the  tree  is  infested  with  them  to  cut  through  the  bark  at 
the  upper  end  of  thejr  borings  and  pour  in  hot  water,  while  in 
the  autumn  the  bark  should  be  examined  and  the  young  worms 
that  had  been  hatched  through  the  summer  may  be  dug  out 
and  destroyed. 

We  have  found  what  we  supposed  to  be  the  young  larvae  of 
Desmocerus  cyaneus  Fabr.  in.  the  stems  of  the  elder  ;  the  beetle 
is  a  handsome  purple  and  white  Longicorn.  We  have  found 
Rliagium  lineatum  Olivier  living  in  old  trunks  of  pine  trees. 
The  antennae  are  no  longer  than  the  breadth  of  the  body.  It 
makes  a  cocoon  of  chips,  and  the  beetle  appears  in  the  autumn, 
not,  however,  leaving  the  tree  until  the  spring. 

CHRYSOMELID^E  Latreille.  The  Leaf-beetles  are  oval  or 
oblong,  often  very  thick  and  convex  above,  with  short  an- 
tennae, round  prominent  eyes,  with  a  narrow  cylindrical 
thorax,  and  the  hinder  thighs  often  much  thickened  in  the 
middle,  while  the  abdomen  has  five  free  segments.  The  larvae 
are  short,  rounded,  cylindrical  or  flattened,  generally  of  soft 
consistence,  usually  gaily  colored,  and  beset  with  thick  flat- 
tened tubercles  or  branching  spines,  and  well  developed  tho- 
racic feet.  There  are  estimated  to  be  from  8,000  to  10,000 
species.  They  are  found  feeding,  both  in  the  larva  and  adult 
stages,  on  leaves,  either  on  the  surface,  or,  as  in  Hispa  and 
several  species  of  Haltica,  their  larvae  are  leaf-miners. 


502 


COLEOPTERA. 


Fig.  493. 


The  genus  Donacia  connects  this  family  with  the  preceding. 
It  has  a  rather  long  body  and  unusually  long  antennae.  D. 
proximo,  Kirby  is  dark  blue,  and  Donacia  Kirbyi  Lacordaire 
is  of  a  shining  coppery  hue.  The  larvae  live  in  the  stems  of 
water  plants,  and  make  a  leathery  cocoon  in  the  earth  before 
transforming. 

The  Grape-vine  Fidia  (F.  viticida  Walsh,  Fig.  493)  is  very 
injurious  to  the  grape  in  the  Western  States,  from  its  habit  of 
"cutting  straight  elongated  holes  of  about  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  in  the  leaves,  and  when  numer- 
ous so  riddling  the  leaves  as  to  reduce  them  to 
mere  shreds."  It  is  chestnut  brown,  and  cov- 
ered with  short  whitish  hairs,  giving  it  a  hoary 
appearance.  Riley  states  that  it  is  very  abun- 
dant in  the  vineyards  in  Missouri,  where  it  pre- 
fers Concord  and  Norton's  Virginia  grapes, 
while  it  occurs  on  the  wild  grape-vine  and  011  the  leaves  of 
the  Cercis  Canadensis.  "It  makes  its  appearance  during  the 
month  of  June,  and  by  the  end  of  July  has  generally  disap- 
peared, from  which  fact  we  may  infer  that  there  is  but  one 
brood  each  year."  The  vines  should  be  often  shaken  and 
chickens  turned  in  to  feed  upon  them  when  it  is  possible. 

Crioceris  is 
known  by  its 
rather  long 
body,  and  the 
prothorax  be- 
ing narrower 
than  the  ely- 
tra. The  an- 
tennae  are 
Fig.  494.  rather  long, 

the  fore  coxae  are  swollen,  pressed  together,  and  the  claws 
are  either  free  or  united  at  the  base.  We  have  no  native 
species,  but  Crioceris  asparagi  Linn,  has  been  introduced 
into  gardens  about  New  York,  doing  much  injury  to  the 
asparagus.  Fitch  describes  it  as  being  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  long,  with  a  tawny  red  prothorax  and  three  bright  lemon 
yellow  spots  on  each  elytron.  The  larva  is  soft-bodied,  twice 


CHRYSOMELIMJ.  503 

as  long  as  thick,  the  body  thickening  posteriorly,  and  of  a 
dull  ash  gray  or  obscure  olive,  with  a  black  head  and  legs. 

Lema  trilineata  Olivier  (Fig.  494  ;  a,  larva ;  6,  terminal  joints 
of  abdomen;  c,  pupa;  d,  eggs)  occurs  in  great  abundance 
on  the  leaves  of  the  potato.  The  dirty  yellowish  larvae  are 
found  on  it  abundantly,  and  hide  themselves  by  covering  their 
bodies  with  their  own  excrement.  They  mature  in  about  two 
weeks,  transform  in  earthen  cells  cemented  with  a  gummy 
exudation  discharged  from  the  mouth,  and  in  a  fortnight, 
being  about  the  first  of  August,  the  beautiful  yellow  and  black 
striped  beetle,  with  a  reddish  head  and  prothorax,  appears. 

Hispa  is  also  a  miner  in  the  larva  state.  Hispa  (Uroplata) 
rosea  Harris  (Fig.  495)  is  supposed  by  Harris  to  mine  the 
leaves  of  the  apple  tree.  Harris  describes  it  as  being  "of  a 
deep  or  a  tawny  reddish  yellow  color  above, 
marked  with  little  deep  red  lines  and  spots. 
There  are  three  smooth,  longitudinal  ribs  on  each 
elytron,  spotted  with  blood-red,  and  the  space 
between  these  lines  are  deeply  punctured  in 
double  rows  ;  the  under  side  of  the  body  is  black, 
and  the  legs  are  short  and  reddish.  They  meas-  Fis-  495. 
ure  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length."  "The  larvaa  burrow 
under  the  skin  of  the  leaves  of  plants,  and  eat  the  pulpy 
substance  within,  so  that  the  skin  over  and  under  the  place 
of  their  operations,  turns  brown  and  dies,  having  somewhat 
of  a  blistered  appearance,  and  within  these  blistered  spots 
the  larvae  or  grubs,  the  pupse  or  the  beetles,  may  often  be 
found.  The  eggs  of  these  insects  are  little  rough,  blackish 
grains,  and  are  glued  to  the  surface  of  the  leaves,  sometimes 
singly,  and  sometimes  in  clusters  of  four  or  five  together.  The 
grubs  of  our  common  species  are  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in 
length,  when  fully  grown.  The  body  is  oblong,  flattened,  rather 
broader  before  than  behind,  soft,  and  of  a  whitish  color,  ex- 
cept the  head  and  the  top  of  the  first  ring,  which  are  brown, 
or  blackish,  and  of  a  horny  consistence.  It  has  a  pair  of  legs 
to  each  of  the  first  three  rings ;  the  other  rings  are  provided 
with  small  fleshy  warts  at  the  sides,  and  transverse  rows  of 
little  rasp-like  points  above  and  beneath.  The  pupa  state  lasts 
only  about  one  week,  soon  after  which  the  beetles  come  out  of 


504  COLEOPTERA. 

their  burrows."  Hispa  (Uroplata)  suturalis  Fabr.  mines  the 
Locust  tree,  and  often  proves  very  destructive  in  the  Middle 
and  Western  States.  They  are  flat,  the  body  behind  being 
broad  and  square,  and  the  elytra  are  generally  ridged  and 
furrowed. 

Cassida  aurichalcea  Fabr.,  the  yellow  Helmet  beetle,  is  hem- 
ispherical, flattened,  so  that  the  edges  of  the  wings  are  very 
thin ;  and  the  larva  is  broad,  oval, 
flattened,  and  by  means  of  two  spines 
terminating  its  upturned  abdomen, 
holds  its  old  cast  larva  skin  over  its 
body  as  a  means  of  protection.  Dur- 
ing the  last  week  in  July  we  have 
found  the  larvae  in  all  stages  of 
growth  very  abundant  on  the  Morn- 
ing-glory in  our  garden,  eating  holes  in  the  leaves.  In  the 
young  the  head  and  legs  are  more  prominent  than  in  the  old. 
It  pupates  the  last  of  July  and  early  in  August. 

The  Chetymorpha  cribraria  Fabr.  (Fig.  496  ;  a,  pupa)  we 
have  found  in  all  its  stages  on  the  leaves  of  the  silk-weed  late 
in  July  and  early  in  August,  and  in  one  instance  in  Salem  it 
occurred  in  abundance  on  the  leaves  of  the  raspbeny.  The 
larva  differs  from  that  of  Cassida  aurichalcea,  not  only  in  its 
greater  size,  but  the  body  is  thicker  and  narrower ;  the  head  is 
freer  from  the  thorax,  and  the  spines  are  simple,  not  spinula- 
ted.  The  body  is  yellow  and  less  protected  by  the  cast  skin. 
When  about  to  transform,  the  larva  attaches  itself  to  the  leaf 
by  a  silken  thread,  a  few  segments  from  the  end  where  the 
end  of  the  body  of  the  future  pupa  is  situated. 
It  is  .45  of  an  inch  long.  The  pupa  is  broad 
and  rather  flattened,  dark  and  spotted  with 
Fig.  497.  yellow  and  covered  with  a  whitish  powder, 

causing  the  yellow  portions  to  appear  more  prominently  ;  along 
each  side  of  the  abdomen  is  a  row  of  five  spines,  and  there  are 
four  spines  on  the  anterior  edge  of  the  prothorax ;  it  is  .40  of 
an  inch  in  length. 

Fig.  497  represents,  according  to  Harris,  "the  larva,  nearly 
full  size,  of  Galeruca  gelatinarice  Fabr.  or  an  allied  species, 
found  abundantly  on  Ambrosia  elatior,  July  30th.  They 


CHRYSOMELID2E . 


505 


Fis-  498- 


live  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  and  devour  the  cuticle 

and  parenchyma  above,  leaving  the  lower  cuticle  untouched. 

It  is  of  a  dirty  yellowish  white  color,  with  black  tubercles 

bearing  white  bristles.     Length  one-fourth  of  an  inch."  (Har- 

ris Correspondence,  p.  267.) 

We  have  found  Galeruca  marginella  Kirby  (Fig.  498  ;   a, 

larva  ;  5,  pupa)  in  all  its  stages  of  growth  on  Myrica  gale, 

during  the  middle  of  August, 

in   Northern   Maine.       The 

larva  is  shining  black,  coria- 

ceous above,  and  the  body 

is  elongated,  flattened,  with 

a  small  orbicular  black  head. 

The  upper  side  of  the  body 

is  hard,  from  the  close  prox- 

imity of  the  black  flattened 

tubercles.     Beneath,  whitish  ;   on  the  side  is  a  row  of  small 

black  brown  tubercles,  and  along  the  middle  of  the  body  is  a 
row  °f  transversely  linear  brown  tu- 
bercles,  on  each  side  of  which  is  a 
minute  dot-like  tubercle.  It  is  not 
hairy,  and  measures  .25  of  an  inch  in 
length.  When  about  to  transform  it 
fastens  itself  by  its  tail  to  the  surface 
of  a  leaf.  The  pupa  is  brown-black. 
The  beetle  is  umber  brown,  testaceous 

on  the  edges  of  the   elytra,  the   legs   being  also  testaceous, 

while  the  prothorax  is   pale,  with  three   dark  brown   spots, 

of  which  the  central  one  is  T-shaped. 
The  Striped  Squash    beetle,  Diabrotica 

mttata  Fabr.  (Fig.  499,  a,  larva  ;  &,  pupa  ,  ., 

seen  from  underneath;  Fig.  500,  adult)  ap-  /  < 

pears  on  squash  vines  as  soon  a's  they  are 

up,  and  at  once  devours  them  unless  their  attacks  are  pre- 

vented.    Covering  the  vines  with  cotton  or  a  box  covered  with 

muslin  or  millinet  is  the  only  sure  remedy,  while  on  a  large 

scale  powdered  charcoal,  or  lime  is  used,  to  be  sprinkled  on  the 

leaves.     Mr.  Gregory,  says  the  "American  Agriculturist,"  re- 

lies upon  plaster,  or  oyster-  shell  lime,  which  may  be  shaken 


Fig.  499. 


soi. 


Fig.  500. 


506  COLEOPTERA. 

from  a  small  sieve  while  the  leaves  are  wet  with  dew  or  rain ; 
to  be  applied  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  up.  He  objects  to  the 
use  of  air-slacked  stove  lime,  as  it  is  apt  to  be  too  caustic  and 
injure  the  plant.  Dr.  H.  Shimer  has  given  an  account  of  the 
habits  of  this  insect  in  the  "Prairie  Farmer,"  and  has  sent  me 
specimens  of  the  insect  in  its  different  stages.  He  states  that 
the  grub  in  June  and  July  "  eats  the  bark  and  often  perforates 
and  hollows  out  the  lower  part  of  the  stem  which  is  beneath  the 
ground,  and  the  upper  portion  of  the  root,  and  occasionally 
when  the  supply  below  fails,  we  find  them  in  the  vine  just 
above  the  ground."  It  hibernates  in  the  pupa  state.  u  The 
larva  arrives  at  maturity  in  about  a  month  after  the  egg  is  laid ; 
it  remains  in  the  pupa  state  about  two  weeks,  and  the  beetle 
probably  lives  several  days  before  depositing  her  eggs, 
so  that  one  generation  is  in  existence  about  two  months, 
and  we  can  only  have  two,  never  more  than  three 
broods  in  one  season."  He  has  found  them  boring  in 
5021  the  squash  and  muskmelon  vines  as  late  as  October  1st. 
The  larva  is  a  long,  slender,  white,  cylindrical  grub,  with  a  small 
brownish  head.  The  prothorax  is  a  little  corneous.  The  tho- 
racic legs  are  very  slender,  pale  brown ;  the  end  of  the  body  is 
suddenly  truncated,  with  a  small  prop-leg  beneath.  Above  is 
an  orbicular  brown  space,  growing  black  posteriorly  and  ending 
in  a  pair  of  upcurved,  vertical,  slender  black  spines.  It  is  .40 
of  an  inch  long.  It  will  be  seen  that  both  in  its  boring  habits 
and  its  corresponding,  remarkable,  elongated,  C3Tlindrical,  soft 
white  body,  that  this  larva  varies  widely  from  that  of  Galleruca, 
to  which  the  beetle  is  closely  allied.  The  pupa  is  .17  of  an 
inch  long,  white,  with  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  ending  in  two 
long  acute  spines  arising  from  a  common  base.  The  Twelve- 
spotted  Diabrothica  (Fig.  501,  D.  duodecim-punctata  Fabr.) 
is  injurious  to  the  leaves  of  the  Dahlia. 

The  genus  Haltica,  to  which  the  little  blackish  Flea-beetles 
belong,  is  well  known.  The  larvae  mine  the  leaves  of  the 
plants  on  which  they  afterwards  feed.  Haltica  (Crepidodera) 
cucumeris  Harris  (Fig.  502)  infests  the  cucumber.  Harris  de- 
scribes it  as  being  "only  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  long,  of  a 
black  color,  with  clay-yellow  antennae  and  legs,  except  the 
hindmost  thighs,  which  are  brown.  The  upper  side  of  the  body 


CHRYSOMELIDJ2, 


507 


is  covered  with  punctures,  which  are  arranged  in  rows  on  the 
wing-cases,  and  there  is  a  deep  transverse  furrow  across  the 
hinder  part  of  the  thorax."  It  not  only  kills  young  cucumber- 
vines,  eating  the  seed  leaves,  but  is  found 
all  through  the  summer  eating  holes  in  the 
leaves  of  various  garden  vegetables. 

The  Grape-leaf  Flea  Beetle,  H.  (Grapto- 
dera)  chalybea  Illiger,  eats  the  buds  and 
leaves  of  the  grape.  It  is  a  steel  blue  in- 
sect, often  varying  in  its  shades  of  color- 
ing, sometimes  becoming  greenish.  It  is  Fis-  503< 
a  little  over  three-twentieths  of  an  inch  in  length.  In  Ohio, 
Mr.  M.  C.  Reed  noticed  the  sexes  of  this  species,  which  Dr. 
Leconte  considers  as  probably  the  Graptodera  exapta  of  Say 
(Fig.  503),  pairing  May  6th.  The  larvse  appeared  the  last  of 
the  month,  and  by  the  first  week  in  June,  and  on  the  30th  of  the 
same  month,  the  beetles  appeared.  I  have  received  specimens 
of  the  larva  from  Mr.  Read.  It  is  a  yellowish  white,  cylindrical 
worm,  with  a  jet  black  head  and  black  tubercles,  from  each  of 
which  proceed  several  fine  hairs.  The  prothorax  is  brown  black 
above  ;  on  each  succeeding  ring  of  the 
body  are  ten  tergal  black  tubercles,  the 
two  inner  ones  being  long  and  narrow, 
and  transverse,  the  others  forming 
round  dots.  On  each  ring  is  a  single 
black  dot  just  between  the  two  lower  a  b  Fig  504' 
larger  tubercles.  On  the  sides  are  two  rows  of  black  tubercles, 
and  along  the  middle  of  the  under  side  a  row  of  transverse 
tubercles,  on  each  side  of  which  is  a  row  of  dot-like  tubercles. 
It  is  .35  of  an  inch  in  length. 

The  Striped  Turnip  Flea  beetle,  H.  (Phyllotreta)  striolata 
Fabr.  (Fig.  504  ;  a,  larva ;  6,  pupa),  is  black,  with  a  waved  yel- 
lowish stripe  on  each  wing-cover,  and  is  less  than  a  tenth  of  an 
inch  long.  Dr.  Shinier  describes  the  larva  as  being  white  ;  the 
head  is  of  a  pale  brown  color,  and  near  the  end  of  the  body  is  a 
brown  spot  equal  to  the  head  in  size  ;  besides  the  thoracic  legs 
there  is  a  single  anal  prop-leg.  It  is  .35  of  an  inch  long.  It 
feeds  upon  roots  beneath  the  ground.  The  pupa  is  naked, 
white,  and  transforms  in  an  earthen  cocoon.  In  seventeen 


508 


COLEOPTEKA. 


days  from  the  time  the  larva  ceases  eating  the  beetle  appeared. 
It  then  feeds  on  the  seed  leaves  of  cabbages  and  turnips  and 
other  garden  vegetables,  when  it  proves  very  injurious, 
while  afterwards  in  June,  when  the  plants  have  at- 
tained their  growth,  they  sicken  and  die  from  the 
attacks  of   the    larva  in  their   roots.       (American 
rig.  505.  -^aturalist,  Vol.  ii,  p.  514.) 

The  Silk-weed  Labidomera,  L.  trimaculata  Fabr.  (Fig.  505, 
larva)  is  found  in  its  larval  stage  on  the  Silk-weed  about  the 
first  of  August.  It  is  a  thick  hemispherical  beetle,  with  a  dark 
blue  head  and  prothorax,  and  orange  elytra,  with  three  large 
blue  spots  on  each  wing-cover.  It  is  one-half  of  an  inch  long. 


Fig.  506. 

The  Colorado  potato  beetle,  Doryphora  decem-Hneata  Say 
(Fig.  506  ;  a,  eggs  ;  &,  the  larvae  in  different  stages  of  growth ; 
c,  the  pupa ;  d,  beetle  ;  e,  elytron,  magnified  ;  /,  leg,  magnified) 
has  gradually  spread  eastward  as  far  as  Indiana,  from  its 
original  habitat  in  Colorado,  having  become  very  destructive 
to  the  potato-vine.  It  becomes  a  beetle  within  a  month  after 
hatching  from  the  yellowish  eggs ;  the  larva  is  pale  yellow 
with  a  reddish  tinge  and  a  lateral  row  of  black  dots.  Messrs. 
"Walsh  and  Riley  state  that  "there  are  three  broods  of  larvae 
every  year  in  North  Illinois  and  Central  Missouri,  each  of 
which  goes  under  ground  to  pass  into  the  pupa  state,  the  first 
two  broods  coming  out  of  the  ground  in  the  beetle  state  about 


CHRYSOMELID^. 


509 


ten  or  twelve  days  afterwards,  while  the  last  one  stays  under 
ground  all  winter,  and  only  emerges  in  the  beetle  state  in  the 
following  spring,  just 
in  time  to  lay  its  eggs 
upon  the  young  po- 
tato leaves,"  which  it 
devours  to  such  an  ex- 
tent as  to  sometimes 
almost  cut  off  the  en. 
tire  crop  in  certain  lo- 
calities. The  Editors 


d 


of  the  ' '  American  En- 


Fig.  5061. 


tomologist,"  from  whom  we  have  quoted,  enumerate  and 
figure  various  beetles,  hemiptera,  and  a  species  of  Tachina  fly 
(Lydella  doryphorse  Riley)  which  mostly  prey  upon  the  larvae. 
Dr.  H.  Shimer  shows,  in  the  "American  Naturalist,"  vol.  iii, 
p.  91,  that  a  dry  and  hot  summer  is  very  unfavorable  to  the 
development  of  this  insect,  the  pupse  dying  for  want  of  suffi- 
cient moisture  in  the  soil.  The  best  remedy  against  its  attacks 
is  hand  picking. 

A  very  closely  allied  species  or  variety,  the  D.  juncta  Ger- 
mar  (Fig.  5061),  may  be  easily  confounded  with  the  other  spe- 
cies, but  differs,  according  to  Walsh,  in  the  head 
of  the  larva  being  paler,  while  in  the  beetle  the  third 
and  fourth  stripe  from  the  outside  are  united,  where 
they  are  distinct  in  the  D.  10-lineata,  and  the  legs 
are  entirely  pale  yellow,  with  a  dark  spot  on  the 
femora.     It  feeds  on  the  wild  potato,  not  eating     Fis-  5062. 
the  cultivated  species,  and  has  always  been  an  inhabitant  of  the 
Western  and  Southern  States. 

Ohrysomela  is  an  oval  oblong  genus,  and  its  ally,  Calligrapha, 
is  very  convex,  hemispherical ;  the  species  are  gaily  spotted  and 
banded ;  Cattigrapha  scalaris  Lee.  is  abundant  on  the  alder. 
The  larvae  (Fig.  5062,  larva  of  C.  Philadelphia  Linn.)  are 
thick  and  fleshy,  with  a  row  of  black  spiracles  along  the  side 
of  the  body,  and  a  dark  prothoracic  shield. 

Eumolpus  auratus  Fabr.  is  a  shining,  rich  golden  green  bee- 
tle, found  on  the  dog's-bane. 

Chlamys  is   a  little   oblong,  cubical,  roughly   shagreened, 


510  COLEOPTEKA. 

metallic  greenish  beetle,  found  in  abundance  on  leaves  south- 
ward. The  larva  of  Chlamys  plicata  Olivier,  according  to 
Mr.  S.  H.  Scudder,  who  has  reared  it  from  the  sweet-fern,  is  a 
sac  bearer,  drawing  after  it  a  rounded,  flask-shaped,  blackish 
sac,  within  which  it  withdraws  when  disturbed.  Larvae  appar- 
ently belonging  to  this  species  were  found  by  Mr.  Emerton  on 
grass  in  pastures  in  July.  They  are  interesting  as  being  true 
sac-bearers,  recalling  Psyche  helix  and  other  sac-bearing  moths, 
and  the  Phryganeids.  Fig.  507  represents  the  larva  in  the  act 
of  walking,  the  head  and  thoracic  segments  protruding  from 
the  case.  The  case  is  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long  and  one-half 
as  thick,  being  oval  cylindrical.  It  is 
black  and  appears  to  be  formed  of 
little  pellets  of  vegetable  matter 
chewed  by  the  larva  and  applied  to  the 
Fig.  507.  edge,  with  a  seam  along  the  middle  of 

the  under  side,  which  readily  spreads  open  when  the  sac  is 
pressed.  The  case  is  a  little  contracted  before  the  mouth, 
where  the  pellets  are  a  little  larger  than  elsewhere.  The  larva 
is  of  the  form  of  those  of  others  of  the  family,  but  the  body  is 
slenderer  in  front  of  the  abdomen,  and  the  legs  are  longer 
than  usual.  The  abdomen  is  suddenly  thickened  and  curved 
at  right  angles,  the  tip  being  rather  pointed.  The  body  is 
white,  with  a  brown-black  head  and  dark  brown  legs,  and  a 
prothoracic  corneous  piece,  with  a  corneous  piece  at  the  inser- 
tion of  each  leg.  It  is,  in  its  natural  curved  posture,  .25  of 
an  inch  long.  In  the  Museum  of  the  Peabody  Academy  are 
several  minute  chalcid  parasites  reared  from  C.  plicata. 

Cryptocephalus  is  a  short,  cylindrical  genus,  numbering  nearly 
800  species. 

EROTYLID^E  Westwood.  This  family  is  very  largely  devel- 
oped in  tropical  America,  and  is  known  by  the  large,  flattened 
antennal  club,  which  consists  of  three  joints.  Most  of  them 
are  supposed  to  be  leaf  insects,  while  the  more  northern  spe- 
cies live  in  fungi. 

ENDOMYCHID^:  Leach.  In  this  small  group  are  genera  whose 
bodies  are  oval,  with  antennae  longer  than  the  head,  which  with 


COCCINELLIDJE.  511 

the  -trapeziform  prothorax,  distinguish  them  from  the  allied 
families.  An  interesting  form  from  New  Hampshire,  the  Phy- 
maphora  pulcliella  of  Newman  (Fig.  508),  is  described  by 
Harris  (Correspondence,  p.  256)  as  being  rust-red,  with  paler 
feet  and  antennae,  the  head  being  black ;  there  is  a  broad 

black  band  across  the  middle  of  the  elytra,  and 

the  tips  are  black. 


COCCINELLID^:  Latreille.  The  characteristic  form 
Fig.  SOB.  of  the  " Lady-birds"  is  well  known.  They  are 
hemispherical,  generally  red  or  yellow,  with  round  or 
lunate  black  spots.  The  species  are  difficult  to  dis- 
criminate, and  number  upwards  of  1,000.  Some  in- 
dividuals belonging  to  different  species  have  been 
known  to  unite  sexually,  but  producing  sterile  eggs.  Fis-  509- 
The  yellow  long  oval  eggs  are  laid  in  patches,  often  in  a  group 
of  plant-lice,  which  the  larvae  greedily  devour.  They  are  rather 
long,  oval,  soft-bodied,  pointed  behind,  with  the  prothorax 
larger  than  the  other  rings,  often  gaily  colored  and  beset  with 
tubercles  or  spines,  and  when  about  to  turn  to  a  pupa,  the  larva 
attaches  itself  by  the  end  of  the  body  to  a 
leaf,  and  either  throws  off  the  larva  skin, 
which  remains  around  its  tail,  or  the  old 
dried  skin  is  retained,  loosely  folded  about 
the  pupa  as  a  protection,  thus  simulating  the 
coarctate  pupa  of  the  flies.  The  Spotted  Fis-  51°- 

Hippodamia,  H.  maculata  DeGeer  (Fig.  509)  is  pale  red,  with 
thirteen  black  spots  on  the  body,  and  is  quite  common,  while 
the  H.  convergens  Guerin  (Fig.  510,  with  larva  and  pupa)  is 
common  southwards.  In  Coccinella  the  body  is  smooth,  hemi- 
spherical, with  the  hind  angle  of  the  prothorax  acute. 

The  eggs  of  the  common  Two- spotted  Coccinella,  C.  bipunc- 
tata  Linn.,  are  laid  in  May  on  the  bark  of  trees,  and  those 
of  another  brood  are  laid  in  June  and  hatched  July  1st.  They 
are  oval,  cylindrical,  orange  yellow,  and  are  attached  in  a  bunch 
of  about  twenty-five,  by  one  end  to  the  bark.  They  hatch 
out  when  the  leaves  and  their  natural  article  of  diet,  the  Aphis, 
appear,  a*nd  may  be  found  running  about  over  the  leaves  of 
various  garden  shrubs  and  trees.  The  body  is  black  with  flat- 


512  COLEOPTERA. 

tened  tubercles  spinulated  above ;  on  each  side  of  the  first 
abdominal  segment  is  a  yellowish  spot,  and  there  is  a  broad 
yellowish  spot  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  segment,  and  one 
on  each  side.  On  June  28th  we  found  several  fully  grown 
larvae  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  transforming  into  pupae, 
with  a  freshly  transformed  beetle.  The  larva  begins  the  opera- 
tion by  attaching  very  firmly,  with  a  sort  of  silky  gum,  its  tail 
to  the  leaf,  the  point  of  attachment  not  being  the  extreme  tip, 
but  just  before  it,  where  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  of  the  pupa  is 
situated.  Meanwhile  the  body  contracts  in  length  and  widens, 
the  head  is  bent  upon  the  breast,  and  in  about  twenty-four 
hours  the  skin  splits  open  and  discloses  the  pupa.  The  body 

Vof  the  pupa  is  black  ;  the  head  is  also  black,  and 
the  prothorax  is  black  and  yellowish  pink,  with 
a  black  dot  on  each  side,  and  a  smaller  black 
dot  on  each  edge  ;  the  mesothorax,  wing-covers, 
scutellum  and  legs,  are  shining  black.     The  ab- 
dominal rings  are  pale  flesh-colored,  with  two 
rig.  511.        rows  Of  iarge  black  spots  on  each  side,  the  spots 
being  transverse ;  the  terga  of  the  fourth  to  the  seventh  seg- 
ments are  separated,  the  body  being  arched  and  leaving 
a  deep  furrow  between.     The  beetle  is  orange  yellow, 
with  a  black  head  and  prothorax ;  the  side  of  the  pro- 
thorax  is  whitish,  with  a  central  diamond-shaped  white  Fig-  512t 
spot,  and  behind  it  a  much  longer  whitish  spot.     The  beetle 
derives  its  specific  name  from  the  two  black  dots  on  the  elytra. 
It  hibernates,  and  might  be  used  to  clear  house-plants  of  plant- 
lice.     The  Nine-spotted   Coccinella,    (7.   novemnotata  Herbst 
(Fig.  511,  and  pupa),  and  the  Three-banded  Coccinella,  <7.  tri~ 
fasdata  Linn.  (Fig.  512),  are  also  not  uncommon  species. 

The  Fifteen-spotted  Lady-bird,  Mysia  15-punctata  Olivier, 
is  black  on  the  head  and  prothorax,  with  seven  black  spots  on 
the  brownish  red  elytra,  and  a  black  spot  on  the  scutellum  ;  it 
is  seven-twentieths  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  larva  closely  re- 
sembles that  of  Coccinella,  but  along  the  body  are  six  rows  of 
stout  spinulated  spines  ;  the  upper  surface  of  the  body  is  black, 
with  a  pale  spot  on  the  hinder  edge  of  the  prothoracic  ring ; 
the  body  is  pale  beneath.  It  is  half  an  inch  long.  The  pupa 
is  pale,  not  black  like  that  of  the  Coccinellse  known  to  us,  and 


COCCINELLID^E.  513 

is  sixteen-spotted,  with  three  additional  rows  of  dark  spots 
on  the  abdomen.  The  body  is  broad  and  flat,  with  a  row  of 
three  spines  on  each  side  of  the  abdomen,  and  is  .40  of  an 
inch  long. 

In  Chilocorus  the  margin  of  the  elytra  is  dilated,  and  the 
lunate  prothorax  is  rounded  behind.  C.  bivulnerulus  Mulsant 
(Fig.  513)  is  black,  with  two  yellow  spots. 

The  genus  Scymnus  is  hemispherical,  pubescent,  with  short, 
abruptly  clavate  antennae.  I  have  received  from 
Dr.  H.  Shimer  the  larva  and  adult  of  Scymnus  cer- 
vicalis  Muls.  which  he  found  in  the  holes  of  insects 
boring  in  the  Prickly-ash.  The  body  is  subcylin- 
drical,  pale  whitish,  much  longer  and  slenderer  and  Fi£-  513t 
narrower  than  in  Coccinella,  with  a  small  black  round  head ;  the 
legs  are  long  and  slender,  more  so  than  in  Coccinella.  The 
rings  are  rather  convex,  not  tuberculated  above, 
though  provided  with  a  few  hairs.  It  is  .12  of  an  inch 
long.  The  beetle  is  reddish  brown,  with  very  dark 
Fig.  514.  prussian  blue  elytra,  and  is  .10  of  an  inch  long. 

Epilaclma  borealis  Thunberg  (Fig.  514)  is  yellowish,  with 
seven  large  black  patches  on  each  elytron.  "The  larvae, 
according  to  Osten  Sacken,  are  common  on  the  leaves  of  the 
pumpkin.  -It  is  yellow,  with  long,  brown,  branched  spines, 
arranged  in  rows  of  six  on  each  segment,  except  the  first  tho- 
racic segment,  which  has  only  four.  The  pupa  instead  of 
spines  has  short  bristles,  especially  on  the  thorax." 


Fig.  515. 
The  Pea  Weevil  (enlarged), 


83 


514  HEMIPTERA. 

In  the  remaining  suborders,  the  metamorphosis  is,  with  the 
exception  of  most  of  the  Neuroptera,  generally  "incomplete," 
the  active  larva  and  pupa  closely  resembling  the  adult,  and 
often  scarcely  distinguishable  from  it  except  in  being  wingless. 
This  similarity  of  the  adult  condition  to  the  larval  and  pupal 
forms,  as  well  as  the  equality  in  size  of  the  different  segments 
of  the  body,  the  aquatic  habits  of  many  of  the  species,  and 
the  numerous  genuine  parasites  found  among  them,  are  indica- 
tive of  their  low  rank. 


HEMIPTERA. 

THIS  suborder,  including  the  true  "bugs,"  plant-lice,  bed- 
bug and  body-lice,  may  be  briefly  characterized  by  the  beak-x 
like  sucking jnouth-ff art s ,  composed  of  the  mandibles  and 
maxillae,  which  are  ensheathed  by  the  large  expanded  labium, 
while  the  labrum  is  small  and  short ;  by  the  free,  large  protho- 
rax,  the  usually  angular  short  body,  and  the  iiTegUlarly~Temed 
wings,  the  veins  being  but  few  in  number,  while  the  fore  wings 
are  often  half  cor4aceous  and  opake.  The  metamorphosis  is 
incomplete.  There  are  many  wingless  parasitic  forms,  and 
many  aquatic  species. 

The  triangular  head  is  nearly  always  sunken  into  the  pro- 
thorax,  and  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  body  ;  the 
eyes  are  small,  nearly  globular  and  very  prominent,  and 
the  three  ocelli  are  set  far  back,  while  the  short,  bristle-like,  or 
filiform  antennae,  composed  of  from  five  to  nine  joints,  are  in- 
serted below  and  far  in  advance  of  the  eyes,  so  that  the  front 
is  broad  and  flat.  The  parts  of  the  mouth  form  a  four-jointed 
solid  hard  beak.  The  mandibles  and  maxillae  are  long  and 
style-like,  the  latter  without  palpi;  they  are  ensheathed  at 
their  base  by  the  canaliculate  labium,  which  has  obsolete 
palpi,  while  the  lingua  is  short,  but  slightly  developed,  its 
function  of  tasting  the  food,  owing  to  the  peculiar  habits  of 
the  suborder,  being  thrown  into  disuse.  The  labrum  is  well 
developed,  being  generally  acutely  triangular.  The  thorax  is 
constructed  on  the  coleopterous  type,  the  prothorax  being 
broad  above,  and  the  wings,  when  folded,  concealing  the  rest 


HEMIPTEKA.  515 

of  the  body,  while  the  side  pieces  (the  epimera  and  episterna) 
are  large  and  of  much  the  same  form  as  in  the  Coleoptera,  and 
the  legs  are  situated  close  together,  with  coxae  and  trochanters 
very  similar  to  those  of  the  Coleoptera.  The  body  is  usually 
very  flat  above,  or,  in  the  more  or  less  cylindrical  species, 
somewhat  broad  and  flat.  The  body  is  less  concentrated 
headwards  than  in  the  Coleoptera,  though  much  more  so  than 
in  the  Orthoptera,  and  in  this  respect,  as  well  as  in  other 
essential  characters,  the  group  is  intermediate  between  these 
two  suborders.  Both  pairs  of  wings  are  very  equal  in  size 
and  alike  in  shape,  except  in  the  higher  families  where  they 
are  very  unequal,  the  hinder  pair  being  very  small.  They  are 
generally  very  regularly  ovate  in  shape,  the  costal  edge  being 
much  curved  and  rounded  towards  the  obtusely  rounded  apex ; 
the  outer  edge  is  long  and  very  oblique,  and  the  inner  edge 
short,  though  often  longer  than  the  outer  edge  in  the  lower 
families.  The  type  of  venation  is  rather  peculiar  in  this  sub- 
order, as  the  costal  veins  are  large  and  stout,  while,  as  seen  in 
the  wings  of  Aphis,  the  median  veins  are  sent  out  from  the 
costa ;  indeed  there  is  no  central  powerful  vein  in  the  middle 
of  the  wing  ;  in  other  words  the  wing  is  scarcely  differentiated 
into  its  three  special  regions,  so  well  seen  in  the  Hymenoptera 
and  Lepidoptera,  and  especially  the  Orthoptera.  The  surface 
is  net-veined  rather  than  parallel-veined,  but  there  are  few 
veinlets,  and  the  interspaces  are  large  and  few  in  number, 
and  in  this  respect  most  Hemiptera  show  their  superiority 
to  the  Orthoptera  and  Neuroptera.  In  the  lower  section  of 
the  suborder,  the  Heteropterous  Hemiptera,  the  thickening  of 
the  basal  half  of  the  wing  tends  to  obliterate  all  traces  of  the 
veins,  and  especially  the  veinlets. 

The  legs  are  slender,  and  often  very  long,  owing  to  the  great 
length  of  the  femora  and  tibiae,  while  the  tarsi,  like  those  of 
the  lowest  Coleoptera,  are  two  or  three-jointed. 

The  abdomen  has  six  to  nine  segments  apparent,  though 
the  typical  number  is  eleven,  according  to  Lacaze-Duthiers. 
The  stigmata  are  very  distinct,  being  often  raised  on  a  tubercle. 
On  the  basal  ring  of  the  abdomen  are  two  cavities  in  which 
are  sometimes  seated  vocal  organs,  as  in  the  male  Cicada,  and 
in  the  metathorax  of  some  species  are  glands  for  secreting  a 


516  HEMIPTERA. 

foul  odorous  fluid.  Lacaze-Duthiers  has  given  a  sectional  view 
of  Ranatra  (Fig.  516  ;  v,  dorsal  vessel ;  i,  intestine ;  N,  ner- 
vous cord)  which  shows  the  relation  of  the  elements  of  an 
abdominal  segment.  T,  is  the  tergum ;  EM,  the  epimerum ; 
ES,  the  episternum,  and  s,  the  sternum. 

The  ovipositor  and  the  genital  armature  are  generally  con- 
cealed within  the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  being  rarely  exserted  so 
as  to  form  a  prominent  part  of  the  body.  It  differs  greatly  in 
its  development,  and  is  difficult  to  reduce  to  a  common,  type. 
Lacaze-Duthiers  states  that  we  may  consider  the  abdomen  of 
the  Hemiptera  as  consisting  of  ten  or  eleven  segments,  accord- 
ing as  we  consider  the  horny  ring,  lying  between  the  abdomen 
and  thorax  as  the  basal  ring  of  the  abdomen,  or  not.  He  re- 
gards the  former  view  as  the  true  one.  This  author  contends 
that  in  Ploa  the  tergum  of  the  first  and  second  abdominal 
v  segments  (proto  and  dentotergites)  are  coal- 
<  esced,  and  that  the  original  sutures  are  marked 
by  simple  striae,  while  at  the  opposite  end  of 
the  abdomen  the  genital  and  anal  outlets  are 
separated  by  three  rings,  i.e.,  the  eighth, 
ninth  and  tenth. 

In  the  Cicadidce  and  Phytocoris  the  ovipositor  is  per- 
fect and  much  as  described  in  the  Hymenoptera.  In  the 
Fulgoridce,  Naucoris,  Ploa  and  Notonecta,  the  eighth 
segment  is  complete,  while  the  ovipositor  is  more  or  less  in- 
complete, and  it  often  happens  that  a  reunion  of  secondary 
pieces  represents  a  principal  piece,  and  that  the  elements  of 
the  two  postgenital  rings  are  articulated  together  by  overlap- 
ping each  other. 

In  Ranatra,  Nepa  and  Gerris  is  a  third  modification  of  the 
ovipositor,  where  the  postgenital  segment  is  incomplete,  and 
the  sternal  appendages  and  sternum  of  the  segment  bearing 
the  ovipositor  only  remain,  the  other  parts  being  aborted.  In 
the  Pentatomids  and  Cimex  there  is  no  ovipositor,  but  the 
aborted  elements  are  more  or  less  developed,  so  as  to  be 
identifiable. 

The  nervous  system  consists,  besides  those  of  the  head,  of 
two  thoracic  ganglia,  of  which  the  anterior  is  the  smaller,  which 
send  off  two  main  trunks  to  the  abdomen. 


HEMIPTEKA.  517 

The  oesophagus  is  usjaally  small  and  short,  while  the  much 
convoluted  stomach  is  very  long  and  subdivided,  first  into  a 
large,  straight,  glandular  portion ;  second,  into  the  convoluted 
smaller  part,  and  third,  in  some  Pentatomids  and  Coreidce 
there  is  a  third  stomach  "consisting  of  a  very  narrow,  slightly 
flexuous  canal,  on  which  are  inserted  two  or  four  rows  of 
closely  aggregated  glandular  tubes."  (Siebold.)  The  Cicad- 
idce,  and  most  Heteropterous  Hemiptera,  have  very  large  lobu- 
lated  salivary  glands,  divided  into  two  unequal  portions,  and 
often  with  long  digitiform  processes. 

In  the  aquatic  species  of  the  Naucoridce  and  Nepidce 
there  are  only  two  stigmata  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen.  In 
Nepa  and  Ranatra  the  stigmata  are  situated  at  the  base  of  a 
long  tube.  There  are  four  long  urinary  tubes.  The  ovaries 
are  formed  of  from  four  to  eight  tubes  arranged  in  a  verti- 
cillate  manner  about  the  end  of  the  short  oviduct.  In  the 
Psyllidce  and  Cicadidce,  however,  they  are  composed,  in 
the  first  family,  of  from  ten  to  thirty  unilocular  tubes,  and  in 
the  second,  of  from  twenty  to  seventy  bilocular  tubes.  The 
receptaculum  seminis  consists  of  one  or  two  small  caeca,  and  the 
Cicadidce  are  the  only  Hemiptera  which  have  a  copulatory 
pouch,  this  consisting  of  a  pyriform  vesicle.  "The  viviparous 
Aphidce  differ  from  those  which  are  oviparous,  in  that  their 
eight  ovarian  tubes  are  multilocular  and  their  oviducts  entirely 
without  appendages,  while  with  the  second,  or  oviparous,  these 
eight  tubes  are  unilocular,  and  there  is  a  seminal  receptacle 
and  two  sebaceous  glands."  (Siebold.)  The  testes  vary 
greatly  in  number  and  form,  consisting  of  from  one  to  five 
tubuliform  or  rounded  glands. 

The  active  larvae  of  the  Hemiptera,  like  those  of  the  Orthop. 
tera,  resemble  closely  the  imago,  differing  mainly  in  possessing 
the  rudiments  of  wings,  which  are  acquired  after  the  first 
moulting.  After  two  or  more  changes  of  skin  they  pass  into 
the  pupa  state,  which  differs  mainly  from  that  of  the  larva  in 
having  larger  wing-pads.  While  the  development  of  the  imago 
ordinarily  occupies  the  summer  months,  in  the  Aphides  it 
takes  but  a  comparatively  few  days,  but  in  the  Seventeen-year 
Locust  as  many  years  as  its  name  indicates.  An  exception 
to  this  mode  of  development  is  seen  in  the  larva  of  the  male 


518  HEMIPTERA. 

Coccus,  which,  as  in  the  higher  suborders,  spins  a  silken  co- 
coon, and  changes  into  an  inactive  pupa. 

Apterous  individuals,  especially  females,  sometimes  occur, 
especially  in  the  aquatic  Hydrometra,  Yelia  and  Limnobates, 
and  in  many  other  genera  the  hind  pair  of  wings  are  often 
absent. 

The  embryological  development  of  such  Hemiptera  as  have 
been  observed  (Hydrometra,  Corixa,  Aphidce,  Cocci  dm, 
Pediculina  and  Ma llopliaga)  corresponds  very  closely  with 
that  of  certain  Neuroptera  (Libellulidce  and  Hemerobidce. 

There  are  about  12,000  species  living  and  fossil.  Some 
species  are  of  great  size,  especially  the  Hydrocores,  a  division 
containing  the  aquatic  genera,  Yelia,  Nepa,  Belostoma  and 
Notonecta,  and  which  first  appeared  in  the  Jurassic  formation. 

Latreille  divided  the  Hemiptera  into  the  Heteroptera  and 
Homoptera.  The  latter  are  the  higher  in  rank,  as  the  body  is 
more  cephalized,  the  parts  of  the  body  more  specialized,  and 
in  the  Aphid ce,  which  top  the  series,  we  have  a  greater  sex- 
ual differentiation,  the  females  being  both  sexual  and  asexual, 
the  latter  by  a  budding  process,  and  without  the  interposition 
of  the  male  producing  immense  numbers  of  young,  which  feed 
in  colonies.  The  species  are  smaller  than  in  the  Heteroptera, 
and  are  all  terrestrial.  The  Heteropterous  Hemiptera,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  larger,  the  body  is  less  compactly  put  together, 
the  abdomen  and  thorax  are  elongated,  the  head  is  small  com- 
pared with  the  rest  of  the  body,  and  the  species  are  large, 
some  of  great  size  (a  sign  of  degradation  among  insects) ,  and 
several  families  are  aquatic,  indicating  a  lower  grade  of  devel- 
opment, while  representatives  of  these  were  the  first  of  the 
suborder  to  appear  in  geological  times.  Their  affinities  are 
with  the  Orthoptera  and  Neuroptera,  while  the  Aphid  OB  and 
Homoptera  generally,  on  the  other  hand,  whose  bodies  are 
more  cylindrical,  ally  themselves  with  the  first  and  higher  se- 
ries of  suborders. 

In  the  Homopterous  Hemiptera  the  fore  pair  of  wings  are 
generally  transparent  and  usually  net-veined,  lying  with  the 
hind  pair,  which  are  considerably  smaller,  roof-like  upon  the 
body,  and  the  head  is  held  vertically,  where  in  most  Heterop- 
tera it  is  horizontal  and  flattened. 


APHID^E.  519 

APHID^E  Latreille.  The  Plant-lice  have  antennae  with  from 
five  to  seven  joints,  and  generally  longer  than  the  body.  The 
ocelli  are  wanting,  and  the  beak  is  three-jointed  and  developed 
in  both  sexes.  The  legs  are  long  and  slender,  with  two-jointed 
tarsi.  The  males  and  females  are  winged,  and  also  the  last 
brood  of  asexual  individuals,  but  the  early  summer  broods 
are  wingless.  Their  bodies  are  flask-shaped,  being  cylind- 
rical, the  abdomen  thick  and  rounded,  and  in  Aphis  and 
Lachnus  is  provided  with  two  tubes  on  the  sixth  segment  for 
the  passage  of  a  sweet  fluid  secreted  from  the  stomach.  The 
wings  are  not  net-veined,  having  few  veins,  which  pass  out- 
wards from  the  costa.  They  are  usually  green  in  color,  with 
a  soft  powdery  bloom  which  exudes  from  their  bodies. 

Bonnet  first  discovered  that  the  summer  brood  of  wingless 
individuals  were  born  of  virgin  parents,  hatched  from  eggs 
laid  in  the  autumn,  and  that  the  true  winged  sexes  composed 
the  last  generation,  which  united  sexually,  and  that  the  female 
laid  eggs  in  the  autumn  which  produced  the  spring  brood  of 
asexual  wingless  individuals. 

Dr.  W.  I.  Burnett  gives  the  following  brief  summary  of  the 
mode  of  development  in  this  group.  In  the  early  autumn 
the  colonies  of  plant-lice  are  composed  of  both  male  and 
female  individuals ;  these  pair,  the  males  then  die,  and  the 
females  begin  to  deposit  their  eggs,  after  which  they  die  also. 
Early  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  sap  begins  to  flow,  these 
eggs  are  hatched,  and  the  young  lice  immediately  begin  to 
pump  up  sap  from  the  tender  leaves  and  shoots,  increase  rap- 
idly in  size,  and  in  a  short  time  come  to  maturity.  In  this 
state  it  is  found  that  the  whole  brood,  without  a  single  excep- 
tion, consists  solely  of  females,  or  rather,  and  more  properly, 
of  individuals  which  are  capable  of  reproducing  their  kind. 
This  reproduction  takes  place  by  a  viviparous  generation,  there 
being  found  in  the  individuals  in  question,  young  lice,  which, 
when  capable  of  entering  upon  individual  life,  escape  from 
their  progenitors,  and  form  a  new  and  greatly  increased  col- 
ony. This  second  generation  pursues  the  same  course  as  the 
first,  the  individuals  of  which  it  is  composed  being,  like  those 
of  the  first,  sexless,  or  at  least  without  any  trace  of  the  male 
sex  throughout.  These  same  conditions  are  then  repeated,  and 


520 


HEMIPTERA. 


so  on  almost  indefinitely,  experiments  having  shown  that  the 
power  of  reproduction  under  such  circumstances  may  be  exer- 
cised, according  to  Bonnet,  at  least  through  nine  generations, 
while  Duval  obtained  thus  eleven  generations  in  seven  months, 
his  generations  being  curtailed  at  this  stage  not  by  a  failure 
of  the  reproductive  power  but  by  the  approach  of  winter, 
which  killed  his  specimens ;  and  Kyber  even  observed  that  a 
colony  of  Aphis  dianthi,  which  had  been  brought  into  a  con- 
stantly heated  room,  continued  to  propagate  for  four  years  in 
this  manner,  without  the  intervention  of  males,  and  even  in  this 
instance  it  remains  to  be  proved  how  much  longer  these  phe- 
nomena might  have 
been  continued."  Dr. 
Burnett,  from  whom 
we  quote,  considers 
this  anomalous  mode 
of  increase  of  indi- 
viduals as  a  process 
of  budding,  and  that 
the  whole  series,  like 
the  leaves  of  a  tree, 
constitutes  but  a  sin- 
gle generation,  which 
results  from  the  union 
of  the  sexes  in  the 
previous  fall.  It  has 
517-  always  been  sup- 

posed that  the  final  autumnal  set  of  individuals  were  males 
and  females  alone.  But  Dr.  Burnett  states:  "The  terminal 
brood  has  hitherto  been  considered,  as  far  as  I  am  aware,  to  be 
composed  exclusively  of  males  and  females,  or,  in  other  words, 
of  perfect  insects  of  both  sexes.  I  was  surprised,  therefore,  on 
examining  the  internal  organs  of  the  non-winged  individuals, 
to  find  that  many  of  these  last  were  not  females  proper,  but 
simply  the  ordinary  gemmiparous  form.  Moreover  so  great 
was  the  similarity  of  appearance  between  these  two  forms — 
true  females  and  gemmiparous  individuals — that  they  could 
be  distinguished  only  by  an  examination  of  their  internal 
genitalia." 


APHIDES.  521 

MM.  Balbiani  and  Signoret  have  discovered  that  the  com- 
mon European  Aphis  aceris  produces,  besides  young  of  the 
normal  form,  a  singular  dimorphous  form  (Fig.  517),  first  de- 
scribed in  1852  by  Mr.  J.  Thornton,  under  the  name  of  Phyl- 
lophorus  testudinatus,  and  afterwards  called  Peripliyllus  testudo 
by  M.  Van  der  Hoeven.  The  chief  characteristic  of  this  re- 
markable form,  which  is  flattened,  scale-like,  is  the  series  of 
leaf-like  scales  surrounding  the  body  and  bordering  the  appen- 
dages, while  the  upper  side  of  the  abdomen  is  covered  with 
hexagonal  figures.  The  generative  apparatus  is  also  very  ru- 
dimentary. It  does  not  produce  young,  and  the  insects  them- 
selves do  not  increase  in  size  after  birth,  being  scarcely  one 
millimetre  in  length.  "They  undergo  no  change  of  skin, 
never  acquire  wings  like  the  reproductive  individuals,  and  their 
antennae  always  retain  the 
five  joints  which  they  pre- 
sent in  all  young  Aphides 
before  the  first  moult." 
(Science  Gossip,  1867,  p. 
204.) 

Aphides  are  found  upon 
every  part  of  plants. 
Some  species  which  are  Fig.  518. 

wingless,  are  found  on  the  roots  of  plants,  others  on  the  stems 
of  twigs,  others  roll  up  leaves,  or  form  gall-like  swellings  on 
leaves  ;  the  grain  Aphis  sucks  the  sap  of  the  kernel.  Ants  are 
fond  of  the  sweet  excretions  from  the  abdominal  tubes,  and 
often  keep  them  captive  in  their  nests  like  herds  of  cattle. 
Syrphus  flies,  Coccinellse,  etc.,  keep  them  within  proper  limits 
in  nature.  Various  species  of  Aphidius  kill  larger  numbers 
than  we  imagine.  "When  an  Aphis  has  received  an  egg  from 
one  of  these  parasites  it  quits  its  companions  and  fastens  itself 
by  its  ungues  to  the  under  side  of  a  leaf,  when  it  swells  into  a 
globular  form,  its  skin  stretched  out  and  dried  up,  and  in  a 
short  time  the  perfect  parasite  escapes  by  a  circular  hole,  the 
mouth  of  which  sometimes  remains  like  a  trap  door."  In 
the  Museum  of  the  Peabody  Academy  is  an  apple  twig  almost 
covered  with  dead  Aphides,  each  perforated  by  a  hole  from 
which  an  Aphidius  had  escaped. 


522  HEMIPTERA. 

In  Aphis  the  seven-jointed  antennae  are  longer  than  the  body, 
the  two  basal  joints  short  and  thick,  the  seventh  the  longest, 
and  near  the  end  of  the  abdomen  there  are  two  long  honey 
tubes.  Aphis  avence  Fabr.  is  abundant  and  very  injurious  to 
the  ears  of  wheat,  sucking  out  the  sap  and  greatly  reducing  the 
bulk  of  the  corn.  In  certain  years  it  has  spread  over  the 
country  in  immense  numbers.  Aphis  mail  Fabr.  (Fig.  518, 
winged  female;  Fig.  519,  asexual  female),  and  A.  malifolice 
Fitch  are  found  on  the  apple ;  A.  cerasi  Fabr.  on  the  cherry ; 
A.  persicce  Sulzer  on  the  peach,  and  A.  brassicce  Linn,  on  the 
cabbage.  There  are  about  thirty  species  known  in  this 
country. 

In  Laclinus  the  sixth  joint  of  the  antennae  is  shorter  than 
the  seventh,  and  the  honey  tubes  are  very  short.  Laclinus 
strobi  is  found  on  the  white  pine  bushes  often  in  great  numbers. 
Jjachnus  caryce  Harris  is  a  very  large  species 
which  lives  on  the  Hickory.  Mr.  Walsh  states 
that  he  has  "noticed  in  the  autumn,  numerous 
apterous  females  on  the  same  tree,  which  lived 
Fig.  519.  many  dajrs  and  laid  their  eggs  in  confinement, 
but  died  without  assuming  wings."  The  genus  Eriosoma  differs 
in  having  no  honey  tubes,  and  in  having  only  two  median  (dis- 
coidal)  cells.  The  species  are  covered  with  a  woolly  flocculent 
substance,  secreted  from  the  abdomen,  though  no  special 
glands  for  this  purpose  have  yet  been  discovered,  while  but  lit- 
tle "honey"  is  exuded  from  the  orifices  of  the  aborted  honey- 
tubes.  Eriosoma  lanigera  Hausmann,  the  Apple -blight,  is 
black,  with  the  abdomen  honey  yellow.  The  eggs  are  laid  in 
the  axils  of  the  branches,  especially  near  the  roots  of  the  tree, 
if  there  are  any  suckers  present,  and  are  enveloped  in  the  pow- 
dery substance  of  the  abdomen  of  the  female.  By  their  stings 
in  the  bark  numerous  warts  and  excresences  are  produced, 
the  leaves  turn  yellow  and  drop  off,  and  the  tree  often  dies. 
Professor  Verrill  has  found,  about  the  middle  of  October, 
among  the  wingless  individuals,  "  a  large  number  of  both  males 
and  females  having  well  formed  and  rather  large  wings,  but  in 
other  respects  closely  resembling  the  rest." 

The  genus  Adelges  was  proposed  by  Vallot  for  certain  broad, 
flattened  plant-lice,  which  attack  coniferous  trees >  often  raising 


APHID^E.  523 

swellings  on  twigs  like  pine  and  spruce  cones.  The  antennae 
are  short,  five-jointed  and  slender;  there  are  three  straight 
veinlets  arising  from  the  main  subcostal  vein  and  directed  out- 
wards, and  there  are  no  honey  tubes  ;  otherwise  these  insects 
closely  resemble  the  Aphides.  A  species  (Fig.  520  ;  a,  pupa 
seen  from  beneath)  closely  related  to  the  European  Adelges 
(Chermes)  cocdneus  of  Ratzburg,  and  the  A.  strobilobius  of 
Kaltenbach,  which  have  similar  habits,  we  have  found  in  abun- 
dance on  the  spruce  in  Maine,  where  it  produces  swellings  at 
the  end  of  the  twigs, 
resembling  in  size 
and  form  the  cones 
of  the  same  tree. 

Under  the  name 
of  Hormaphis  Osten 
Sacken  describes 
Horm.  hamamelidis  a  Fis-  52°- 

(Fig.  521,  wings),  which  inhabits  "  obliquely  conical  or  horn- 
like galls  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf  of  Hamamelis  Virgin- 
ica,  the  Witch  Hazel,  opening  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf." 
In  this  genus  the  "wings  are  laid  flat  on  the  back  in  repose, 
extending  much  beyond  the  body,"  while  the  honey  tubes  are 
either  small  or  obsolete,  and  the  antennae  are  short,  being  from 
three  to  five-jointed.  (Shinier) 

The  genus  Thelaxes  differs  in  the  wings  being  folded  flat 
on  the  back,  and  there  are  but  two  veins  in  the  hind  wings, 
one  subcostal,  the  other  median.  Thelaxes  ulmicola  Walsh 
inhabits  galls  on  the  leaves  of  the  elm.  Mr. 
Walsh  states  that  the  winged  females  are  black 
and  more  or  less  pruinose.  In  Byrsocrypta  the 
wings  are  steeply  roofed,  according  to  Walsh, 
and  in  the  six-jointed  antennae  "the  sixth  Fig.  521. 
joint  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  fourth  and  fifth  together."  This 
genus  also  consists  of  several  gall-inhabiting  species.  In  the 
species  of  Pemphigus,  which  produce  gall-like  excresences  on 
plants,  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  antennal  joints  are  nearly  equal 
in  length,  and,  as  in  Byrsocrypta,  there  are  two  median  veins, 
the  third  vein  of  the  wing  being  simple,  while  in  Eriosoma  it  is 
forked.  Mr.  Walsh  has  "ascertained  from  repeated  observa- 


524 


HEMIPTERA, 


tions  the  very  curious  fact,  that  the  ants  fetch  the  larvae  of 
Pemphigus  formicetorum  Walsh  home  to  their  nests  from  the 
roots  on  which  they  feed,  and  place  them  in  little  clusters  of 
fifty  or  sixty  individuals,  where  they  soon  elaborate  such  a 
dense  mass  of  white  cottony  matter  as  to  entirely  conceal 
them."  (Proceedings  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  Phila- 
delphia, i,  p.  307.) 

Pemphigus  formicarius  is  attended  by  Formica  aphidicola. 
Mr.  Walsh,  who  describes  it,  states  that  utwo  kinds  of  larvae 

occurred  in  company ;  the 
first,  when  recent,  scarcely 
twice  as  long  as  wide  and 
whitish ;  the  second,  when 

, j-^-  recent,  three  times  as  long 

Fig.  522.  as  wide  and  cinereous.    From 

the  latter  I  bred  five  winged  individuals." 

Another  species,  the  Vagabond  Pemphigus,  P.  vagabundus 
Walsh  (Fig.  522),  so-called  from  its  habit  of  wandering  to 
very  great  distances  in  its  native  forests,  raises  large  galls 
(Fig.  523)  on  the  tops  of  the  cotton-wood  and  balsam  pop- 
lars;  and  the  "old  blackened  galls  hang  on  to  the  twigs  for 
several  seasons,  giving  the  tree  a  singular  appearance  when 

the  leaves  are 
off  in  the  winter 
time."  A  sin- 
gle female  be- 
gins the  gall, 
whose  young 
soon  multiply, 
leaving  the  gall 
in  September. 
Mr.  Walsh  has 
also  described 
Fig.  523.  the  Sumac  gall 

(Fig.  524)  caused  by  a  smaller  species,  the  Pemphigus  rhois  of 
Fitch,  and  also  the  Cockscomb-elm  gall  (Fig.  525)  made  by 
the  P.  ulmicola  of  Fitch,  which  infests  young  white  elm  trees, 
often  densely  covering  the  leaves.  "By  the  end  of  June  or 
the  beginning  of  July,  the  gall  becomes  full  of  winged  plant- 


525 


lice,  when  the  slit  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf,  through  which 
the  mother  plant-louse  built  up  the  gall  early  in  the  spring, 
gapes  open  and  allows 
the  insects  to  escape 
into  the  open  air." 
(American  Entomolo- 
gist, p.  108.) 

The  Editors  of  the 
"American  Entomolo- 
gist" describe  and  fig- 
ure the  Apple  root 
plant-louse,  Eriosoma 
(Pemphigus)  pyri  of 
Fitch  (Fig.  526  ;  a,  the 
gall ;  5,  larva ;  c,  fe- 
male ;  d,  leg  ;  e,  beak  ; 

/,  antenna  of  female  ;  Fig.  52 1. 

#,  of  larva),  which  occurs  sometimes  in  great  abundance,  form- 
ing, in  October,  galls  like  potatoes,  and  two  to  three  inches  in 
diameter,  on  the  roots  of  apple  trees,  just  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  ground. 

The  European 
Chermes  (Pemphi- 
gus) abietis  has  two 
sorts  of  females, 
and  is  parthenogen- 
ous,  according  to 
Leuckart. 


Fig.  525. 


Fallen. 
The  Bark-lice  have 
six  or.  more  joints 
to  the  antennae  ;  the 


tarsi  are  two-jointed,  the  beak  wanting  in  the  males,  in  which 
the  hind  wings  are  usually  wanting,  while  the  scales  made  by 
the  females  are  usually  flattened,  scale-like,  or  rounded  hemi- 
spherical. The  wingless,  scale-like,  adult  females,  by  a  retro- 
grade development,  in  which  the  legs  and  rings  of  the  body 
become  aborted,  remind  us  of  the  Barnacles  and  allies  among 


526 


HEMIPTERA. 


Oustacea,  and  like  them,  they  can  scarcely  be  referred  to  the 
type  of  Articulates  at  all,  while  other  forms,  such  as  C.  cacti 
in  its  larval  state,  resemble  Glomeris,  or  the  Isopods,  among 
Crustacea.  On  the  other  hand  the  males  have  been  mistaken 
for  some  Neuroptera,  and  the  male  Coccus,  with  its  long  anal 
stylets  and  the  single  pair  of  fore  wings,  may  be  likened  to 
an  Ephemera.  The  genera  Aspidiotus  and  Lecanium  are  par- 
thenogenous,  as  in  the  Aphid  ce  . 

In  Aleurodes  both  sexes  are  winged  and  of  similar  form,  the 
antennae  are  six-jointed,  with  the  second  joint  lengthened,  and 

in  the  fore  wings, 
which  are  spread  out 
as  in  Lepidoptera, 
there  is  but  a  single 
vein,  the  median.  We 
have  received  from 
Mr.  J.  L:  Russell 
specimens  of  A.  va- 
c  ^^  porarium  which  oc- 

X\\       curred  in  great  num- 
j,  X^-  bers   on   his   house- 


plants  and  especially 
Fig.  526.  on  the  tomato  leaves. 

The  winged  forms  appeared  early  in  September.  The  larvae 
are  green  and  scale-like,  rounded  oval,  and  the  pupae  retain  the 
same  form  and  are  smooth  beneath,  but  with  minute  hairs 
above  and  on  the  edges.  The  adult  is  yellowish  white,  with 
snow-white  wings,  and  is  about  .04  of  an  inch  in  length. 
The  body  of  the  imago  nearly  formed, 
with  black  eyes,  can  be  seen  through  the 
thin  pupa  skin.  In  Dorthesia  the  males 
only  are  provided  with  wings ;  the  an- 
tennae are  long,  nine-jointed,  and  the 
abdomen  is  oval,  ending  in  a  bushy  mass 
of  threads.  The  genus  Coccus  differs  in 
that  the  two-winged  males  have  ten- 
Fig.  527.  jointed  antennae  and  two  anal  bristles. 
The  females  have  nine-jointed  antennae,  and  are  covered  with  a 
flattened,  hemispherical  scale.  The  Cochineal  insect,  Coccus 


COCCID^E. 


527 


(Pseudococcus)  cacti  (Fig.  527,  male,  with  wingless  female, 
natural  size  and  enlarged)  secretes  masses  of  Cochineal  from 
its  body.  The  males  are  carmine  red,  with  light  brown  wings, 
and  the  anal  setae,  or  bristles,  are  two  and  one-half  times 
longer  than  the  body,  which  is  three-fourths  of  a  line  long, 
while  the  female  is  one  line  in  length,  rounded  in  form, 
and  covered  with  a  heavy  bloom.  It  lives  in  Mexico  on  the 
Cactus  coccinellifer,  and  has  been  introduced  into  Spain  and 
Algiers  and  the  Madeira  islands.  Coccus  manniparus  of 
Ehrenberg  is  found  at  Sanai 
growing  on  the  Tamarix,  and  pro- 
duces by  its  attacks  the  gum-like 
secretion  called  "manna."  Coc- 
cus lacca  Kerr  lives  in  the  East 
Indies  on  the  Ficus  religiosa,  and 
produces  the  lac  of  commerce. 
When  found  on  the  twigs  it  is 
called  stick  lac,  but  after  it  has  been  pounded,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  coloring  matter  extracted  by  water,  it  is 
called  seed  lac  ;  when  melted  clown  into  cakes  after  it  has 
been  strained  and  formed  into  thin  scales,  lump  lac  and  shell 
lac. 

Mr.  Glover  has  figured  three  species  of  Aspidiotus  found  by 
him  living  on  the  orange  in  Florida,  and  all  seem  to  be  new  to 
science.  The  first  we  may  call  Aspidiotus  Gloverii  (Fig.  528,  a, 
male  ;  5,  female  ;  d,  linear  scale,  enlarged)  which  differs  from 
the  others  by  not  having,  according  to  Glover's  drawing,  the 
usual  pair  of  caudal  filaments.  It  occurs  on  the  bark  and 
leaves,  especially  on  the  outer  edge,  and 
along  the  midrib.  Another  species  is 
represented  at  Fig.  528,  c.  The  third 
species  may  be  called  the  Aspidiotus 
citricola,  which  has  been  very  injurious 
to  the  orange  in  the  Maritime  Alps  in 
Northern  Italy.  It  has,  besides  a  linear 
scale  like  that  represented  in  Fig.  528, 
529,  a,  male;  6,  female,  enlarged;  c,  oval  scale),  and  the 
female  has  two  long  caudal  filaments.  The  hymenopterous 
parasite,  Coccophagus,  preys  on  this  genus. 


Pig.  529. 
an  oval  scale 


(Fig. 


528 


HEMIPTERA. 


Other  bark-  lice  belonging  to  another  genus,  Lecanium,  are 
found  in  hot-houses  ;  they  differ  from  the  preceding  in  being 
flat,  scale-like,  without  any  traces  of  rings,  and  have  eight- 
jointed  antennae,  while  the  males  have  nine  joints  to  the  an- 
tennae, and  are  two-winged.  L.  hesperidum  Linn,  is  found  on 
the  orange. 

The  Editors  of  the  American  Entomologist  (p.  14)  describe 
the  Lecanium  Maclurce  (Fig.  530,  b)  which  lives  on  the  twigs 
and  leaves  of  the  Osage  orange.  '  '  The  dark  part  is  the  scale 
covering  the  insect,  and  this  scale,  as  usual  in  the  genus  to 
which  the  insect  belongs,  is  of  a  blood  brown  color.  The  pale 
part  is  snowy  white,  and  is  composed  of  a  fine  cottony  down 
enveloping  the  eggs  and  young  larvae."  A  similar  species,  L. 

acericola  (Fig. 
530,  a)  "infests 
the  bark  as  well 
as  leaves  of  the 
common  maple." 
The  common 
bark-louse  of  the 
Apple  tree  be- 
longs to  the  genus 
Aspidiotus  (A. 
conchiformis)  and 
does  more  injury 
to  that  tree  than 
any  other  insect 
known.  It  is  also 
found  on  the  cur- 
rant, plum  and 
pear.  (R  i  1  e  y  .  ) 
The  female  is 
shaped  like  an 


Fi*-530- 


oyster  shell.  There  are  from  ten  to  one  hundred  eggs  laid 
by  the  female.  Westwood  states  that  the  males  of  this  genus 
are  very  broad,  with  broad  wings,  and  a  central  anal  appen- 
dage, but  without  the  usual  caudal  filaments.  The  puparium 
has  a  double  shield. 
Mr.  Kiley  has  studied  the  habits  of  the  A.  conchiformis 


COCCIDJ3. 


529 


Gmelin  (Figs.  531,  532)  in  Illinois,  and  states  that  June  6th 
most  of  the  eggs  were  hatched,  though  the  young  had  not  left 
the  scales  ;  on  the  9th  the  weather  being  "  exceedingly  warm," 
the  young  (Fig.  532,  2)  were  found  running  all  over  the  twigs ; 
on  the  llth  they  all  became  fixed,  and  the  day  after  a  white 
waxy  secretion  began  to  issue  from  the  body  in  the  shape  of 
very  fine,  delicate  threads  (3).  On  the  22d  they  had  increased 
materially  in  size,  the  waxy  secretion  vanished  soon 
after  tue  last  date,  leaving  what  appeared  to  be  the 
body  of  a  yellowish  brown  color,  though  in  reality 
the  body  is  underneath  and  separate,  and  has  lost  all 
trace  of  members.  On  the  6th  of  July  the  secretion 
rapidly  increased  and  assumed  an  oval  form,  and 
the  insect  was  of  the  form  indicated  at  5.  On  the 
10th  the  scale  presented  the  appearance  indicated  at 
4.  Two  days  after  a  third  plate  began  to  be  secreted 
from  the  posterior  end  of  the  insect,  and  enlarged  \ 
rapidly,  becoming  of  the  same  color  as  the  back.  By  I 
the  first  of  August  their  growth  was  to  all  appearance 
completed,  the  scale  measuring  .12,  while  the  insect 
is  only  .05  of  an  inch  long,  thus  occupying  about 
half  the  space  within  (7).  On  the  12th  of  August  Fig.  531. 
they  began  to  lay  eggs,  and  by  the  28th  all  had  ceased  egg-lay- 
ing, while  the  body  shrivelled  up.  There  is  but  a  single  brood, 


Fig.  632. 

the  eggs  laid  late  in  summer,  hatching  in  the  following  spring. 
Thus  it  appears,  according  to  Riley's  observations,  and  as  Har- 
ris supposed,  that  the  shell-like  scale  is  secreted  from  the  sur- 
34 


530  HEMIPTERA. 

face  of  the  body,  and  is  identical  with  the  flocculent  matter,  or 
down,  that  exudes  from  certain  Aphides  and  the  shell  lac  insect 
and  related  forms.  On  the  other  hand,  Dr.  Shimer,  who  has 
given  the  fullest  history  of  this  insect,  and  was  the  first  to 
make  observations  for  the  most  part  similar  to  those  recorded 
above,  considers  that  the  scale  consists  of  the  several  (three) 
cast  skins  of  the  larva,  "cemented  by  some  kind  of  an  exuda- 
tion to  the  bark."  This  insect  can  be  best  exterminated  by 
scraping  the  bark,  and  then  washing  the  trees  with  soapsuds  a 
few  days  after  the  trees  blossom,  just  as  the  young  are  about 
hatching.  Dr.  Shimer  has  discovered  a  mite 
(Acarus?  malus  Shimer)  which  sucks  the 
eggs  in  autumn. 

Another  species,  which  is  native,  the  As- 
pidiotus  Harrisii  of  Walsh  (Figs.  533,  534, 
A,  B,  showing  the  two  kinds  of  scales)  dif- 
fers in  the  scale  being  oval,  "almost  entirely 
flat,  and  of  a  pure  milk  white  color,"  with 
red  eggs,  while  those  of  the  Oyster  shell 
bark-louse  are  milk  white,  and  the  larvae 
are  at  first  blood  red.  It  occurs  on  the  apple 
and  pear,  and  is  far  less  injurious  than  the 
other  species. 

Fig.  533.  PSYLLID^E   Latreille.     These   small   Leaf- 

hoppers  are  found  hopping  over  the  surface  of  leaves  and  often 
raising  galls.  They  are  flattened  and  provided  with  short  legs 
and  a  broad  head,  and  covered  with  a  white  cottony  mass  in 
the  larva  state.  In  the  mature  insect  the  forked  antennae  are 
eight  to  ten-jointed,  with  two  slender  terminal  bristles  forming 
the  fork.  There  are  three  remote  ocelli;  the  beak  is  three- 
jointed,  reaching  to  the 
middle  of  the  chest,  and 
the  epimera  of  the  meta- 
thorax  terminate  behind  in 
an  acute  spine  on  each 
side.  The  limbs  are  short, 

with  thickened  shanks,  and  two-jointed  tarsi.     The  wings  are 
thickened  and  folded  roof-like  over  the  body,  and  the  three 


CICADELLINA.  531 

veins,  costal,  median  and  submedian,  are  usually  each  di- 
vided but  once. 

The  genus  Psylla  has  the  bristle-shaped  antennae  as  long  as 
the  body,  and  a  distinct  pterostigma.  The  species  are  very 
numerous,  each  species  of  tree  having  its  peculiar  leaf-hopper, 
but  scarcely  any  have  been  yet  described.  Psylla  pyri  is 
brownish  orange,  with  a  greenish  abdomen.  It  is  very  injuri- 
ous to  the  pear  tree. 

In  Lima  the  antennae  are  shorter  than  the  body,  with  a  very 
large  and  thick  basal  joint,  and  flattened  eyes.  Lima  vernalis 
Fitch  is  bright  ferruginous  ;  the  breast  and  tips  of  the  antennae 
are  black,  while  the  legs  are  pale  rust-red.  It  is  .15  of  an  inch 
in  length,  and  is  found  in  vessels  of  sap  of  the  sugar  maple, 
according  to  Dr.  Fitch. 

CICADELLINA  Burmeister.  The  true  Leaf-hoppers  have  a 
broad,  triangular  head  obtusely  pointed  in  front,  with  a  large 
triangular  scutellum  not  concealed  by  the  wings  when  at  rest, 
and  the  ocelli  are  either  two  in  number  or  entirely  wanting. 
The  short,  two-jointed  antennas  end  in  a  bristle,  being  inserted 
on  the  upper  edge  of  the  front,  just  before  the  eyes.  The  large 
prothorax  is  broad  and  flattened  and  transversely  oblong.  The 
fore  wings  are  thickened,  and  the  hind  legs  are  long,  being 
fitted  for  leaping. 

Many  species  inhabiting  grasses,  such  as  Helochara  and 
Aphrophora,  while  in  the  larva  state  suck  the  sap  of  grasses 
and  emit  a  great  quantity  of  froth,  or  in  some  cases  a  clear 
liquid,  which  in  the  former  case  envelops  the  body,  and  thus 
conceals  it  from  sight.  It  is  then  vulgarly  called  "toad's 
spittle."  In  Typhlocyba,  which  comprises  many  small  species, 
there  are  no  ocelli ;  the  scutellum  is  rounded,  and  the  front  is 
slightly  concave.  The  species  of  this  and  the  following  genera 
by  their  attacks  on  various  vines  and  fruit  trees  often  kill 
them.  They  are  among  the  greatest  pests  of  gardeners.  The 
injury  is  produced  by  their  beaks  in  feeding,  and  by  the  ovi- 
positor in  puncturing  the  leaves,  in  which  they  lay  their  eggs. 

In  Erythroneura  the  head  is  crescentiform,  about  as  broad 
as  the  thorax,  with  the  vertex  rounded  down  to  the  front,  with- 
out an  angular  edge  ;  the  ocelli. are  situated  between  the  vertex 


532  HEMIPTEKA. 

and  the  front,  and  almost  as  near  each  other  as  the  eyes,  while 
the  fore  wings  are  without  closed  cells  in  the  disk.  The  spe- 
cies most  injurious  to  the  grape-vine  is  the  Erythroneura  vitis 
Harris  (Fig.  535).  It  is  pale  yellow,  with  two  red  lines  on 
the  head,  while  the  hinder  edge  of  the  thorax,  including  the 
scutellum,  the  base  of  the  fore  wings,  with  a  broad  band  across 
their  middle,  are  scarlet,  and  the  wings  are  tipped  with  black. 
In  Jassus  the  species  are  larger  than  the  foregoing,  with 
stouter  bodies.  The  head  is  very  broad  and  short,  concave  at 
base,  and  the  ocelli  are  placed  between  the  e}Tes  on  the  front, 
which  is  broader  than  long,  and  the  ovipositor  is  recurved. 
Jassus  irroratus  Say  is  not  uncommonly  seen  on  herbage. 

The  common  Heleochara  communis  Fitch,  a  grass  green  spe- 
cies, is  found  in  great  abundance  in  damp,  grassy  places,  in 
company  with  the  yellow-legged,  closely  allied,  Auladzes  mol- 
lipes  Say  and  the  Proconia  quadrivittata  Say,  which  has  the 
vertex  flattened  and  four  scarlet  stripes  on  the  wings.  In  Tet- 
tigoma  the  antennae  are  half  as  long  as  the  body.  T.  bifida, 

Say  is  common  in 
grass.  In  Cercopis  the 
prothorax  is  large  and 
hexagonal. 

The  Clastoptera  pro- 

ras  of  Fitch  is  a 

common  insect  in  blue- 
berry fields  and  cran- 
berry pastures.  It  is 

short  and  thick,  with  a  bright  yellow  head,  with  a  black  band 
on  the  front  margin  of  the  vertex,  and  a  broader  one  on  the 
front,  and  a  black  dot  near  the  apex  of  the  elytra,  while  the 
legs  are  yellowish  white,  and  the  tarsi  are  black.  It  varies 
greatly  in  its  colors.  In  Aphrophora  the  head  is  of  moderate 
size,  with  two  ocelli  approximate  on  the  crown  of  the  head  ; 
the  prothorax  is  trapezoidal  and  the  posterior  tibiaB  have  two 
teeth.  A.  quadrinotata  Say  is  found,  on  grape-vines. 

FULGORID^:  Leach.  This  family,  as  stated  by  Westwopd,  is 
at  once  known  by  having  only  three  distinct  joints  in  the  an- 
tennae, and  the  two  ocelli  are  placed  beneath  the  eyes.  The 


head  is  very  large ;  the  body  is  high  and  convex,  often  com- 
pressed laterally.  The  hind  legs  are  thickened  and  enlarged, 
adapted  for  leaping  purposes.  Some  of  the  strangest  shapes 
among  insects  are  found  in  this  group.  This  is  due  to  the  great 
development  of  the  forehead,  or  vertex  of  the  head,  which  is  pro- 
longed either  angularly,  or  into  a  long  snout-like  process,  as  in 
Fulgora,  while  in  other  species  it  is  as  long  as  the  entire  body. 

"The  species  of  some  genera,  such  as  Plata  Mmbata,  Phenax 
variegata,  Lystra  auricoma  and  L.  lanata,  emit  a  waxy  white 
secretion,  made  into  a  fine  white  wax,  which  is  much  esteemed 
in  China  and  the  East  Indies."  (Westwood.) 

The  Lantern-fly,  Fulgora,  attains  an  immense  size  when 
compared  with  other  Hemiptera,  being  between  two  and  three 
inches  long.  The  head  is  large  with  a  prolongation  much 
longer  than  the  head,  which  is  said  by  novices  and  some  nat- 
uralists, though  doubted  by  others,  to  be  luminous  at  night, 
whence  its  name.  The  Fulgora  lanternaria  Linn,  occurs  in 
Surinam,  and  F.  (Hotinus)  candelaria  Linn,  is  found  in  China. 
Mr.  Caleb  Cooke  of  Salem,  who  resided  several  years  in  Zan- 
zibar, Africa,  informs  me  that  the  Lantern-fly  is  said  by  the 
natives  to  be  luminous.  They  state  that  the  long  snout  lights 
up  in  the  night,  and  in  describing  it,  say  "its  head  is  like  a 
lamp."  (Keetchua  Jcana-tah.) 

In  Flata  the  base  of  the  head  is  concealed  by  the  front  edge 
of  the  prothorax,  the  front  of  the  head  is  long  and*  slender, 
without  any  middle  keel ;  the  wings  are  very  broad  and  rounded. 

Anotia  Bonnetii  Kirby  is  found,  according  to  Fitch,  on  wil- 
lows about  the  middle  of  September.  Otiocerus  Coquebertii 
Kirby  is  found  on  beech  and  oak  trees,  and  sometimes  on  the 
grape-vine,  according  to  Fitch. 

The  genus  Delphax  has  a  very  broad  front,  with  sharp  edges 
and  a  forked  keel  along  the  middle ;  the  antennae  are  two- 
jointed,  the  articulations  long  and  thickened  at  the  end.  Del- 
phax arvensis  Fitch  is  pale  yellow,  unspotted,  with  the  elytra 
and  wings  nearly  pellucid.  It  is  common  in  fields  of  wheat 
early  in  June. 

CICADARI^E  Latreille.  These  interesting  insects,  commonly 
called  "locusts,"  are  large  and  wedge-shaped,  with  a  large 


534 


HEMIPTERA. 


broad  head  and  prominent  eyes.  The  males  have  a  musical 
apparatus  beneath  the  wings  on  the  basal  ring  of  the  abdomen, 

which  acts  like  a  ket- 
tle drum,  producing 
a  loud,  penetrating, 
shrill  sound.  Cicada 
rimosa  of  Say,  our 
smallest  species,  be- 
gins to  be  heard  a 
little  before  the  mid- 
dle of  June.  The 
C.  pruinosa  Say  is 
larger  and  appears 
later,  being  an  au- 

ci  -A  ^f^  '  tumnal  species.  Pro- 

Fig.  536.  fessor  A.  E.  Verrill 

has  observed  this  species  in  Norway,  Me.,  laying  its  eggs  in 
the  stems  of  Solidago  or  Golden-rod.  It  made  a  longitudinal 
incision  with  ragged  edges  into  the  pith  of  the  plant,  then  with 

its  oviposi- 
tor forced  its 
eggs  a  little 
distance 
down  in  the 
pith  below 
the  external 
opening ; 
there  were 
two  rows  of 
eggs  suc- 
ceeding the 
first  single 
one,  each 
pair  diverg- 
ing o  u  t  - 
wards,  the 
Fig.  537.  lower  ends 

of  each  pair  nearly  touching  each  other,  and  all  placed  very 
near  together.  The  habits  of  the  Seventeen  year  locust,  Cicada 


535 


septendedm  Linn.  (Fig.  536,  A  ;  #,  drum  ;  c,  d,  male  genital 
hooks  ;  B,  C.  Cassinii  Fisher  ;  #,  drum  ;  e,  /,  genital  hooks. 
Fig.  537,  c,  with  expanded  wings)  which  does  not  in- 
habit Northern  New  England,  are  well  described  by 
Harris  and  Fitch.  The  young  larvae  feed  on  the  roots 
of  the  oak  and  apple,  clustering  upon  the  roots  and  suck- 
ing the  sap  with  their  beak-like  mouths.  They  live 
seventeen  years.  Different  broods  appear  in  different 
localities,  so  that  each  year  they  are  seen  in  some  part 
of  the  country. 

The  Editors  of  the  American  Entomologist,  p.  63,  give 
additional  information  regarding  its  habits.  It  appears 
during  the  last  half  of  May,  and  disappears  about  the 
fourth  of  July,  and  the  eggs  hatch  between  the  twentieth 
of  July  and  the  first  of  August.  The  eggs  (Fig. 
537  ;  d,  e,  enlarged)  are  deposited  in  pairs  in 
the  terminal  twigs  of  different  species  of  decidu- 
ous trees,  especially  the  oak  (Fig.  538,  punc- 
tured twig  ;  Fig.  539,  a  twig  which  has  been  Fi£-538- 
punctured  and  then  healed  over).  The  larvae  hatch 
out  in  about  six  weeks  after  they  are  laid,  and  (Fig. 
540,  newly  hatched  larva)  drop  to  the  ground  in 
which  they  live  feeding  on  roots  of  trees  for  nearly 
seventeen  years,  the  pupa  state  (Fig.  537  ;  a,  6,  cast 
pupa  and  skin  ;  c,  adult)  lasting  but  a  few  days. 
When  about  to  transform  into  the  winged  state  they 
ascend  to  the  surface,  making  cylindrical  burrows, 
"firmly  cemented  and  varnished  so  as  to  be  water- 
Fig.  539.  proof."  Mr.  S.  S.  Rathvon  has  observed  that  in  low 
and  wet  localities  the  pupae  extend  these  "galleries  from  four 
to  six  inches  above  ground  (Fig.  541  ;  a,  full  view  ;  6,  section) 
leaving  an  orifice  of  egress  even 
with  the  surface  (e).  In  the 
upper  end  of  these  chambers 
(c)  the  pupae  would  be  found 
awaiting  their  approaching 
time  of  change.  They  would 
then  back  down  to  below  the  level  of  the  earth,  as  at  d,  and 
issuing  forth  from  the  orifice  would  attach  themselves  to 


536 


HEMIPTERA. 


the  first  object  at  hand,  and  undergo  their  transformations 
in  the  usual  manner."  (American  Entomologist,  p.  64.) 

The  ovipositor  of  Cicada,  as  we  have  observed  it  in  a  rudi- 
mentary state  in  the  pupa,  closely  resembles  that  of  ^Eschna 
(Fig.  21),  and  essentially  agrees  with  that  of  Bombus,  the 
basal  pair  of  blades  arising  from  the  eighth  segment  of  the  ab- 
domen, as  in  the  humble  bee,  and  the  two  succeeding  pairs 
forming  the  ovipositor  itself  (the  outer  pair  forming  a  sheath) 
arising  from  the  ninth  segment. 

NOTONECTID^:  Latreille.  The  Water  Boatmen  somewhat 
resemble  the  Tettigonise,  but  their  habits  are  aquatic ;  their 

hind  legs  are  very  long, 
ciliated,  and  formed  for 
swimming.  The  body 
is  convex  above,  but  flat 
beneath ;  the  head  is 
large  and  nearly  as  wide 
as  the  rest  of  the  body, 
with  a  broad  and  round- 
ed front ;  the  antennae 
are  four-jointed,  c  o  11  - 
cealed  beneath  the  eyes, 
and  the  ocelli  are  want- 
ing. The  different  spe- 
cies of  Corixa  'are  com- 
mon in  every  pool.  Their 

motions  are  rapid,  diving  when  disturbed  rapidly  to  the  bot- 
tom and  seizing  hold  of  submerged  objects.  They  fly  well,  but 
walk  with  difficulty.  The  genus  is  characterized  by  the 
single-jointed  fore  tarsi,  which  are  flattened  and  strongly 
ciliated ;  the  prothorax  is  large,  covering  the  mesotho- 
rax.  C.  interrupta  Say  is  not  uncommon  in  pools,  a  » 
In  Notonecta  the  body  is  somewhat  prismatic  in  form, 
and  hairy  beneath,  where  in  Corixa  it  is  smooth.  The 
fore  tarsi  are  three-jointed,  and  the  hind  legs  are  very 
Fig.542.  |ong>  Roesei  states  that  "the  eggs  (which  are  attached 
to  the  stems  and  leaves  of  aquatic  plants,  and  are  of  an  oval 
form)  are  hatched  in  fifteen  days ;  the  young  make  their  ap- 


NEPIDJE.  537 

pearance  at  the  beginning  of  the  spring,  and  the  parent  sur- 
vives until  they  have  arrived  at  maturity."  (Westwood.)  The 
recently  hatched  young  are  broad,  oval  and  flattened.  Noto- 
necta  undulata  Say  (Fig.  542)  and  N.  irrorata  Say  are  our  more 
common  forms.  The  genus  Ploa  differs  from  the  preceding, 
in  the  fore  wings  being  coriaceous,  and  "united  together  by 
a  straight  suture." 


Leach.  These  insects  have  very  flat  bodies  which 
are  either  oval  or  very  long  and  linear.  The  head  is  sunken 
into  the  thorax,  with  large  eyes,  but  no  ocelli.  The  antennae 
are  short,  three  or  four-jointed,  and  concealed  in  a  cavity  under 
the  eyes  ;  the  beak  is  three-jointed.  The  fore  wings  are  mem- 
branous, and  the  fore  feet  are  raptorial,  while  the  hind  limbs 
are  formed  for  swimming.  In  Nepa  and  Ranatra  the  body 
terminates  in  a  long  breathing  tube,  and  the  tracheary  system 
in  these  two  genera  is  very  peculiar,  being  very  largely  devel- 
oped on  the  under  side  of  the  body.  There  is  a  large  air- 
bladder  within  the  metathorax,  leading  from  the  spiracle,  which 
evidently  lightens  the  insect  during  its  flight.  In  the  abdomen 
the  spiracles  are  only  present  on  the  third  to  the  fifth  rings  ; 
they  are  not,  however,  simple  clefts  in  the  walls  of  the  body 
but  are  closed  by  a  sieve-like  membrane,  so  that  they  perform 
the  function  of  tracheal  gills.  (Gerstaecker.) 

The  genus  Belostoma  comprises  the  most  gigantic  forms  of 
the  suborder,  some  species  being  from  three  to  four  and  a  half 
inches  long.  The  body  is  oval,  elliptical,  flattened  ;  the  eyes 
are  large  and  the  second  to  the  fourth  antennal  joints  provided 
with  hook-like  expansions.  The  fore  tarsi  are  two-jointed,  with 
a  single  claw,  and  the  hinder  limbs  are  broad,  flat,  and  well 
fringed.  The  larvae  are  provided  with  two  claws  on  the  fore 
tarsi.  "The  females  of  some  species  of  Belostomse  carry  their 
eggs  upon  their  backs,  arranging  them  in  a  single  layer  with 
great  symmetry."  (Westwood.)  Belostoma  Haldimanum  Leidy 
is  not  uncommon  in  our  waters.  It  is  three  inches  and  a  half 
in  length,  and  has  black  patches  on  the  under  side  of  the  body, 
while  in  B.  grisea  Say,  which  is  of  the  same  size,  the  under 
side  is  unspotted.  Professor  A.  E.  Verrill  has  sent  me  the 
eggs  and  freshly  hatched  young  of  one  of  our  New  England 


538 


HEMIPTERA. 


species  of  Belostoma,  the  former  of  which  he  found  in  the 
spring  "under  an  old  log  just  at,  but  above,  the  edge  of  the 
water.  On  the  18th  of  June  they  hatched  out  a  most  amusing 
flock  of  young  bugs,  nearly  as  large  as  squash  bugs,  and  light 
yellowish  green  in  color,  which  soon  changed  to  dark  gray." 
The  young,  two  days  old  and  previous  to  moulting,  were  .35 
of  an  inch  long.  The  eggs  are  smooth,  cylindrical,  .16  of  an 
inch  long,  and  are  deposited  in  a  mass  of  about  ninety  eggs, 
attached  by  the  posterior  end  to  a  mass  of  silk-gum.  They 
partially  overlap  each  other,  and  the  young  escape  by  a  round 
lid,  indicated  by  a  semicircular  white  line. 

The  genus  Eanatra  is  remarkable  for  its  long  linear  body, 
terminating  in  the  long  respiratory  tube.     The  prothorax  is 

greatly  elongated,  while  the 
mesoscutellum  is  short.  "The 
eggs  of  the  genus  Ranatra  are 
more  elongated  than  in  Nepa, 
and  are  furnished  above  with 
two  slender  setae.  According  to 
Rosel,  they  are  deposited  at 
random  in  tne  water,  but  Geoffrey 
states  that  they  are  introduced 
into  the  stems  of  aquatic  plants, 
the  elongated  filaments  being 
alone  exposed.  Our  most  com- 
mon form  is  Ranatra  fusca  Beau- 
vois  (Fig.  543). 

The  genus  Nepa  has  very  short 
three-jointed  antennae,  the  two 
last  joints  being  expanded  later- 
ally. The  body  is  flat,  oval, 
with  two  long  respiratory  tubes, 
while  the  thorax  is  trapezoidal, 
and  the  mesoscutellum  is  very 
large ;  the  thighs  are  dilated, 
with  a  notch  to  receive  the  tibia, 
which  is  curved  and  soldered  to  the  tarsus.  The  genus  is  very 
predaceous,  feeding  like  Ranatra  and  others  on  the  larvae  of 
Ephemerae.  "The  eggs  are  deposited  in  the  water ;  they  are 


Fig.  543. 


PLOTEKES.  539 

oval,  and  surmounted  by  seven  elongated  filaments,  which 
serve,  while  the  egg  is  in  the  oviduct,  to  form  a  kind  of  cup 
for  the  reception  of  the  succeeding  egg,  but  which  are  recurved 
when  the  egg  is  discharged."  (Westwood. ) 

GALGULID^:  (Galgudini)  Burmeister.  This  small  group  con- 
sists of  a  few  species  which  have  the  hind  legs  formed  for 
running.  The  body  is  short,  broad,  flattened,  and  the  head  is 
broad  with  pedunculated  eyes,  and  the  four-jointed  antennae 
are  concealed  beneath  the  eyes,  while  the  ocelli  are  present. 
These  insects  are  said  to  live  on  the  edge  of  the  water,  "bury- 
ing themselves  in  the  sand,  especially  in  the  larva  state." 
The  group  is  interesting  as  forming  a  connecting  link  between 
the  aquatic  and  terrestrial  plant-eating  species. 

In  Oalgulus  the  third  antennal  joint  is  small,  the  fourth 
minute  and  rounded.  G.  oculatus  Fabr.  is  uniformly  brown, 
the  upper  surface  granulated,  and  beneath  blackish. 

PLOTERES  Latreille.  These  insects  are  long,  narrowing 
alike  towards  both  ends,  being  shaped  like  a  wherry,  and  with 
their  long  legs  they  course  over  the  surface  of  ponds  and 
streams,  moving  backwards  and  forwards  with  great  facility. 
They  are  among  the  earliest  spring  insects.  The  body  beneath 
is  furnished  with  a  coating  of  plush,  to  repel  the  water.  The 
four-jointed  antennae  are  long  and  slen- 
der, and  the  fore  legs  are  partially  rap- 
torial for  seizing  their  prey.  Wingless 
insects  (evidently  mature  as  they  are 
found  coupling)  occur  in  this  family,  as 
among  the  Cimicidce.  Thus,  there 
are  apterous  forms  in  the  genera  Gerris, 
Hydrometra  and  Velia,  while  in  Pyrrlio- 
coris  apterus  and  Prostemma  guttula 
there  are  individuals  partially  winged, 

"which  no  one  regards  otherwise  than  as  specifically  identical 
with  the  full- winged  specimens  of  the  same  species,  .  .  .  but 
must  be  compelled  to  regard  them  as  imagines  with  peculiar 
characters  of  their  own,  somewhat  analogous  to  the  neuters, 
or  undeveloped  females  of  the  bee  ;  but  yet  more  perfect  than 


540  HEMIPTEKA. 

that  kind  of  imago,  being  capable  of  reproduction."    (West- 
wood.) 

In  Velia  the  triangular  head  is  sunken  in  the  thorax  up  to 
the  eyes  ;  the  ocelli  are  wanting ;  the  thorax  is  large,  and  the 
wings  are  present. 

The  well  known  genus  Gerris  has  the  ocelli  present,  the  ab- 
domen long  and  slender,  while  the  prothorax  is  very  large,  cov- 
ering the  mesothorax.  The  eggs  of  a  European  species  are 
preyed  upon  by  a  species  of  Teleas,  according  to  Mecznikow. 
Gerris  paludum  Fabr.  (Fig.  544)  and  G.  rufoscutellattis  Fabr. 
a  reddish  species,  are  abundant  on  our  streams.  The  larvae 
are  much  shorter  and  with  broader  bodies  than  the  adults. 
1  The  genus  Hylobates  has  the  first  antennal  joint  as  long  as 
the  two  following  ones  together;  both  ocelli  and  wings  are 
wanting  ;  the  mesothorax  is  very  large,  and  elongated  posteri- 
orly, and  the  fore  legs  are  short,  outstretched,  with  thickened 
femora,  while  the  middle  pair  of  limbs  is  the  longest.  The 
species  are  found  swimming  on  the  surface  of  the  ocean  in  the 
tropics  far  from.land. 

REDUVIIDJE  (Reduvini)  Latreille.  The  characters  of  this 
family  are  these  :  head  free  from  the  thorax,  elongated,  nearly 
cylindrical,  with  prominent  eyes  and  two  ocelli ;  the  antennae 
are  of  moderate  length,  slender  towards  the  end,  and  the  beak 
is  stout  and  incurved  ;  the  tarsi  are  three-jointed  and  the  legs 
are  long  and  fitted  for  running.  These  insects  are  among  the 
most  predaceous  of  the  Hemiptera. 

The  group  begins  with  an  aquatic  genus  Limnobates,  which 
connects  this  family  with  the  preceding  one ;  it  runs  over  the 
surface  of  pools  like  Gerris.  The  body  is  linear  ;  the  protho- 
rax is  as  long  as  the  rest  of  the  thorax,  and  the  hind  wings 
are  wanting. 

Ploiaria  is  a  remarkably  slender,  thread-like  insect,  with  long 
hair-like  posterior  legs,  reminding  us  of  Tipula.  The  species 
are  raptorial  and  are  frequent  in  gardens.  P.  brevipennis 
Say  is  reddish,  with  wings,  and  the  feet  are  ringed  near  the 
knees.  Its  ally,  Emesa,  resembles  "the  thinnest  bits  of  sticks 
fastened  together,"  according  to  Westwood.  The  body  is  long 
and  thin,  hair-like,  and  the  antennae  are  long  and  delicate  ;  the 


REDUVIID^. 


541 


fore  legs  are  raptorial,  with  long  and  thin  coxae.  The  wings 
are  either  wanting,  or  they  reach  only  to  the  middle  of  the  ab- 
domen. Emesa  longipes  DeGeer  has  a  white  head, 
with  a  brown  band  under  the  eyes ;  the  femora  are 
annulated  with  brown,  and  tipped  with  white. 

In  Soldo,  the  body  is  small,  elliptical  and  flat ;  the 
antennae  are  long  and  thread-like,   half  as  long  ks 
the  body.     The  beak  reaches  to  the  end  of  the  breast, 
the  second  joint  being  at  least  six  times  as  long  as    Fig.  545. 
the  first,  and  the  legs  are  short  and  slender.     The  species  are 
found  mostly  in  Europe  along  the  shores  of  the  ocean  and 
inland  waters. 

The  genus  Nabis  is  known  by  the  anterior  tibiae  having  an 
apical  cushion  ;  the  beak  is  slender,  extending  to  the  hind  legs. 
Nabis  ferus  Linn,  is  abundant  in  gardens,  feeding  on  insects. 
An  allied  and  common  form  is  the  Pirates  picipes  of  Herrich 
Schaeffer  (Fig.  545).  The  P.  Ugnttatus  Say  has  been  found 
between  the  mattrasses  of  a  bug-infested  bed  in  south  Illinois, 
and  probably  feeds  on  the  bed-bug.  (American  Entomolgist, 
p.  37.) 

The  allied  genera  Prostemma  (P. 
guttata),  and  Coranus  (C.  subap- 
terus)  "are  interesting  on  account 
of  their  being  generally  found  in  an 
undeveloped  imago  state ;  the  latter 
being  either  entirely  apterous  or  with 
the  fore  wings  rudimental,  although 
occasionally  met  with  having  the  four 
wings  completely  developed."  Mr. 
Westwood  thinks  that,  especially  in  hot  seasons,  these  apterous 
insects  acquire  full  sized  wings,  in  accordance  with  the  same 
opinion  of  Spinola,  whom  he  quotes. 

The  type  of  the  family  is  the  genus  Reduvius  of  Fabricius, 
which  may  be  recognized  by  its  second  and  third  antennal 
joints  being  much  longer  than  the  first,  while  the  fourth  is 
hair-like.  The  limbs  are  densely  hirsute,  and  the  beak  is  short 
and  stout.  Reduvius  personatus  Linn.,  a  black  species,  is  said 
to  feed  upon  the  bed-bug.  "The  larva  and  pupa  have  the  in- 
stinct to  envelope  themselves  in  a  thick  coating  of  particles  of 


542  HEMIPTEKA. 

dust  (DeGeer)  and  so  completely  do  they  exercise  this  habit 
that  a  specimen  shut  up  by  M.  Brulle,  and  which  had  under- 
gone one  of  its  moultings  during  its  imprisonment,  divested, 
its  old  skin  of  its  coat  of  dust,  in  order  to  recover  itself  there- 
with." (Westwood.)  The  Evagoras  viridis  Uhler  MS.  is  said, 
by  the  Editors  of  the  "American  Entomologist,"  to  devour  the 
plum  curculio. 

In  Harpactor  the  head  is  convex  behind  the  e}^es  ;  the  ocelli 
are  distant,  knobbed,  and  the  first  antennal  joint  is  as  long 
as,  and  stouter  than,  the  two  succeeding  ones  together.  Har- 
pactor cinctus  Fabr.  (Fig.  546 ;  &,  beak)  attacks  the  larva  of 
the  Colorado  Potato-beetle.  Another  member  of  this  family, 
the  Conorhinus  sanguisuga  of  Leconte,  is  said  to  occur  in 
beds,  its  bite  being  very  painful.  (American  Entomologist, 
p.  87.) 

CORISI^E  Latreille.  In  this  very  extensive  family,  which  is 
especially  rich  in  species  in  the  tropics,  where  they  are  gaily 
colored,  the  head  is  flat,  extended  horizontally,  and  sunken  up 
to  the  eyes  within  the  prothorax.  The  antennae  are  long,  fili- 
form, often  clavate  at  the  tip,  and  from  three  to  five-jointed. 
The  two  ocelli  are  almost  always  present,  while  the  beak- sheath 
(labium)  is  four-jointed.  The  tarsi  are  generally  three-jointed, 
and  the  claws  are  provided  with  two  suctorial  pads.  The 
membranous  wing-covers  have  distinct,  often  forked,  longitu- 
dinal veins. 

"We  follow  Gerstaecker  in  retaining  Latreille's  family  Cor- 
isiae,  which  includes  the  "Lygaeidse,"  "Coreidae"  and  "Penta- 
tomidae"  of  recent  authors,  as  they  all  agree  in  the  general 
form  of  the  body,  and,  as  stated  by  Gerstaecker,  in  the  struc- 
ture of  the  antennae,  the  uniform  presence  of  two  ocelli,  the 
longitudinal  veins  of  the  fore  wings,  and  the  hardness  of 
the  crust  of  the  body ;  these  characters  separate  them  from 
the  preceding  groups. 

In  Lygaaus  and  allies  (Lygaeidse)  the  scutellum  is  of  the 
normal  size ;  the  antennae  are  four-jointed,  and  are  attached  to 
the  under  side  of  the  head,  and  the  beak  is  tolerably  long.  In 
Lygceus  the  head  is  elongated  acutely,  the  eyes  globular,  the 
ocelli  distinct,  and  the  antennae  are  slender,  scarcely  half  as 


543 


long  as  the  body,  and  slightly  clavate.  Lygceus  turcicus  Fabr. 
is  a  typical  form.  Pyrrhocoris  apterus  Linn,  is  usually  apter- 
ous ;  occasionally  specimens  are  found  with  wings.  It  inhabits 
Europe. 

The  Chinch  bug,  Rliyparocliromus  leucopterus  Say  (Fig.  547) 
is  a  great  enemy  of  our  wheat  crops,  and,  as  its  specific  name 
indicates,  it  may  be  known  by  the  white  fore  wings,  contrasting 
well  with  a  black  spot  on  the  middle  of  the  edge  of  the  wing. 
It  is  about  three-twentieths  of  an  inch  in  length.  Harris  also 
states  that  "the  young  and  wingless  individuals  are  at  first 
bright  red,  changing  with  age  to  brown  and  black,  and  are 
always  marked  with  a  white  band  across  the  back."  Shinier 
says  the  female  is  ' '  occupied  about  twenty  days  in  laying  her 
eggs,  about  500  in  number.  The  larva  hatches  in  fifteen  days 
and  there  are  two  broods  in  a  season,  the  first  brood  maturing, 
in  Illinois,  from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  middle  of  August, 
and  the  second  late  in  autumn."  According  to  Harris,  the 
"eggs  of  the  chinch  bug  are  laid  in  the  ground,  in  which 
the  young  have  been  found,  in  great  abundance,  at  the  depth 
of  an  inch  or  more. 
They  make  their 
appearance  on 
wheat  about  the 
middle  of  June, 
and  may  be  seen 
in  their  various 
stages  of  growth 
on  all  kinds  of 
grain,  on  corn, 
and  on  herds-  1 

grass,   during  the  rig.  547.  Fig.  548. 

whole  summer.  Some  of  them  continue  alive  through  the  win- 
ter in  their  places  of  concealment."  They  also  attack  every 
description  of  garden  vegetables,  attacking  principally  "the 
buds,  terminal  shoots,  and  most  succulent  growing  parts  of 
these  and  other  herbaceous  plants,  puncturing  them  with  their 
beaks,  drawing  off  the  sap,  and  from  the  effects  subsequently 
visible,  apparently  poisoning  the  part  attacked."  This  species 
is  widely  diffused.  I  hav«  taken  it  frequently  in  Maine,  and 


544  HEMIPTERA. 

even    on    the    extreme    summit  of   Mount  Washington,   in 
August. 

Dr.  Shimer  in  his  "Notes"  on  the  chinch  bug,  says  that  it 
"attained  the  maximum  of  its  development  in  the  summer  of 
1864,  in  the  extensive  wheat  and  corn  fields  of  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi ;  and  in  that  single  year  three-fourths  of  the  wheat 
and  one-half  of  the  corn  crop  were  destroyed  throughout  many 
extensive  districts,  comprising  almost  the  entire  North-west, 
with  an  estimated  loss  of  more  than  one  hundred  millions  of 
dollars  in  the  currency  that  then  prevailed,"  while  Mr.  Walsh 
estimates  the  loss,  from  the  ravages  of  this  insect  in  Illinois 
alone,  in  1850,  to  have  been  four  millions  of  dollars. 

In  the  summer  of  1865,  the  progeny  of  the  broods  of  the 
preceding  year  were  almost  entirely  swept  off  by  an  epidemic 
disease,  so  few  being  left  that  on  the  22d  of  August,  Dr. 
Shimer  found  it  "almost  impossible  to  find  even  a  few  cabinet 
specimens  of  chinch  bugs  alive "  where  they  were  so  abundant 
the  year  before.  "  During  the  summer  of  1866  the  chinch  bugs 
were  very  scarce  in  all  the  early  spring,  and  up  to  near  the 
harvest  I  was  not  able,  with  the  most  diligent  search,  to  find 
one.  At  harvest  I  did  succeed  in  finding  a  few  in  some  locali- 
ties." "This  disease  among  the  chinch  bugs  was  associated 
with  the  long-continued  wet,  cloudy,  cool  weather  that  pre- 
vailed during  a  greater  portion  of  the  period  of  their  develop- 
ment, and  doubtless  was  in  a  measure  produced  by  deficient 
light,  heat  and  electricity,  combined  with  an  excessive  humidity 
of  the  atmosphere."  In  1868  it  again,  according  to  the  Edi- 
tors of  the  "American  Entomologist,"  "did  considerable  dam- 
age in  certain  counties  in  Southern  Illinois  and  especially 
in  South-west  Missouri."  Fig.  548  represents  the  Anthocoris 
insidiosus  Say,  called  the  False  Chinch  bug ;  it  is  often  mis- 
taken for  the  chinch  bug,  with  which  it  is  sometimes  found 
associated. 

In  the  "Coreidse"  the  scutellum  is  still  of  the  usual  size; 
the  antennae  are  four-jointed ;  while  the  basal  joint  of  the  beak 
is  generally  the  longest. 

Westwood  states  that  the  Coreus  marginatus  of  Europe  "in 
flight  makes  a  humming  noise  as  loud  as  the  hive  bee,"  and 
the  eggs  of  this  species  have  been  observed  by  Audouin  to  be 


CORISI^.  545 

"of  a  splendid  golden  appearance."  The  larvae  and  pupae  of 
several  species  of  Coreus  have  been  observed  by  Westwood 
to  "differ  from  the  imago  in  wanting  ocelli,  possessing  only 
two  joints  in  the  tarsi  (although  there  is  a  slight  indication 
of  an  articulation  in  the  middle  of  the  terminal  joint)  ;  their 
antennae  also  are  much  thicker,  especially  the  intermediate 
joint.  The  pupa  of  C.  scapha  differs  also  from  the  imago  in 
having  the  margins  of  the  abdomen  notched."  Several  adult 
forms  of  this  group  are  known  to  be  partially  wingless. 

The  Squash-bug,  Coreus  (Gonocerus)  tristis  DeGeer  (Fig. 
549)  is  very  destructive  to  squash-vines,  collecting  in  great 
numbers  around  the  stem  near  the  ground,  and  sucking  the 
sap  with  its  stout  beak.  It  is  a  large,  blackish  brown  insect, 
six-tenths  of  an  inch  long,  and  dirty  yellowish  beneath.  It 
hibernates,  leaving  the  plant  in  October.  About 
the  last  of  June  the  sexes  meet,  and  the  females 
"lay  their  eggs  in  little  patches,  fastening  them 
with  a  gummy  substance  to  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves.  The  eggs  are  round,  and  flattened  on 
two  sides,  and  are  soon  hatched.  The  young 
bugs  are  proportionally  shorter  and  more  rounded 
than  the  perfect  insects,  are  of  a  pale  ash  color,  Figl  549> 
and  have  quite  large  antennae,  the  joints  of  •which  are  some- 
what flattened.  As  they  grow  older  and  increase  in  size,  after 
moulting  their  skins  a  few  times,  they  become  more  oval  in 
form,  and  the  under  side  of  their  bodies  gradually  acquires  a 
dull  ochre-yellow  color."  (Harris.)  The  young  attack  the 
leaves,  causing  them  to  wither  up.  Successive  broods  are 
said  to  appear  through  the  summer.  Professor  Verrill  has 
found,  with  the  assistance  of  Professor  S.  W.  Johnson,  of  Yale 
College,  that  the  odor  of  this  and  other  hemipterous  insects 
bears  the  most  resemblance  to  that  of  the  formate  of  oxide  of 
amyl,  or  the  formate  of  amylic  ether.  It  is  probable  that  this 
substance  is  its  most  essential  and  active  ingredient.  (Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  xi,  p. 
160.) 

In  Neides  the  body  is  remarkably  thin  and  slender,  repeat- 
ing the  form  of  Ploiaria,  or  of  Spectrum  among  the  Orthoptera. 

In  Alydus  the  body  is  small,  slender,  the  head  prolonged, 
35 


546  HEMIPTERA. 

while  the  ocelli  are  very  near  together,  and  the  last  antennal 
joint  is  often  twice  as  long  as  the  two  preceding  ones  together. 
Alydus  eurinus  Say  is  a  widely  diffused  species.  An  allied 
genus  is  Rlwpalus.  Another  species  of  this  group  is  the 
Metapodius  nasalus  of  Say,  which,  in  the  Western  States, 
injures  cherries  by  sucking  them. 

In  the  last  group  (Pentatomidae,  which  we  place  next  to  the 
Membranacei,  because  they  are  less  allied  to  the  Homoptera, 
and  are  more  nearly  related  to  Cimex)  the  scutellum  is  very 
large,  often  covering  more  than  one-half  the  abdomen,  and  in 
this  respect  they  at  least  remind  us  of  those  Orthopterous 
genera  in  which  the  same  character  prevails. 

This  is  a  group  of  great  extent,  with  bright  colors  and  often 
of  large  size.  The  head  is  received  into  the  large  broad,  short 
prothorax,  and  the  body  is  generally  ovate.  The  second  joint 
of  the  beak  is  the  longest. 

The  various  species  are  found  on  shrubs,  sucking  the  leaves 
or  often  transfixing  caterpillars  on  their  beaks  and  carry- 
ing them  off  to  suck  their  blood  at  leisure.  DeGeer  describes 
the  eggs  as  being  generally  of  an  oval  form,  attached  to  leaves 
at  one  end  by  a  glutinous  secretion,  the  other  being  furnished 
with  a  cap,  which  the  larva  bursts  off  when  it  hatches  out. 
The  larvae  are  iribre  convex  and  less  flattened  than  the  adults. 
•"  DeGeer  has  made  an  interesting  observation  relative  to  the 
care  with  which  the  females  of  a  species  of  this  family  (Acan- 
thosoma  grisea) ,  found  on  the  birch,  defend  their  young.  In 
the  month  of  July  he  observed  many  females  accompanied  by 
their  respective  broods,  each  consisting  of  from  twenty  to  forty 
young,  which  they  attended  with  as  much  care  as  a  hen  does 
her  brood  of  chickens."  (Westwood.) 

In  Pentatoma  the  antennae  are  five-jointed  ;  the  beak  is  slen- 
der, reaching  to  the  end  of  the  breast,  with  its  first  joint  lying 
in  the  furrow  on  the  throat.  The  scutellum  is  two-thirds  the 
length  of  the  abdomen.  Pentatoma  tristigma  Harris  has  a 
series  of  three  or  four  black  dots  on  the  under  side  of  the 
abdomen,  of  which  the  posterior  one  is  largest.  It  is  seven- 
twentieths  of  an  inch  long.  Pentatoma  ligata  Harris  is  a  large 
green  species,  widely  edged  all  around,  except  the  head,  with 
pale  red. 


THRIPIMJ.  547 

In  Pliloea  the  body  is  much  flattened,  and  expanded  laterally 
into  leaf-like  flaps.  The  antennae  are  three-jointed,  the  first 
joint  of  which  is  longest.  P.  corticata  Drury  is  a  peculiar 
form,  which  occurs  in  Brazil. 

Arma  spinosa  Dallas  (Fig.  550,  b ;  a,  beak,  seen  from  be- 
neath ;  c,  beak  of  Euschistus  punctipes  Say)  is  useful  since  it 
preys  on  the  larva  of  the  Doryphora. 
Another  bug  of  this  group,  the  Stiretrus 
jimbriatus  Say  (Fig.  551)  has  similar 
habits. 

In  Tliyreocoris  the  wing-covers  are 
nearly  covered  by  the  scutellum,  which 
is  wider  behind  than  before.  The  body 
is  short  and  transverse,  being  broader  than  long,  and  scale-like 
or  semicircular  in  shape.  Tliyreocoris  Jiisteroides  Harris  re- 
sembles a  Hister  beetle,  and  is  greenish  black,  with  dull  honey 
yellow  antennae.  The  species  of  Corimelcena  are  of  much  the 
same  form,  and  usually  shining  black.  (7.  pulicaria  Germar, 
according  to  Riley,  injures  strawberry- vines  and  grape-vines  in 
Illinois.  In  the  genus  Tetyra  the  scutellum  covers  nearly  the 
whole  abdomen,  but  leaves  the  side  of  the  wing-covers  exposed. 
The  antennas  are  slender ;  the  first  joint  is  longer  than  the 
second,  the  third  being  the  shortest,  and  the  fifth  is  twice 
as  long  as  the  fourth.  Tetyra  marmorata  Say  is  a  variegated 
species,  the  costal  margin  of  the  wing  being 
provided  with  transverse  fuscous  lines. 

The  genus  Scutellera  is  remarkable  for  the 
great  size  of  the  scutellum,  whence  its  name  is 
derived.  This  piece,  which  is  elongated  trian-  ; 
gular,  covers  not  only  the  entire  abdomen,  but 
also  the  wings ;  the  antennas  are  five-jointed,  * 
the  two  first  joints  small,  the  three  last  ones 
long,  quite  large.  The  species  are  adorned  with  gay  metallic 
colors,  and  are  especially  abundant  in  the  Island  of  Sunda. 
(Gerstaecker.)  Scutellera  viridipunctata  Say  is  piceous,  with 
green  impressed  punctures.  It  is  seven-twentieths  of  an  inch 
long,  and  is  found  in  Florida. 

(Thripsides)   Fallen.      This    interesting    group 


548 


HEMIPTERA. 


bears  much  the  same  relation  to  the  C or i sice  as  the  lice  do  to 
the  Membranacei  (Cimex),  or  Podura  and  Lepisma  to  the 
Keuropterous  families  above  them.  A  comparison  with  the 
Mallopliaga  is  still  better,  for  in  Thrips  (Fig.  552)  we  find, 
as  in  the  last  named  group,  free,  biting  mouth-parts,  accom- 
panied by  a  general  degradation  of  the  body.  Though  the  spe- 
cies are  winged,  yet  the  wings  are  partially  aborted  ;  they  are 
long,  narrow,  linear,  both  pairs  of  equal  size,  as  in  the  typical 
Neuroptera,  and  by  the  frequent  absence  of  any  veins,  either 
longitudinal  or  transverse,  and  the  long  delicate  silky  fringe, 
remind  us  strikingly  of  some  minute  degraded  hymenopterous 
Proctrotrypidce,  Pteratomus  (Plate  3,  fig.  8),  for  example. 
The  mandibles  are  bristle-like  ;  the  maxillae  are  flat,  triangular, 
bearing  two  to  three-jointed  palpi,  and  the  labial  palpi  are 

present,  but  very  short, 
and  composed  of  but  two 
or  three  joints. 

Chiefly  on  account  of 
these  characters  these  in- 
sects were  placed  in  a  dis- 
tinct order,  termed  Thy- 
sanoptera  by  Haliday,  and 
by  many  recent  authors 
they  have  been  widely 
separated  from  what  seem  to  us  their  nearest  allies.  Latreille, 
however,  recognized  their  affinities  to  the  Homoptera,  while 
stating  that  in  their  free  biting  mouth-parts  they  resembled 
the  Orthoptera,  to  which  Geoffrey  referred  them.  To  us  they 
appear  to  be,  as  it  were,  degraded  Lygaeids,  and  to  preserve 
the  general  form  of  that  group,  in  the  long  head,  the  stout, 
thickened  fore  limbs,  and  the  large,  square  prothorax.  They 
have  both  compound  and  simple  eyes,  the  latter  three  in 
number. 

The  antennae  are  long  and  slender,  with  from  five  to  nine 
joints.  In  some  species  the  fore  wings  are  comparatively 
well  developed,  or,  as  Haliday  states,  they  are  "transformed 
into  broadish  elytra,  ciliated  only  behind,  and  with  longitudinal 
and  transverse  nerves.  In  some  species  the  wings  are  want- 
ing, at  least  in  the  males."  (Westwood.)  "The  abdomen  is 


Fig.  552. 


THRIPID^.  549 

terminated  in  the  male  by  a  long  attenuated  joint,  by  a  four- 
valved  borer  in  the  female." 

The  eggs  of  Phlaeothrips  have  been  compared  to  those  of 
Culex,  by  Haliday,  "being  cylindric,  rounded  at  one  end,  and 
crowned  with  a  knob  at  the  other."  Both  the  larva 
(Fig.  554)  and  pupa  are  active,  being  found  in  the 
same  situations  as  the  adult.  The  larvae  are  of  softer 
consistence,  pale,  or  reddish,  and  the  thoracic  rings  are 
similar  to  each  other,  while  in  the  pupa  "the  articula- 
tions of  the  limbs  are  obscured  by  a  film,  and  the  wings 
enclosed  in  short  fixed  sheaths.  The  antennae  are  Flg<554> 
turned  back  on  the  head,  and  the  insect,  though  it  moves 
about,  is  much  more  sluggish  than  in  the  other  states."  (Hali- 
day in  Westwood's  "Introduction,"  etc.) 

The  different  species  occur  under  the  bark  of  trees,  and  are 
very  injurious  to  grain  and  flowers,  eating  holes  in  the  leaves 
or  corollas,  and  sucking  the  sap  from  the  flowers  of  wheat,  in 
the  bottom  of  which  they  hide. 

In  Phlceothrips  and  allies  (Fig.  552,  P.  coriacea  Halida}^?) 
both  sexes  have  the  abdomen  terminating  in  an  acute  point, 
being  either  the  ovipositor  of  the  female,  or  the  slender  termi- 
nal tube-like  joint  of  the  male.  The  wings  are  almost  with- 
out veins,  with  long  ciliae,  and  at  rest  folded  one  upon  the  other. 
The  antennae  are  eight-jointed.  Three  ocelli  are  present  in  the 
winged  species,  but  in  the  wingless  forms  they  are  absent. 

The  Phlceothrips  mail  of  Fitch  appears  "in  a  roundish  cavity 
near  the  tip  end  of  the  young  fruit."  Dr.  Fitch  describes 
another  species  (P.  caryae)  which  is  found  in  singularly  shaped 
galls  on  the  hickory,  "which  resemble  a  long,  slender  pod 
thrust  half-way  through  the  leaf."  This  author  doubts,  how- 
ever, whether  these  galls  are  made  by  these  insects.  He  also 
states  that  "the  insect  within,  when  disturbed,  turns  its  tail 
upward  over  its  back  in  a  menacing  manner,  the  same  as  the 
rove  beetles  (Staphylinidse)  do,  and  when  the  point  of  a  needle, 
which  had  been  pressed  upon  one  of  these  insects,  is  touched 
to  the  tip  of  the  tongue,  unless  my  imagination  greatly  de- 
ceives me,  it  will  frequently  be  found  to  impart  a  peculiar  acid 
biting  sensation." 

A  second  group  (Terebrantia  Haliday)  includes  the  genus 


550  HEMIPTERA. 

Thrips,  in  which  the  females  are  provided  with  a  four-valved 
compressed  ovipositor  which  lies  in  a  furrow  in  the  two  last 
abdominal  segments.  The  fore  wings  are  thickened,  elytri- 
form,  with  two  longitudinal  continuous  veins.  The  antennae 
are,  for  the  most  part,  nine-jointed.  Tlirips  cerealium  Haliday 
is  dark  reddish  brown,  and  very  injurious  to  wheat. 

CAPSINI  Burmeister.  The  species  of  this  family  are  very 
numerous  and  very  active  in  their  habits,  running  swiftly 
and  easily  rising  on  the  wing.  They  are  fond  of  fruits,  and  it 
is  the  little  Capsi  which  give  such  a  nauseous  taste  to  the  rasp- 
berry, which  they  feed  upon.  The  females  are  distinguished 
from  the  males  "by  having  the  ovipositor  nearly  half  the 
length  of  the  body,  somewhat  sabre-shaped,  and  received  into 
a  slit  on  the  under  side  of  the  abdomen."  The  bod}7  in  this 
group  is  convex,  oval,  and  of  a  soft  consistence,  and  "distin- 
guished by  the  elongated  antennae  having  the  second  joint 
often  thickened  at  the  tip,  and  the  terminal  joints  very  slen- 
der, the  rostrum  long  and  four-jointed,  while  the  ocelli  are 
wanting.  The  pupa  of  Capsus  Danicus  is  clothed  with  short 
and  somewhat  clavate  hairs."  (Westwood.) 

In  Capsus  the  bod}'  is  elliptical  or  oval ;  the  head  is  triangu- 
lar, convex.  Capsus  quadrivittatus  Harris  is  yellow,  with  four 
black  bands.  Phytocoris  differs  from  Capsus,  according  to  Har- 
ris, in  having  a  smaller  head,  while  the  thorax  is  wider  behind 
and  narrower  in  front.  P.  linearis  Beauv.  is  a  fifth  of  an  inch 
long ;  the  head  is  yellowish  with  three  narrow,  longitudinal, 
reddish  stripes  ;  the  thorax  has  a  yellow  margin,  with  five  longi- 
tudinal yellow  lines  upon  it.  The  male  is  much  darker  colored. 
It  is  excessively  common  on  all  kinds  of  plants.  It  appears 
early  in  April,  but  is  most  abundant  in  summer.  In  the  genus 
Miris  the  head  is  elongated  triangular ;  the  basal  joint  of  the 
antennae  is  thickest,  whereas  in  the  preceding  genus  the  second 
joint  is  the  stoutest.  Miris  dorsalis  Say  is  pale  yellowish 
rufous,  immaculate,  and  the  antennae  are  rather  stout,  tapering, 
and  rufous. 

MEMBRANACEI  Latreille.  This  family  includes  the  Bed-bug, 
and  it  is  from  this  insect  that  the  name  "bug"  has  been  ex- 


MEMBRANACEI.  551 

tended  to  the  entire  suborder.  The  antennae  are  four-jointed, 
with  the  tip  clavate  or  knobbed.  The  ocelli  are,  for  the  most 
part,  wanting;  the  beak  is  gutter-like,  with  a  three-jointed 
sheath  (labium).  The  tarsi  are  three-jointed,  without  any 
foot-pads.  In  Cimex  the  beak  reaches,  when  laid  upon  the 
breast,  as  far  as  the  fore  coxae  ;  the  legs  and  antennae  are  cov- 
ered with  fine  hairs ;  the  second  antennal  joint  is  longest. 
The  prothorax  is  elliptical,  and  the  metathorax  is  nearly  as 
broad  as  the  circular  abdomen  ;  the  wings  are  wanting. 

The  habits  of  Cimex  lectularius  Linn.,  the  bed-bug  (Fig. 
555),  are  too  well  known  to  require  any  farther  mention  here. 
It  is  exceedingly  tenacious  of  life,  and  ordi- 
nary bug-powders  and  other  applications  are 
useless  unless  the  most  scrupulous  cleanliness  is 
exercised  besides.  The  eggs  are  oval,  white,  i 
and  the  young  bugs  escape  by  pushing  off  a  lid 
at  one  end  of  the  shell.  They  are  white  trans- 
parent, differing  from  the  perfect  insect  in  hav-  Fig.  555. 
ing  a  broad  triangular  head,  and  short  and  thick  antennae. 
Indeed,  this  is  the  general  form  of  the  louse,  to  which  the  larva 
of  Cimex  has  a  very  close  affinity.  Some  Cimices  are  para- 
sites, infesting  pigeons,  swallows,  etc.,  in  this  way  also  show- 
ing their  near  relation  to  the  lice. 

The  bed-bug  is  rust-red,  with  brown  hairs,  and  is  two 
and  a  half  lines  in  length.  It  lives  as  a  parasite  on  the  do- 
mestic birds,  such  as  the  dove.  Mr.  James  McDonald  writes 
me  that  he  has  found  a  nest  of  swallows  on  a  court  house  in 
Iowa,  swarming  with  bed-bugs.  In  Europe  the  Cimex  Mrun- 
dinis  Herr.  Schaeff.  lives  on  the  swallow ;  Cimex  pipistrelli 
Jenyns  lives  on  the  bat ;  and  Cimex  columbarius  is  found  in 
pigeon  houses. 

Westwood  states  that  the  bed-bug  is  eleven  weeks  in  attain- 
ing its  full  size.  DeGeer  has  kept  full  sized  individuals  in  a 
sealed  bottle  for  more  than  a  year  without  food.  The  Cock- 
roach is  the  natural  enenry  of  the  bed-bug,  and  destroys  large 
numbers.  Houses  have  been  cleaned  of  them  after  being 
thoroughly  fumigated  with  brimstone. 

Bed-bugs,  as  well  as  other  bugs,  plant-lice,  etc.,  may  be  de- 
stroyed by  a  preparation  consisting  of  thirty  parts  of  unpuri- 


552 


HEMIPTERA, 


fied  cheap  petroleum,  mixed  with  1,000  parts  of  water.     It 
can  be  introduced  into  holes  and  cracks  in  houses,  and  sprin- 
kled on  plants.     The   cracks   of  bedsteads  may  be 
filled  with  mercury ;  and  benzine  will  also  effectually 
dislodge  them,  as  well  as  boiling  water.     The  benzine 
may  be   applied  by  means  of  a  surgical  instrument 
Fig.  556.  called  the  Atomizer. 

In  Syrtis  the  head  is  small,  compressed  laterally,  and  the 
fore  legs  are  raptorial,  thus  allying  the  genus  with  Reduvius. 
Syrtis  (Phymata)  erosa  Fabr.  (Fig.  556)  has  swollen  fore  legs, 
and  a  deep  groove  on  the  head ;  it  is  useful  in  devouring 
Aphides. 


Fig.  557. 

In  Tingis  the  beak  reaches  to  the  end  of  the  breast,  and  the 
fore  legs  are  simple,  the  thorax  and  wing-covers  are  spread 
out  leaf-like,  and  the  species  are  of  small  size.  T.  liyalina 
Herrich-Schaefier  is  abundant  on  the  willow.  T.  liystricellus 
Richter  (Fig.  557,  upper  and  under  side,  magnified  twenty 
diameters)  is  a  Ceylonese  species.  It  "sticks  close  to  the 
under  side  of  the  Bringall  leaf,  and  there  undergoes  all  its 
changes,  from  the  larval  to  the  perfect  state.  The  larvae  are 
black."  (Science-Gossip,  p.  84,  1869.) 


PEDICULINA.  553 

In  Aradus  the  beak  is  longer  than  the  head,  the  prothorax 
is  widely  expanded,  while  the  wing-covers  are  rounded  at  the 
base.  A.  crenatus  of  Say  has  the  cylindrical  edge  of  the  abdo- 
men obtusely  crenated.  The  species  are  found  under  the  bark 
of  trees. 

PEDICULINA  Burmeister.  Lice.  In  these  low  degraded  Hem- 
iptera,  which  stand  in  the  same  relation  to  the  rest  of  the 
Hemiptera  as  the  Flea  does  to  the  more  perfectly  organized 
Diptera,  the  body  is  wingless,  with  a  small  indistinctly  jointed 
thorax,  while  the  abdomen  is  large,  oval,  with  nine  segments. 
The  antennae  are  filiform,  five-jointed,  and  the  eyes  are  minute, 
not  faceted.  The  tarsi  are  two-jointed,  with  a  large  hook-like 
terminal  joint,  which  is  bent  back  towards  the  basal  joint. 
The  mouth-parts  still  preserve  the  form  of  a  beak-like  sucker, 
but  it  is  fleshy  and  retractile,  and  the  body  is  white,  and  of 
minute  size.  The  species  of  Pediculus  are  blood-suckers,  and 
parasitic  on  man  and  various  species  of  Mammalia ;  different 
species  being  found  on  different  regions  of  the 
body.  Different  varieties,  according  to  Dr.  W.  I. 
Burnett,  are  found  living  on  the  bodies  of  different 
races  of  men. 

Two  species  live  on  man ;  Pediculus  humanus 
capitis  DeGeer  (Fig.  558)  inhabits  the  head,  while 
the  Body  Louse,  P.  corporis  of  DeGeer  (P.  vesti- 
menti  Nitzsch)  is  found  elsewhere.  These  two 
species  are  difficult  to  distinguish,  they  are  so  Fig.'"  sss. 
closely  allied.  Professor  J.  C.  Schiodte,  a  Scandinavian 
naturalist,  has  recently  published  an  elaborate  treatise  on  this 
genus,  and  describes  the  mode  of  attack  used  by  these  disgust- 
ing creatures.  It  thrusts  its  minute  beak  into  the  skin,  and 
sucks  in  the  blood  by  means  of  its  large  sucking  stomach  or 
"pumping  ventricle."  Schiodte  placed  one  of  these  insects 
on  his  hand,  and  observed  its  movements  through  a  glass. 
After  the  creature  had  fixed  its  beak  or  haustellum  into  his 
hand  this  naturalist  noticed  that  "  at  the  top  of  the  head,  under 
the  transparent  skin,  between  and  a  little  in  advance  of  the 
eyes,  a  triangular  blood-red  point  appears,  which  is  in  contin- 
ual movement,  expansion  and  contraction  alternating  with 


554  HEMIPTERA. 

increased  rapidity.  Soon  this  pulsation  becomes  so  rapid  that 
several  contractions  may  be  counted  in  a  second.  However, 
we  must  turn  our  attention  elsewhere,  for  the  whole  digestive 
tube  is  now  in  the  most  lively  peristaltic  movement,  filling  it- 
self rapidly  with  blood,  as  is  easily  observed  ;  the  long  oesopha- 
gus is  particularly  agitating,  throwing  itself  from  one  side  to 
another  inside  the  neck,  bending  itself  so  violently  as  to  re- 
mind one  of  the  coiling  of  a  rope  when  being  shipped  on  deck." 
Schiodte  states  that  the  sucking  organ  or  beak  is  a  "dark 
brown  protruding  haustellum,  provided  with  hooks  at  each  ex- 
tremity, out  of  which  an  excessively  delicate  membranaceous 
tube,  of  varying  length,  is  hanging.  This  pumping  "ventri- 
cle" (which  is  undoubtedly  homologous  with  the  pumping 
stomach  of  most  sucking  insects,  such  as  the  Diptera,  Lepiclop- 
tera  and  Hymenoptera)  Schiodte  has  discovered  in  "those 
Coleopterous  larvae  which  have  powerful  organs  for  biting, 
placed  at  a  distance  round  a  very  minute 
mouth-opening,  such  as  the  larvae  of  Carabi, 
Hydrophili,  and  Hister,  as  well  as  in  the 
larvae  of  Dytisci,  which  suck  through  the 
mandibles." 

The  same  author  also  shows  that  the  mouth 
Fig.  559.  of  Pediculus  differs  from  that  of  Hemiptera 

generally  in  the  circumstance  that  the  labium  is  capable  of 
being  retracted  into  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  which  there- 
fore presents  a  little  fold,  which  is  extended  when  the  labium 
is  protruded.  He  also  shows  that  those  parts  which  were,  by 
mistake,  thought  to  be  palpi  and  mandibles  by  Erichson, 
Jurine  and  Landois,  are  simply  lobes  on  the  under  side  of  a 
chitinous  band. 

In  Pediculus  the  thorax  is  a  little  smaller  than  the  elongated 
abdomen,  and  all  the  tarsi  are  two-jointed.  The  genus  PJitJii- 
rius  has  a  very  small  thorax,  with  the  abdomen  much  wider 
than  the  head,  and  the  fore  tarsi  have  but  a  single  joint. 
Plitliirius  pubis  Linn.  (Fig.  559),  the  Crab  louse,  is  found  on 
the  pubic  region  of  man  and  also  on  the  head. 

MALLOPHAGA  Nitzsch.  The  Bird-lice  live  on  the  hair  of 
Mammalia  and  feathers  of  birds.  In  this  group  there  are  dis- 


MALLOPHAGA.  555 

tinct  jaws.  The  flattened  body  is  corneous,  hard  above,  and 
the  head  is  horizontal,  with  three  to  five-jointed  antennae ;  the 
eyes  are  small  and  simple  ;  the  mandibles  are  small,  like  a 
hook,  and  the  maxillary  palpi,  when  present,  for  they  are  some- 
times wanting,  are  four-jointed,  while  the  labial  palpi  are  two- 
jointed.  The  thorax  is  small  and  but  two-jointed  apparently, 
as  the  meso-  and  metathorax  are  united  together.  The  abdo- 
men is  from  nine  to  ten-jointed,  while  the  short  thick  limbs 
have  two-jointed  tarsi  and  one  or  two  claws. 

These  insects  are  considered  by  Burmeister  as  forming  a 
passage  from  the  Hemiptera  into  the  Orthoptera,  as  they  pos- 
sess free  biting  mouth-parts,  especially  free  mandibles,  which 
are  not  as  in  the  rest  of  the  suborder  fused  together  with  the 
other  parts  to  form  a  sucking  tube.  DocopJiorus  buteonis  Pack, 
(pi.  9,*  fig.  3)  lives  on  the  Red  Shouldered  Hawk;  and  D. 
hamatus  Pack.  (PI.  9,  fig.  7)  is  found  on  the  Snow  Bunting. 

Goniocotes  Burnettii  Pack.  (Fig.  560)  infests  the  domestic 
fowl.  Lipeurus  corvi  Pack.  (PL  9,  fig.  2)  is  a  parasite  of  the 
crow ;  L.  elongatus  Pack.  (PI.  9,  fig. 
4),  and  L.  gracilis  Pack.  (PL  9,  fig. 
6)  are  long  and  slender  forms.  .  In 
the  genus  Philopterus  of  Nitzsch  the 
antennae  are  filiform,  five-jointed,  and 
the  labial  palpi  are  wanting.  Nir- 
mus  is  an  allied  genus  ;  both  live  on 
birds.  JV.  thoracicus  Pack.  (PL  9, 
fig.  5)  lives  on  the  Snow  Bunting. 

Trichodectes  canis  DeGeer  lives  on 
the  dog,  and  has  three-jointed  an- 
tennae. The  females  have  two  mov- 
able hooks  on  the  penultimate  ring  of 

Fig.  560. 

the  abdomen.       T.  subrostratus  is  a 

parasite  of  the  cat.  T.  caprce  Pack.,  lives  on  the  goat.  The 
Saddle-back  Gull  is  inhabited  by  Colpocephalum  lari  Pack.  (PL 
9,  fig.  1).  Gyropus  has  no  labial  palpi.  G. porcelli  Schrank  is 
a  third  of  an  inch  long  and  lives  on  the  Porpoise.  Mr.  C. 
Cooke  has  found  G.  ovalis  on  the  Guinea  pig  in  this  country. 

*  EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  9.  — Fig.  1,  Colpocephalum  lari  Pack.;  1«,  antenna; 
Fig.  2,  Lipeurus  corvi P.ack. ;  2a,  antenna;  Fig.  3,  Docophorus  buteonis  Pack.;  3a, 
autenna;  Fig.  4,  Lipeurus  elongatus  Pack. ;  4a,  antennae;  Fig.  5,  Nirmus  thoracicus 
Pack. ;  Fig.  6,  Lipeurus  gracilis  Pack. ;  Fig.  7,  Docophorus  hamatus  Pack. 


556  ORTHOPTEKA. 


ORTHOPTERA. 

i 

THIS  suborder  may  be  briefly  characterized  as  having  free 
biting  mouth-parts,  with  highly  developed  organs  of  nutrition 
and  digestion.  The  first  pair  of  wings  are  somewhat  thickened 
to  protect  the  broad  net-veined  hinder  pair,  which  fold  up  like 
a  fan  upon  the  abdomen,  and  the  hind  legs  are  large  and 
adapted  for  leaping.  The  transformations  are  less  complete 
than  in  the  previous  groups,  the  larvae  and  pupae  being  both 
active  and  closely  resembling  the  imago.  All  the  species  are 
terrestrial,  the  more  typical  forms  having  remarkable  powers 
of  flight,  besides  leaping  powerfully. 

The  grasshopper  is  the  type  of  the  group,  the  other  families 
bearing  more  or  less  resemblance  to  the  allied  suborders, 
especially  the  Neuroptera.  The  head  is  very  large,  and  much 
more  bulky  than  in  the  Coleoptera  or  Hemiptera,  the  mouth- 
parts  being  so  large,  requiring  large  and  broad  pieces  to  sup- 
port the  muscles  of  the  head ;  its  position  is  vertical,  rarely 
becoming  horizontal.  The  ocelli  are  two  or  three  in  number, 
while  often  obsolete.  The  eyes  are  small,  very  convex,  and 
placed  far  apart.  The  antennae  are  filiform,  often  of  great 
length,  and  exceeding  the  length  of  the  body  several  times,  the 
joints  being  very  numerous  and  much  alike  in  size  and  shape. 
The  clypeus  is  large,  the  suture  very  distinctly  separating  the 
base,  and  the  labrum  is  large,  with  the  edge  rounded,  slightly 
bilobate,  and  partially  concealing  the  mandibles,  which  are 
strong  and  large,  and  toothed  within.  They  are  more  perfect 
than  in  other  insects,  presenting  both  cutting  and  grinding 
surfaces.  The  maxillae  are  very  distinctly  lobed,  the  outer  lobe 
(galea)  somewhat  dilated  and  (in  the  Blattariae)  ensheathing 
the  long,  sharp-toothed  inner  lobe,  and  the  palpi  are  five- 
jointed.  The  mentum  is  large  and  transverse,  while  the  labium 
is  divided  into  four  lobes  like  the  maxillae,  the  outer  pair  (para- 
glossse)  resembling  those  of  the  maxillae,  and  in  the  true  grass- 
hoppers (Acrydium),  being  expanded  into  a  broad,  flattened, 
smooth,  concave  plate.  The  labial  palpi  are  from  three  to  four- 
jointed.  The  lingua  is  large,  fleshy  and  channelled  above. 


PI. 9. 


OKTHOPTERA.  557 

As  in  the  Coleoptera,  the  prothorax  is  greatly  developed 
over  the  other  segments,  and  the  mesothorax  is  rather  smaller 
than  the  metathoracic  ring.  The  pronotum  is  very  large, 
broad  and  flattened  above,  while  the  other  two  segments  are 
concealed  by  the  wings  when  at  rest,  and  the  parts  are  soft 
and  membranous.  The  sternum  of  each  ring  is  very  large, 
broad  and  flat,  resembling  that  of  Libellula,  while  the  two 
fore  pairs  of  legs  are  normal  in  size,  though  the  fore  legs  are 
often  raptorial,  as  in  Mantis ;  or  fossorial,  as  in  Gryllotalpa. 
The  hinder  pair  are  enormously  developed  for  leaping  purposes. 

The  fore  wings  are  generally  long  and  narrow,  somewhat 
thickened,  like  parchment,  or  thin,  transparent,  and  more  or 
less  rounded,  while  the  hind  pair  are  broad  and  large, 
folding  in  longitudinal  plaits  on  the  back.  Both  wings  are 
net- veined,  but  not  so  much  so  as  in  the  Neuroptera,  as  the 
longitudinal  veins  are  larger  and  more  regular,  while  innumer- 
able cross  veins,  still  more  regular  than  in  the  Neuroptera, 
though  more  numerous,  give  a  characteristic  facies  peculiar  to 
the  Orthopterous  wing.  There  are  also  numerous  wingless, 
degraded  genera,  which  resemble  the  young  of  other  genera. 
The  body  is  usually  much  compressed,  or  greatly  flattened 
(Blattarias),  or  long  and  cylindrical,  as  in  the  Walking  Stick. 
The  abdomen  consists  of  eight  or  nine  distinct  segments,  while 
the  tenth  forms  part  of  the  ovipositor,  being  somewhat  abor- 
ted, the  tergite  only  in  some  cases  remaining,  and  there  is  in 
addition  in  the  Locustarice,  according  to  the  views  of  La- 
caze-Duthiers,  the  tergite  of  an  eleventh  abdominal  ring.  We 
will  notice  more  fully  than  usual  the  structure  of  the  ovipositor, 
as  it  is  of  great  systematic  value.  The  genital  armature  is 
more  complex  than  in  the  Hymenoptera,  and  is  generally  very 
large  and  exserted,  so  as  to  form- a  conspicuous  part  of  the 
body.  In  its  simplest  form,  in  Forficula,  it  is  represented 
only  by  a  single  tergite,  all  the  other  appendages  being  absent. 
In  the  Locus  tar  ice,  however,  the  typical  form  is  seen,  consist- 
ing of  a  tergite  and  the  epimera  supporting  the  tergo-rhabdite, 
while  the  episternum  supports  the  sterno-rhabdites,  and  the 
oviduct  opens  out  under  the  sternite.  There  are  thus  four 
pieces  attached  to  the  single  ninth  ring ;  the  oviduct  opening 
between  the  eighth  and  ninth  segments,  while  the  anal  opening 


558  ORTHOPTERA. 

is  under  the  eleventh  ring  in  all  the  Orthoptera,  according  to 
Lacaze-Duthiers'  researches.  The  female  genital  armature  is 
farther  complicated,  in  the  Locustarice  especially.  The 
eleventh  segment  is  composed  of  five  parts,  which  surround 
the  anus. 

Two  of  these  are  lateral  filaments  which  are,  in  one  case,  as 
in  Mantis  tessellata  (Fig.  23),  multi-articulate,  and  are  proper, 
sensory  organs,  like  the  antennae,  and  must  be  regarded,  in  our 
view,  as  homologous  with  the  anal  prop-legs  of  Lepidoptera  and 
other  insects,  and  as  true-jointed  appendages  like  the  thoracic 
legs,  and  jointed  appendages  of  the  head,  such  as  the  palpi 
and  antennae.  They  also  form  the  anal  stylets  of  the  Gryl- 
liclce,  etc.  These  anal  stylets  are  articulated  to  the  posterior 
edge  of  the  tenth  tergite,  as  Lacaze-Duthiers  states,  and  thus 
seem  to  us  to  be  properly  appendages  of  that  ring,  which,  as 
this  author  affirms,  "presents  two  articulating  teeth  for  this 
purpose."  The  two  other  elements  are  "triangular,  surround- 
ing the  anus  with  three  valves,  which,  by  their  union,  form  a 
sort  of  pyramidal  body,"  which  he  calls  the  "  subgenital  or  pre- 
genital  plate."  There  are  then,  two  systems  of  appendages, 
as  we  have  before  stated ;  i.  e.,  the  genital  armature,  consist- 
ing of  two  pairs  of  non-articulated  stylets,  and  the  single  pair 
of  anal  articulated  stylets,  which  are  the  homologues  of  the 
thoracic  legs,  together  with  the  pre-anal  plate. 

The  same  parts  are  present  in  the  male,  being  converted  into 
large,  clasping,  hook-shaped  stylets,  for  retaining  a  firm  hold 
of  the  female  during  sexual  union. 

The  eggs  as  they  pass  from  the  oviduct  between  the  valves 
are  deposited  in  a  hole  in  the  ground,  made  by  the  powerful 
ovipositor.  Certain  Locustarice  imitate  the  Cicada  in  laying 
them  methodically  in  the  stems  of  plants,  which  are  drilled  out 
by  the  valves  of  the  ovipositor,  which  are  slightly  toothed  on 
the  outer  sides  and  easily  move  on  one  another,  somewhat  as 
in  the  Saw-fly  and  Cicada.  "The  eggs  of  the  Gryllidce  are 
laid  either  singly  in  the  ground,  in  irregular  clusters  in  subter- 
ranean passages,  or  uniformly  in  a  single  row,  in  the  pith 
of  twigs;  those  of  the  Locustarice  are  never  laid  singly, 
but  either  in  the  pith  of  plants,  in  regular  clusters  in  the 
ground,  or  in  regular  rows  on  stems  of  plants ;  those  of  the 


ORTHOPTEEA.  559 

Acrydii  are  always  laid  in  rudely  regular  clusters,  in  the 
ground."  (Scudder.) 

The  nervous  system  closely  resembles  that  of  the  Neurop- 
tera ;  it  is  in  all  three  stages  composed  of  three  thoracic,  and 
six  or  seven  abdominal  ganglia,  extending  the  whole  length  of 
the  body,  and  united  by  double  commissures.  The  splanchnic 
system,  or  analogue  of  the  great  sympathetic  nerve  in  verte- 
brates, is  highly  developed  in  the  Acridii  and  in  Gryllotalpa, 
having  in  front  two  pairs  of  ganglia,  and  posteriorly  one  or 
two,  while  in  the  Blattarice  and  Phasmida  the  single 
nerve  is  most  developed. 

Organs  of  hearing  are  stated  by  Siebold  to  occur  in  the 
Acridii,  consisting  of  two  fossae  or  conchs,  surrounded  by  a 
projecting  horny  ring,  and  at  the  base  of  which  is  stretched 
a  membrane  resembling  a  tympanum.  On  the  internal  surface 
of  this  membrane  are  two  horny  processes,  to  which  is  attached 
an  extremely  delicate  vesicle  filled  with  a  transparent  fluid, 
and  representing  a  membranous  labyrinth.  This  vesicle  is  in 
connection  with  an  auditory  nerve,  which  arises  from  the  third 
thoracic  ganglion,  forms  a  ganglion  upon  the  tympanum,  and 
terminates  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  labyrinth  by 
a  collection  of  cuneiform,  staff-like  bodies,  with  very  finely 
pointed  extremities  (primitive  nerve-fibres?),  which  are  sur- 
rounded by  loosely  aggregated,  ganglionic  globules.  The 
Locustarice  and  Gryllidce  have  a  similar  organ,  situated 
in  the  fore  legs  directly  below  the  coxo-femoral  articulation. 
M.  Hensen  confirms  the  accuracy  of  this  description  in 
the  "  Zeitschrift  fur  Wissenschaftliche  Zoologie,"  vol.  xvi, 
1867. 

The  highly  developed  alimentary  canal  has  the  crop  (pro- 
ventriculus)  separated  by  a  deep  constriction  from  the  oesoph- 
agus, and  the  gizzard  is  provided  internally  with  from  six  to 
eight  rows  of  horny  denticulated  plates  situated  on  ridges, 
with  numerous  smaller  teeth  between,  so  that  the  whole  num 
ber  of  teeth  amount  to  270.  The  stomach  is  of  even  width, 
not  usually  making  more  than  one-half  of  a  turn,  or  one  turn ; 
its  cardiac  extremity  is  provided  with  from  two  to  eight  caeca. 
The  salivary  glands  are  highly  developed,  "consisting  of  two, 
four,  or  six  botryoidal  masses,  situated  in  the  thorax,  and  hav- 


560  OKTHOPTERA. 

ing  long   excretory  ducts,  besides,  also,  often  having  long 
pedunculated  reservoirs. 

The  number  of  chambers  in  the  dorsal  vessel  is  usually 
eight.  The  respiratory  system  does  not  differ  essentially  from 
that  of  other  insects,  though  in  the  Acridii  most  of  the  trans- 
verse anastomosing  tracheae  have  large  air-reservoirs,  greatly 
assisting  in  lightening  the  body  for  their  long-sustained 
flight. 

The  urinary  tubules  are  short  and  very  numerous,  from 
twenty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  and  over,  surrounding  the 
pylorus.  The  ovaries,  two  in  number,  consist  of  numerous 
inultilocular  tubes,  while  the  seminal  receptacle  consists  of  a 
pedunculated  vesicle,  whose  closed  extremity  is  dilated  into 
a  pea-shaped  vesicle,  forming  the  capsula  seminis.  In  most 
Orthoptera  the  testes  consist  of  long  fasciculated  follicles  sur- 
rounded by  a  common  envelope,  and  many  have  in  addition 
highly  developed  accessory  glands,  surrounding  a  short  ductus 
ejaculatorius. 

The  larvae  of  the  Orthpptera  materially  differ  only  in  size 
from  the  adult,  and  the  pupae  are  distinguished  from  them  by 
having  the  rudiments  of  wings.  They  attain  the  adult  state 
by  simple  moultings.  Several  cases  are  on  record  of  pupae 
of  grasshoppers  being  found  sexually  united.  In  1867  Mr. 
Trimen  exhibited  to  the  Entomological  Society  of  London  "  a 
grasshopper  of  the  genus  Poecilocerus,  of  which  he  had  found 
the  pupae  in  copula ;  it  was  not  an  isolated  case,  for  he  had 
seen  hundreds  of  pairs  of  the  nymphs  at  Natal." 

Some  of  the  largest  insects  are  included  in  this  suborder,  in 
fact  the  majority  are  larger  than  those  of  other  suborders,  and 
it  will  probably  be  found  that  many  large  grasshoifpers  and 
Mantidce  will  weigh  nearly  as  much  as  any  Goliath  or  Her- 
cules beetle,  the  largest  of  insects. 

The  Orthoptera  range,  in  time,  from  the  Carboniferous  for- 
mation ;  and  among  the  earliest  forms  are  certain  species  of 
Blattarice,  which  are  next  to  the  group  of  the  Neuroptera^ 
the  earliest  known  forms  of  insect  life.  In  the  Carboniferous 
rocks  they  have  rarely  occurred,  but  the  forma  are  most  nu- 
merous and  best  preserved  in  the  Tertiary  formation,  espe- 
cially in  the  Amber  of  Prussia. 


ORTHOPTEEA.  561 

There  are  about  5,000  species  known,  which  attain  their 
greatest  development  in  size  and  numbers  in  tropical  countries. 

In  studying  these  insects,  the  proportions  of  the  head,  of 
the  prothorax,  of  the  wings,  of  the  hind  legs,  and  the  external 
genital  parts,  should  especially  be  taken  into  account.  The 
ornamentation  varies  greatly  even  in  the  same  species,  and 
therefore  large  numbers  of  individuals  are  necessary  to  ensure 
a  proper  knowledge  of  any  species. 

The  different  sounds  produced  by  Orthoptera  should  be  care- 
fully studied ;  every  species  can  be  distinguished  by  its  pecu- 
liar note,  and  as  in  different  families  the  musical  apparatus 
varies,  so  each  family  has  a  characteristic  chirrup,  or  shrilling, 
consisting  of  a  harsh,  grating,  rasping  noise. 

Mr.  Scudder  has  contributed  to  the  "American  Naturalist," 
ii,  p.  113,  an  interesting  article  on  the  sounds  produced  by 
some  of  our  native  species  of  Grasshoppers,  and  has  even 
reduced  their  notes  to  a  written  music.  He  states  that  grass- 
hoppers stridulate  in  four  different  ways:  " first,  by  rubbing 
the  base  of  one  wing-cover  upon  the  other,  using,  for  that  pur- 
pose, the  veins  running  through  the  middle  portion  of  the 
wing  ;  second,  by  a  similar  method,  but  using  the  veins  of  the 
inner  part  of  the  wing  ;  third,  by  rubbing  the  inner  surface  of 
the  hind  legs  against  the  outer  surface  of  the  wing-covers  ;  and 
fourth,  by  rubbing  together  the  upper  surface  of  the  front  edge 
of  the  wings  and  the  under  surface  of  the  wing-covers.  The 
insects  which  employ  the  fourth  method  stridulate  during  flight, 
— the  others  while  at  rest.  To  the  first  group  belong  the 
Crickets  (Gryllidae)  ;  to  the  second  the  Green  or  Long-horned 
Grasshoppers  (Locustarise)  ;  to  the  third  and  fourth,  certain 
kinds  of  Short-horned  or  Jumping  Grasshoppers  (Acrydii)." 

The  transformations  of  grasshoppers  need  careful  study. 
For  this  purpose  their  eggs  should  be  sought  for,  and  the  de- 
velopment of  the  embryo  in  the  egg  be  noted ;  also  the  follow- 
ing facts  should  be  ascertained :  the  date  of  deposition  of  the 
eggs  ;  the  manner  of  laying  them ;  how  long  before  the  embryo 
is  hatched ;  the  date  of  hatching ;  how  many  days  the  pupa 
lives ;  so  also  of  the  pupa  and  of  the  imago,  while  the  inter- 
vening changes  should  be  carefully  observed.  Crows  and 
blackbirds  feed  on  their  eggs  and  larvae,  and  hens  and  turkeys 
36 


562  ORTHOPTEKA. 

feed  greedily  upon  young  and  old.  Ichneumon  parasites  prey 
upon  them,  and  also  the  lower  worms,  such  as  Filaria,  Grega- 
rina  and  Gordius,  and  the  red  mites  attack  them.  Mud  wasps 
provision  their  nests  with  the  young. 

Orthoptera  can  be  easily  preserved  in  strong  alcohol,  and 
may  afterwards  be  taken  out  and  pinned  and  set  at  leisure. 
They  can  be  killed  with  cyanide  of  potassium,  or  ether,  with- 
out losing  their  colors,  as  they  would  do  after  remaining  long 
in  alcohol.  They  should  be  pinned  through  a  little  triangu- 
lar spot  between  the  bases  of  the  elytra,  or  fore  wings,  when 
the  wings  can  be  spread  to  advantage.  They  are  also  often 
pinned  through  the  prothorax,  or  through  the  right  elytron,  as 
in  Coleoptera.  In  pinning  these  insects  for  transportation  care 
should  be  taken  to  put  in  additional  pins  crossing  each  other 
on  each  side  of  the  abdomen,  and  in  like  manner  to  steady  the 
hind  legs,  which  are  very  apt  to  fall  off  if  too  much  jarred. 

GRYLLID^E  Latreille.  The  Crickets  have  a  somewhat  cylin- 
drical body,  a  large  vertical  head,  with  elliptical  eyes ;  the 
ocelli  are  often  wanting,  and  the  long  filiform  antennae  arise 
from  in  front  of  and  between  the  eyes.  The  wings  are  of  mod- 
erate size,  net-veined,  lying  flat  on  the  back ;  the  fore  pair  are 
ovate,  the  costal  edge  of  the  fore  wings  being  bent  abruptly 
down  on  the  sides  of  the  body,  while  the  hinder  pair  are  trian- 
gular. They,  like  the  succeeding  families,  leap  actively,  the 
hind  femora  being  enlarged.  The  genital  armature  is  largely 
developed,  forming  long  and  slender  stylets,  often  nearly  as 
long  as  the  body.  "The  subgenital  plate  is  formed  by  the 
seventh  sternite.  The  eighth  abdominal  segment  is  rudimen- 
tary and  concealed  beneath  the  seventh  segment.  The  ninth 
segment,  situated  beyond  the  outlet  of  the  ovipositor  is  incom- 
plete. Its  elements,  appearing  to  be  four  in  number,  are  devel- 
oped into  a  large  solid  borer.  The  ninth  sternite  is  bifid,  its 
episternite  not  being  developed."  (L.  Duthiers.)  A  second 
type  is  observed  in  Gryllotalpa,  where  the  subgenital  plate  is 
formed  by  the  eighth  sternite,  instead  of  the  seventh,  and  the 
incomplete  sternite  and  tergite  of  the  ninth  segment  are  pres- 
ent, much  like  those  of  the  other  abdominal  rings.  The  oviposi- 
tor is  very  short,  while  the  hairy  stylets  arise  from  the  eleventh 


GKYLLIM;.  563 

abdominal  ring  and  are  very  long.  In  the  male  the  long  anal 
hairy  stylets  are  retained,  while  the  parts  representing  the  ovi- 
positor are  aborted.  The  shrilling  of  the  male  is  a  sexual  call, 
made  by  raising  the  fore  wings  and  rubbing  them  on  the  hind 
wings.  The  noise  is  due  to  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  fore 
wings,  the  middle  portion  of  which  forms,  by  its  transparent 
elastic  surface,  on  which  there  are  but  few  veinlets,  a  resonant 
drum,  increasing  the  volume  of  sound  emitted  by  the  rubbing 
of  the  file  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  hind  pair  of  wings. 
This  file  is  the  modified  internal  vein,  the  surface  of  which  is 
greatly  thickened,  rounded  and  covered  closely  with  fine  teeth. 
In  the  females  the  wings  are  not  thus  modified,  and  they  are 
silent.  They  have  been  known  to  lay  300  eggs,  glued  together 
in  a  common  mass.  In  July  the  larvae  appear,  and  by  the  last 
of  August  the  grass  is  alive  with  fully  grown  crickets,  their 
loud  chirruping  resounding  through  the  warm  days  and  nights 
of  autumn.  The  species  are  generally  dull  black  or  brownish, 
and  in  the  tropics  attain  to  a  large  size. 

In  the  genus  Tridactylus  the  males  have  the  anterior  tibiae 
three-fingered,  i.  e.,  the  tibia  has  a  lateral  hooked  appendage 
to  which  the  tarsus  is  attached,  while  a  long  hooked  projec- 
tion takes  the  place  of  the  feet.  The  species  are  minute, 
the  largest  known,  T.  apicalis  Say,  being  one-fifth  of  an  inch 
long.  It  is  found  in  the  Southern  States,  while  Tridactylus 
terminalis  Uhler  is  found  northward.  The  Mole-cricket,  Gryl- 
lotalpa, so-called  from  the  enlarged  fossorial  fore  feet,  lives  in 
wet,  swampy  soil,  by  ponds  and  streams,  where  it  raises  ridges 
while  constructing  its  subterranean  galleries  in  search  of 
insects.  Its  fore  legs  are  adapted  like  those  of  the  mole 
for  digging,  and  are  remarkably  short  and  stout,  much  flat- 
tened and  armed  with  solid  tooth-like  projections.  Their  eggs, 
from  300  to  400  in  number,  are  laid  in  the  spring  in  tough 
sacks,  in  galleries.  Very  rare  northward,  they  are  more  com- 
mon in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States. 

Gryllotalpa  borealis  Burmeister  is  found  in  New  England, 
burrowing  in  moist  earth  near  ponds.  The  Southern  species  is 
Gryllotalpa  longipennis  Scudder,  and  in  the  West  Indies  an- 
other species  ravages  the  Sugar-cane.  The  genus  Gryllus  in- 
cludes the  common  crickets.  The  European  House- cricket, 


564  ORTHOPTERA. 

G.  domesticus  Linn.,  has  been  introduced  into  the  vicinity  of 
New  York,  as  stated  by  Mr.  James  Angus.  Our  two  largest 
species  are  the  Gryllus  luctuosus  Serville,  known  by  the  great 
length  of  the  fore  wings,  which  project  beyond  the  abdomen ; 
and  Gryllus  abbreviatus  Serville,  which  is  found  in  the  Middle 
States.  The  most  common  New  England  species  is  the  Gryllus 
neglectus  of  Scudder,  from  which  Gryllus  niger  Harris  differs 
in  its  much  shorter  ovipositor.  The  small 
cricket  so  abundant  in  our  fields  is  Nemobius 
vittatus  Harris,  a  brownish  striped  species ; 
the  genus  differs  from  Gryllus  in  the  last  joint 
of  the  maxillary  palpi  being  double  the  length 
of  the  penultimate,  while  in  Gryllus,  it  is  of 
the  same  length.  In  (Ecanthus  niveus  Serville 
(Fig.  561,  male ;  fig.  562,  female ;  fig.  30,hind 
Fig.  561.  wings  of  male  and  female,  showing  the  broad 
thin  portion  between  b  and  c,  used  in  producing  the  shrilling 
noise)  the  wings  are  broad  and  very  transparent,  narrower  in 
the  female,  the  hind  legs  very  long  and  slender,  and  the  male 
is  ivory  white.  The  males  make  a  loud  shrilling  noise,  and 
both  sexes  are  found  on  plants,  especially'  the  grape-vine. 

Mr.  W.  Saunders  states  that  the 
female  does  considerable  injury 
to  the  raspberry  and  plum  twigs 
Fis-  562-  by  boring  into  the  branches  for 

the  purpose  of  laying  its  eggs,  and  the  Editors  of  the  "Ameri- 
can Entomologist"  state  that  it  severs  grapes  from  the 
branches.  This  genus  leads  to  the  next  family. 

Mr.  Scudder  has  described  in  the  "Proceedings  of  the  Bos- 
ton Society  of  Natural  History,"  Archegogryllus  priscus,  a  fossil 
cricket  from  the  coal  formation  of  Ohio.  "One  broken  hind 
leg  and  a  fragment  of  a  wing  were  found  ;  the  leg  was  notice- 
able in  having  the  tibia  furnished  with  several  large  promi- 
nences, while  the  femur  was  smooth." 

LOCUSTARIVE  Latreille.  The  large  green  Locusts  are  easily 
distinguished  by  their  large  heads,  and  their  compressed 
bodies.  The  front  from  being  vertical  often  inclines  inwards, 
owing  to  the  greatly  enlarged  vertex,  which  is  often  produced 


LOCUSTARDE.  565 

into  a  horn.  The  ocelli  are  either  present  or  obsolete,  and  the 
eyes  are  globular  in  shape.  The  antennae  are  of  great  length, 
as  are  the  legs,  which  are  long  and  slender.  The  prothorax  is 
saddle- shaped,  and  the  wings  are  thin,  the  anterior  pair  slightly 
thickened,  while  the  hinder  pair  are  broad,  these  insects  taking 
long  flights.  The  base  of  the  upper  wings  is  transparent,  form- 
ing a  drum  by  which  the  males  produce  a  loud  shrill  noise  ; 
they  do  not  rub  the  hind  legs  against  the  wings  as  do  the 
Acrydii.  Scudder  states  that  "the  day  song  of  some  Locus- 
tarians  differs  from  that  of  the  night."  The  abdomen  is  not 
of  great  length,  while  the  ovipositor  and  male  claspers  are 
greatly  developed,  and  are  of  much  importance  in  classifica- 
tion. Lacaze-Duthiers  describes  the  typical  form  as  having 
the  subgenital  plate  formed  by  the  eighth  sternite,  while  the 
ninth  ring  is  complete.  Its  elements  form  the  ovipositor, 
composed  of  six  pieces,  which  are  large  and  long,  for  boring 
into  the  earth  and  twigs  in  laying  the  eggs.  The  ninth  ster- 
nite is  bifid.  Similar  parts  in  the  males  are  formed  for  clasp- 
ing the  body  of  the  female,  and  are  large  and  long.  The  eggs 
are  laid  in  the  autumn,  and  the  young  hatch  in  the  spring. 
The  wingless  genera  have  curved,  cylindrical  bodies,  with 
long  antennae,  and  are  very  active,  leaping  very  vigorously ; 
they  are  brown  in  color,  and  inhabit  caves  or  live  under  stones. 
Ceutliopliilus  is  a  wingless  genus,  in  which  the  pronotum  does 
not  extend  over  the  mesonotum.  C.maculatus  Say  has  the  pos- 
terior tibiae  of  the  male  waved.  It  is  common  under 'stones. 
C.  stygius  Scudder  is  found  in  the  caves  of  Kentucky,  and  Ha- 
denoecus  subterraneus  Scudder  is  found  in  Mammoth  Cave.  It 
is  a  slender  form,  the  antennae  exceeding  the  length  of  the 
body  several  times.  Udeopsylla  differs  from  the  following 
genus,  Daihinia,  according  to  Scudder,  "in  the  longer,  more 
slender,  less  robust,  and  less  spiny  legs,  in  the  somewhat  more 
slender  body  and  smaller  head,  in  the  shorter  maxillary  palpi, 
and  in  the  structure  of  the  tarsal  joints,"  the  first  and  fourth 
being  equal  in  length,  while  the  two  middle  ones  are  small, 
the  second  joint  overlapping  the  third  above.  U.  robusta 
Haldeman  is  found  in  Nebraska.  In  the  interesting  genus 
Daihinia,  the  "tarsal  joints  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  pair 
are  only  three  in  number,  the  first  and  last  being  of  nearly 


566  ORTHOPTEKA. 

equal  length,  with  a  single  small  joint  between  them,  a  very 
interesting  exception  to  the  almost  universal  rule  among  the 
Locustarice."  The  Katydid,  Cyrtopliyllus  concavus  Say 
(Fig.  563),  has  the  fore  wings  concave,  much  produced  in  the 
middle.  The  eggs,  according  to  Harris,  are  "slate  colored,  and 
are  rather  more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  length.  They 
resemble  tiny,  oval,  bivalve  shells  in  shape.  The  insect  lays 
them  in  two  contiguous  rows  along  the  surface  of  a  twig,  the 
bark  of  which  is  previously  shaved  off,  or  made  rough  with  her 
piercer.  Each  row  consists  of  eight  or  nine  eggs,  placed  some- 
what obliquely,  and  overlapping  each  other  a  little,  and  they 

are  fastened  to  the  twig  with  a 
gummy  substance.  In  hatching 
the  egg  splits  open  at  one  end, 
and  the  young  insect  creeps 
through  the  cleft."  In  Phyllop- 
tera  the  wings  are  narrower,  but 
still  concave,  and  the  ovipositor 
is  of  moderate  size,  while  in 
Microcentrum  it  is  very  small. 
P.  oblongifolia  Burmeister  is 
abundant  in  September,  in  New 
England,  being  found  farther 
northward  than  the  Katydid,  and 
when  it  flies  it  makes  a  whizzing 
noise,  compared  by  Harris  to 
Fig.  563.  that  of  a  weaver's  shuttle.  He 

also  states  that  "the  females  lay  their  eggs  in  the  autumn 
on  the  twigs  of  trees  and  shrubs,  in  double  rows,  of  seven  or 
eight  eggs  in  each  row."  These  eggs  in  form,  size  and  color, 
and  in  their  arrangement  on  the  twig,  are  very  different  from 
those  of  the  Katydid.  Phaneroptera  has  still  narrower  wings 
than  the  genera  hitherto  noticed,  and  the  ovipositor  is  more 
sharply  turned  upwards.  The  P.  curvicauda  of  DeGeer  (P. 
angustifolia  Harris)  is  very  abundant,  being  the  most  common 
species  in  Northern  New  England. 

In  Conocephalus  the  front  of  the  head  is  produced  into  a 
cone.  The  species,  generally  pea  green,  often  present  brown 
individuals.  C.  ensiger  Harris  is  a  commonly  distributed  spe- 


ACRYDII.  567 

cies.  Mr.  S.  I.  Smith  has  observed  a  female  of  this  species 
"with  the  ovipositor  forced  down  between  the  root-leaves  and 
the  stalk  of  a  species  of  Andropogon,  where  the  eggs  are 
probably  deposited." 

Xiphidium  is  a  genus  of  smaller  size,  with  the  ovipositor 
nearly  straight.  X.  fasciatum  Serville  is  g|reen,  with  a  brown 
stripe  on  the  head  and  thorax.  It  is  common  in  gardens. 
According  to  Hagen  and  Scudder  an  undescribed  species  of 
Xiphidium  makes  longitudinal  punctures  in  the  pith  of  the 
Cotton  plant. 

In  Orchelimum  the  ovipositor  is  large,  ensiform,  and  up- 
curved.  0.  vulgare  Harris  is  very  common  northward  ;  it  is 
pale  green,  with  two  brown  stripes  on  the  head  and  thorax.  It 
has  a  large  transparent  shrilling  organ,  and  is  a  more  robust 
form  than  the  preceding  species.  Locusta  viridissima  Linn,  is 
a  common  form  in  Europe.  Westwood  states  that  "Hyperho- 
mala  virescens  Boisd.  from  New  Guinea,  is  distinguished  by  the 
prothorax  extending  completely  over  the  abdomen  like  a  pair 
of  elytra,"  and  that  Condylodera  tricondyloides  from  Java,  in 
the  elongated,  constricted  prothorax  and  fine  blue  colors,  ex- 
actly imitates  the  Cicindelous  genus  Tricondyla. 

ACRYDII  Latreille.  Grasshoppers  have  the  body  much  com- 
pressed, the  head  large,  the  front  vertical,  the  ocelli  generally 
present,  while  the  antennae  are  short,  the  greatest  number  of 
joints  being  twenty-four.  The  prothorax  is  very  large,  some- 
times reaching  beyond  the  abdomen,  and  the  wings  are 
deflexed ;  the  hind  legs  are  enlarged  for  leaping,  and  the  tarsi 
are  three-jointed.  The  stridulating  noise  is  produced  by  rub- 
bing the  thighs  against  the  fore  wings,  which  are  long  and 
narrow,  while  the  hind  wings  are  broadly  triangular.  The  ovi- 
positor, with  its  accessory  pieces,  consists  of  a  subgenital 
plate  formed  by  the  seventh  sternite ;  the  ninth  segment  is 
complete,  and  the  blades  (tergo-rhabdites)  composing  the  ovi- 
positor consist  of  three  secondary  pieces  united  together  be- 
tween them.  These  rhabdites  are  short,  thick,  somewhat 
conical,  and  corneous.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  a  cocoon-shaped 
mass  covered  with  a  tough  glutinous  secretion,  and  containing 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  eggs.  The  pupae  are  distinguished 


568  ORTHOPTEEA. 

from  the  larvae  in  having  large  wing-pads.  On  the  basal  joints 
of  the  abdomen  are  two  cavities  covered  each  with  a  mem- 
brane, and  containing  a  vesicle  filled  with  liquid,  which  is  sup- 
plied by  a  nerve  sent  from  the  third  thoracic  ganglion.  They 
were  considered  by  Latreille  and  Burmeister  to  be  vocal  or- 
gans, but  more  correctly  it  would  seem,  by  J.  Miiller  and  von 
Siebold  as  organs  of  hearing. 

This  family  embraces  insects  of  gigantic  proportions.  The 
migratory  locust  (Acrydium  migratorium)  is  a  most  destructive 
insect  from  its  voracity  and  immense  numbers.  Swarms  of 
grasshoppers  are  common  in  the  far  West  where  they  commit 
great  havoc  in  crops.  Our  Caloptenus  femur-rubrum  has  at 
times,  though  not  of  late  years,  gone  in  immense  swarms. 
The  larvae  of  many  species  live  through  the  winter,  and  appear 
often  in  March  on  unusually  warm  days. 

In  the  genus  Opomala  the  acute  antennae  are  broad  and 
flattened  at  base.  In  0.  brachyptera  Scudder  the  fore  wings 
are  but  little  more  than  one-half  the  length  of  the  body.  In 
Chloedltis  the  hinder  edge  of  the  pronotum  is  square  or 
rounded;  there  are  no  foveolae  on  the  vertex,  and  the  lateral 
carinae  of  the  pronotum  is  parallel,  or  quite  nearly  so. 

Chloedltis  conspersa  Harris  is  light  bay,  sprinkled  with  black 
spots,  with  a  black  line  on  the  head  behind  each  eye,  and  ex- 
tending upon  the  thorax.  The  front  wings  are  pale  yellowish 
brown,  and  the  hind  shanks  are  pale  red,  with  the  spines  tipped 
with  black.  Mr.  S.  I.  Smith  states  that  the  structure  of  the 
ovipositor  of  this  species  is  "beautifully  adapted  to  a  remark- 
able habit  in  the  manner  of  depositing  the  eggs,  which  seems 
not  to  have  been  noticed  before  among  Orthoptera.  The  eggs 
are  deposited  in  old  logs,  in  the  under  sides  of  boards,  or  in 
any  soft  wood  lying  among  the  grass  which  these  insects 
inhabit.  By  means  of  the  anal  appendages  the  female  exca- 
vates in  the  wood  a  smooth  round  hole  about  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  This  hole  is  at  first  almost  perpendicular 
but  is  turned  rapidly  off  in  the  direction  of  the  grain  of  the 
wood,  and  runs  nearly  parallel  with,  and  about  three-eighths 
of  an  inch  from  the  surface ;  the  whole  length  of  the  hole 
being  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  fourth.  A  single  hole  noticed 
in  the  end  of  a  log  was  straight.  The  eggs,  which  are  about 


ACRYDII.  569 

a  fourth  of  an  inch  in  length,  quite  slender  and  light  brownish 
yellow,  are  placed  in  two  rows,  one  on  each  side,  and  inclined 
so  that,  beginning  at  the  end  of  the  hole,  each  egg  overlies  the 
next  in  the  same  row  by  about  half  its  length.  The  aperture 
is  closed  by  a  little  disk  of  a  hard  gummy  substance.  I  have 
seen  many  of  the  females  engaged  in  excavating  the  holes, 
and  they  always  stood  with  the  body  in  the  direction  of  the 
grain  of  the  wood,  and  apparently  did  not  change  their  posi- 
tion during  the  operation.  When  one  was  just  beginning  a 
hole  it  was  very  easy  to  see  the  upper  appendages  rise  and 
open,  and  each  time  scrape  away  a  little  of  the  wood.  During 
this  operation  a  frothy  fluid  is  emitted  from  some  part  of  the 
abdomen,  but  whether  it  serves  to  soften  the  wood  or  to 
lubricate  the  appendages  and  the  sides  of  the  hole  I  did  not 
determine."  The  genus  Stenobothrus  differs  in  having  foveolse 
on  the  vertex.  S.  curtipennis  Harris  is  a  very  common  species, 
and  at  once  recognized  by  its  very  short  wings. 

In  the  genus  Tragocephala  the  vertex  of  the  head  is  promi- 
nent, the  front  rather  oblique,  sloping  inwards,  and  the  pro- 
thorax  is  acutely  angulated  posteriorly.  T.  infuscata  Harris 
and  T.  viridifasdata  Harris  are  common  species ;  the  former 
is  dusky  brown,  the  hind  wings  transparent,  pale  greenish 
yellow  next  to  the  body,  with  a  large  dusky  cloud  near  the 
middle  of  the  hind  margin,  and  a  black  line  on  the  front 
margin ;  while  the  latter  is  green,  with  dusky  fore  wings 
broadly  banded  with  green. 

Pezzotettix  closely  resembles  Caloptenus,  except  that  in 
some  of  the  species  it  is  wingless.  P.  borealis  Scudder  is 
found  in  British  America,  and  also  on  the  tops  of  the  moun- 
tains of  New  Hampshire  and  Maine.  In  the  P.  alpinus  Kollar 
of  Europe  there  are  short  wings.  The  genus  Caloptenus  has 
but  a  slight  mesial  ridge  on  the  prothorax ;  the  lateral  ridges 
vary  in  size,  and  the  sternal  tubercle  is  very  large,  while  the 
tip  of  the  male  abdomen  is  much  swollen.  Caloptenus  femur- 
rubrum  Harris  (Fig.  564,  b)  is  the  common  Red-legged  grass- 
hopper. It  varies  greatly  and  has  been  so  abundant  in  New 
England  and  Canada,  though  not  of  late  years,  as  to  become  a 
public  calamity.  It  has  been  seen  very  rarely  on  the  Labrador 
coast,  and  it  is  a  very  widely  distributed  species,  ranging  from 


570  ORTHOPTEKA. 

Labrador  to  the  Mississippi.  The  Caloptenus  spretus  Uhler 
(Fig.  564,  a),  appears  in  immense  numbers  in  the  country  be- 
tween the  Mississippi  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  extending 
from  the  Saskatchewan  river  on  the  north  to  Texas.  Mr.  Scud- 
der  states  that  "a  third,  whether  belonging  to  the  same  species 
or  not  is  still  uncertain,  has  invaded  at  different  times,  nearly 
all  the  country  lying  within  the  boundaries  of  the  United 
States,  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Pacific  Ocean." 
Dr.  Lincecum  thus  describes  the  ravages  of  C.  spretus  in 
Texas:  "Last  spring  the  young  were  hatched  from  the  egg 
in  the  early  days  of  March ;  by  the  middle  of  the  month  they 
had  destroyed  half  the  vegetation,  although  the  insects  were 
wingless  and  not  larger  than  a  house-fly.  The  first  winged 

specimens  were  seen  high  in 
the  air  at  about  three  in  the 
afternoon  ;  as  a  light  northerly 
breeze  sprang  up,  millions 
dropped  to  the  earth,  cover- 
ing the  ground  in  an  hour, 
and  destroying  every  green 
thing  with  avidity.  During 
the  night  they  were  quiet,  but 
Fig.  564.  at  daybreak  commenced  to 

eat,  and  continued  until  ten  in  the  morning,  when  they  all  flew 
southward.  At  about  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  the 
same  day  another  swarm  arrived,  ten  times  as  numerous  as 
the  first ;  these  again  took  flight  the  following  day ;  and  thus 
they  continued,  coming  and  going,  day  after  day,  devouring 
the  foliage  and  depositing  their  eggs.  At  first  they  selected 
bare  spots  for  this  purpose,  but  finally  the  whole  surface  of 
the  earth  was  so  broken  up  by  their  borings  that  every  inch 
of  ground  contained  several  patches  of  eggs.  This  visitation 
was  spread  over  many  hundreds  of  miles."  0.  bivittatus  Say 
is  a  large  dull  green,  or  olive  colored  species,  with  red  legs, 
and  is  very  abundant  in  gardens. 

Romalea  microptem,  called  the  "Lubber  grasshopper"  in 
Florida,  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  orange.  (Glover.)  It  is 
nearly  three  inches  long;  the  prothorax  is  keeled,  and  the 
wings  only  cover  half  of  the  abdomen.  The  larva  is  reddish, 


ACRYDII. 


571 


while  the  adult  is  yellowish  brown  with  dark  patches   and 
spots. 

In  Acrydium  the  spine  on  the  chest  is  very  prominent,  and 
the  mesial  crest  above  is  well  marked,  while  the  tip  of  the 
male  abdomen  is  not  swollen.  Acrydium  alutaceum  Harris  is 
nearly  two  inches  long,  and  expands  over  three  inches.  It  is 
brownish  yellow,  with  a  paler  yellow  stripe  on  the  top  of  the 
head  and  thorax. 

To  the  genus  Tropidacris,  separated  from  Acrydium  by  Mr. 
Scudder,  belongs  certain  gigantic  grasshoppers  nearly  four 
inches  in  length  and  expanding  some  eight  inches,  with  gaily 
colored  hind  wings.  T.  cristata  Linn,  has  pale,  greenish  blue 
hind  wings ;  it  is 
reported  from  Asia 
and  Africa,  and  is 
widely  distributed 
through  tropical 
South  America.  T. 
dux  Drury  has  brick 
red  hind  wings  and 
expands  nearly  sev- 
en inches ;  its  range 
is  from  Texas  to 
Panama. 

(Edipoda  is  a  large 
and  well  known  ge- 
nus, in  which  there  is  no  spine  between  the  fore  legs,  and  the 
front  of  the  head  is  vertical  and  swollen.  (Edipoda  Carolina 
Linn,  is  pale  yellowish  brown,  the  wings  black  with  a  broad  yel- 
low hind  margin,  and  it  expands  over  three  and  a  half  inches. 
It  is  abundant  everywhere.  (E.  sulphur ea  Fabr.  has  deep  yel- 
low wings,  with  a  broad  dusky  band  beyond  the  middle,  while 
(E.  corallina  Harris  has  hind  wings  of  a  rich  coral  red.  (E. 
xanthoptera  Germar  (Fig.  565)  ranges  from  New  England  to 
the  Mississippi.  It  is  reddish  brown  ;  the  prothorax  has  a  high 
rounded  unbroken  ridge  ;  the  fore  wings  are  necked  with  small 
dusky  spots ;  the  hind  wings  are  yellow  at  the  base,  fuscous 
beyond  and  clouded  at  the  tip ;  the  hind  shanks  are  dusky, 
with  a  pale  band  below  the  knee.  The  wings  of  the  male  ex- 


572  ORTHOPTERA. 

pand  two  and  a  quarter  inches ;  those  of  the  female  three 
inches.  Mr.  Scudder  has  discovered  a  chalcid  parasite  in  the 
eggs  of  (Edipoda  Carolina. 

In  Tettix  the  pronotum  is  prolonged  beyond  the  abdomen, 
and  the  antennae  are  thirteen  to  fourteen-jointed,  while  Tetti- 
gidea  differs  from  it  by  having  twenty-two-jointed  antennae,  and 
a  thicker,  shorter  body.  Tettix  granulata  Kirby  has  a  very 
prominent  vertex,  with  the  front  border  angulated. 

Tettigidea  lateralis  Say  is  a  common  species,  and  may  be 
found,  like  all  the  other  allied  species,  in  the  spring  and  au- 
tumn. It  is  pale  brown,  with  the  sides  of  the  body  blackish ; 
the  prothorax  is  yellowish  clay  colored,  and  the  fore  wings 
have  a  small  white  spot  at  the  tips. 

Batrachidea  has  but  twelve  joints  to  the  antennae,  and  other- 
wise differs  from  Tettix  in  its  more  compact  shorter  body,  and 
more  distant  eyes,  while  the  mesial  crest  on  the  prothorax  is 
very  high.  In  B.  cristata  Harris  the  crest  is  high,  regularly 
arched,  and  on  each  side  of  the  prothorax  are  two  shallow 
grooves ;  the  surface  is  rough,  with  a  dark  squarish  spot  on 
each  side  above  the  terminal  half  of  the  fore  wings.  Saussure 
describes  an  aquatic  Tettix  from  Ceylon. 

The  genus  Proscopia  is  wingless,  with  the  front  produced 
into  a  long  slender  cone,  while  the  whole  body  is  long  and 
cylindrical,  somewhat  as  in  Diapheromera.  The  antennae  are 
very  minute,  six  to  eight-jointed,  and  the  legs  are  long  and 
slender.  P.  gigantea  Klug  is  six  inches  long,  and  occurs  in 
Brazil  *at  Para. 

PHASMIDA  Leach.  The  Walking-sticks,  or  Spectres,  are  slug- 
gish insects  found  on  twigs  and  leaves,  to  which  they  bear  a 
strong  resemblance,  and  are  neither  raptorial  as  regards  their 
fore  legs,  nor  leapers,  like  the  grasshoppers.  Their  bodies  are 
remarkably  long  and  linear,  and  the  wings  either  aborted  and 
very  small,  or  strikingly  leaf-like.  The  head  is  horizontal, 
long,  while  the  antennae  are  rather  short,  and  the  abdomen  is 
nearly  twice  as  long  as  the  rest  of  the  body. 

The  subgenital  plate  is  formed  by  the  largely  developed 
eighth  sternite,  while  the  ninth  segment  is  incomplete,  the 
sternum  consisting  of  a  membranous  fold.  According  to  L. 


PHASMIDA.  573 

Duthiers  there  are  eleven  abdominal  segments,  and  the  anal 
stylets  are  not  articulated  as  in  the  Mantidce,  but  are  long 
corneous  claspers,  and  in  some  cases,  very  much  like  those  of 
Libellula,  as  in  Acropliylla,  while  the  eleventh  ring  is  a  little 
triangular  tergite,  situated  between  the  anal  claspers.  The 
egg- sac  in  Diapheromera  femorata  Say  (Fig.  566,  J),  our  com- 
monly diffused  species,  is  flattened  elliptical,  with  a  lid  in 
front  which  can  be  pushed  open  by  the  embryo  when  about  to 
hatch,  and  is  deposited  in  the  autumn. 
The  young  when  hatched  are  linear,  and 
much  like  the  adults  except  that  they 
are  wingless.  The  male  is  considerably, 
smaller  than  the  female,  and  much  more 
slender.  In  PJiasma,  a  tropical  genus, 
the  two  sexes  are  winged,  the  antennse 
are  about  as  long  as  the  body,  and  the 
limbs  are  slender.  P.  4:-guttatum  Bur- 
meister  is  between  two  and  three  inches 
in  length,  and  green  on  the  costal  border 
of  the  hind  wing,  and  rose  colored  be- 
hind. It  lives  in  Borneo.  The  genus 
Prisopus  differs  from  the  other  two 
genera  in  the  shortened  mesothorax; 
the  legs  are  much  flattened  and  leaf- 
like  ;  the  abdomen  is  longer  than  the 
thorax,  flattened  beneath,  and  widened 
on  the  sides  posteriorly.  P.  spiniceps 
Burmeister  is  a  Brazilian  species,  and  is  Fig.  563. 

two  and  a  half  inches  long.  P.  flabellicornis  Stoll,  according  to 
A.  Murray,  spends  the  whole  of  the  day  under  water  adhering 
to  stones  in  the  mountain  streams  of  Brazil,  and  towards  dusk 
flies  about ;  it  is  the  only  truly  aquatic  Orthopteran  known. 

The  genus  Phyllium,  found  only  in  the  East  Indies,  most  re- 
markably imitates  various  leaves,  one  species  having  its  fore 
wings  so  veined  and  colored  as  to  resemble  most  strikingly  a 
dried  and  withered  leaf.  The  wings  are  often  very  large  and 
broad,  and  as  if  to  aid  in  carrying  out  the  analogy  the  legs 
have  broad  leaf-like  expansions.  The  antennae  of  the  males  are 
twenty-four-jointed,  while  in  the  females  they  are  much  shorter, 


574  ORTHOPTERA. 

consisting  of  but  nine  joints.    The  P.  siccifolium  Linn,  is  green, 
and  about  three  inches  long.     It  lives  in  the  East  Indies. 

MANTID^E  Latreille.     These  raptorial  Orthoptera  are  easily 
recognized  by  their  large  size,  the  enormous  spinous  fore  legs, 


Fig.  567. 

adapted  for  seizing  other  insects  like  the  raptorial  Hemiptera, 
and  which  has  given  them  the  name  of  Soothsa3Ters  and 
Prophets,  from  their  devotional  attitude  when 
watching  for  their  prey.  They  are  worshipped 
by  the  Hottentots  as  tutelary  divinities.  The 
head  is  horizontal,  triangular  in  front,  with 
long  filiform  antennae ;  the  prothorax  is  very 
long,  and  the  broad  wings  are  thin,  net-veined, 
with  long  parallel  veins,  more  strongly  resem- 
bling the  Neuroptera  in  this  respect  than  any 
other  family.  The  abdomen  is  long,  linear 
oval.  "The  subgenital  plate  is  formed  by  the 
eighth  sternite,  the  oviduct  opening  between 
the  seventh  and  eighth  segments.  The  ninth 
segment  is  complete.  The  elements  of  this 
ring  are  but  little  developed,  scarcely  surpass- 
ing the  subgenital  plate ;  the  two  episternites 
are  distinct,  and  between  them  is  the  small 
ninth  sternite."  The  stylets  are  concealed  by 
the  broad  expanded  sternum  of  the  seventh 
segment,  while  the  antenna-like  appendage  (or 
anal  style,  Fig.  23)  is  sometimes  many  jointed, 
and  is  said  by  Lacaze-Duthiers  to  be  appended 
rig.  568.  to  the  eleventh  segment  of  the  abdomen.  The 
mass  of  eggs  laid  by  the  female  is  attached  to  twigs,  and 
enclosed  in  a  flattened  subovate  case  (ootheca)  of  hardened 
silk.  The  eggs  are  infested  to  some  extent  by  chalcid  para- 


BLATTARI^E.  .    575 

sites.  The  young  are  long  and  linear.  The  Race-horse,  Man- 
tis Carolina  Linn.  (Fig.  567;  fig.  568,  eggs,  natural  size), 
occurs  in  the  Southern  and  Western  States,  and  in  the  tropics 
occur  the  allied  genera  Vates,  Empusa,  Harpax  and  Schizoce- 
phala.  According  to  Mr.  T.  Glover  the  eggs  of  Mantis 
Carolina  are  laid  in  a  packet  about  an  inch  long  attached  to 
leaf-stalks  and  twigs.  The  body  of  the  recently  hatched  young 
is  linear  and  turned  up  at  each  end,  and  it  devours  caterpillars 
and  insects,  holding  them  in  the  fore  legs  with  a  firm  grasp 
by  applying  the  spined  tibiae  and  tarsi  against  the  more  stoutly 
spined  femora,  and  then  sucking  their  blood  at  its  leisure.  Pro- 
fessor Sanborn  Tenney  tells  me  he  has  observed  the  female 
after  sexual  union  devour  the  male.  Burmeister  says  that 
Mantis  argentina  Burm.,  of  Buenos  Ayres,  seizes  and  eats 
small  birds.  The  genus  Eremophila  (E.  Ehrenbergi  of  Burm- 
eister) inhabits  the  deserts  of  Northern  Africa,  where  it  re- 
sembles the  sand  in  color. 

BLATTARI^E  Latreille.  The  Cockroaches  are  flattened  ovate, 
with  the  head  rounded  and  partially  concealed  by  the  expanded 
pro  thorax.  The  fore  wings  are  large,  ovate,  not  much  smaller 
than  the  hind  wings  ;  the  antennae  are  long  and  filiform,  many 
jointed.  The  bilobate  subgenital  plate  is  formed  by  the  eighth 
sternite ;  the  ninth  abdominal  ring  is  complete,  the  sternite 
being  small  and  lodged  between  the  two  episternites  which  are 
soldered  into  a  single  annular  piece.  The  anal  stylets  are 
short.  The  species,  which  are  almost  invariably  reddish 
brown,  or  paler,  are  nocturnal,  hiding  by  day,  and  are  found 
under  stones.  They  are  fond  of  heat,  the  house  cockroaches 
frequenting  heated  rooms.  While  the  common  species  are 
troublesome  from  eating  garments,  etc.,  they  do  great  service 
in  clearing  houses  and  ships  of  bed-bugs,  which  they  greedily 
devour.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  a  bean-shaped  capsule  (ootheca) 
which  is  divided  into  two  apartments,  each  containing  a  row 
of  separate  chambers,  about  thirty  in  number,  each  of  which 
encloses  an  egg.  Many  days  are  required  for  oviposition,  and 
the  female  may  be  seen  running  about  with  the  capsule  par- 
tially protruding  from  her  body.  During  this  period  embryos 
are  forming  within  the  capsule,  and  very  soon  after  it  is 


576    .  ORTHOPTERA. 

dropped  the  larvae  are  hatched.  The  common  cockroach, 
Blatta  (Stylopyga)  orientalis  Linn,  has  rudimentary  wings  in 
the  female,  while  in  the  male  they  are  shorter  than  the  body. 
In  Periplaneta  the  wings  are  longer  than  the  body,  and  the 
supraanal  plate  is  deeply  fissured  and  the  abdomen  much 
swollen.  Periplaneta  Americana  Linn,  is  a  commonly  dis- 
tributed species.  The  genus  Platymodes  differs  from  the  pre- 
'ceding  one  in  its  narrower  and  longer  body,  and  the  supraanal 
plate  is  not  fissured  ;  the  anal  stylets  are  much  shorter  and 
turned  down,  while  the  wings  extend  beyond  the  abdomen,  the 
anterior  pair  being  well  rounded  at  the  tips.  Platamodes  Pen- 
sylvanica  DeGeer  is  pale,  shining,  reddish  brown,  and  the  an- 
tennae reach  back  to  the  tips  of  the  fore  wings.  It  is  found  in 

woods     under     stones,     entering 
houses  by  night. 

In  EctoUa  the  wings  are  well 
developed,  and  the  basal  joints  of 
the  tarsi  are  shorter  than  the 
others.  The  Ectobia  Gennanica 
Stephens  (Fig.  569,  male  and  fe- 
male) is  a  pale  species,  and  is 
very  abundant  in  houses  in  and 
about  Boston,  where  it  is  called 
the  uCroton  bug."  Ectobia  lithophila  Harris  is  very  common 
in  woods  under  stones  in  New  England.  The  third  joint  of 
its  antennae  is  as  long  as  the  next  five,  collectively. 

In  Cryptocercus  both  sexes  are  wingless ;  the  antennae  are 
half  as  long  as  the  whole  body,  and  the  abdominal  appendages 
are  not  exserted,  being  veiy  short.  C.  punctulatus  Scudder  is 
known  by  its  thickly  punctured  body  and  dark  mahogany 
brown  color,  with  reddish  beneath.  It  is  found  southwards. 
In  Pycnoscelus  the  males  are  wingless  ;  no  females  have  yet 
been  found.  It  differs  from  Cryptocercus  in  having  a  larger 
head ;  the  eyes  are  placed  closer  together,  and  the  stylets  are 
slender,  cylindrical,  of  about  the  same  length  as  the  cerci  and 
inserted  just  within  them.  Plate  1,  fig.  2  represents  the  wing 
of  an  extinct  species  of  cockroach  (Blattina?)  discovered  by 
Mr.  Barnes  in  the  coal  formation  of  Nova  Scotia.  While  most 
of  the  remains  of  cockroaches  found  in  the  Carboniferous  rocks 


FORFICULARI^E. 


577 


of  this  country  and  Europe  have  been  referred  to  the  genus 
Blattina,  Mr.  Scudder  describes,  in  the  "Palaeontology  of  Illi- 
nois," a  form  under  the  name  of  Mylacris  anthracophila  (Fig. 
570,  upper  wing;  Fig.  571, 
prothorax)  which  was  found  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  true  coal 
measures  at  Morris,  Illinois. 

FORFICULARI^E  Latreille. 
The  Earwigs  are  very  unlike 
other  Orthoptera,  and  are 
readily  distinguished  by  their  narrow  flattened  bodies,  with 
short  wing-covers,  like  the  Staphylinidaz  among  beetles,  on 
which  account  Linnaeus  placed  them  among  the  Coleoptera. 
The  head  is  free,  flat,  horizontal ;  the  ocelli  are  wanting,  and 
the  eyes  round  ;  the  antennae  arise  from  under  the  eyes,  and  are 
filiform  and  twelve  to  forty-jointed.  The  elytra  are  short  and 
thick,  while  the  rounded,  broad,  hind  wings  are  folded  under- 
neath so  as  to  be  almost  entirely  concealed  by  the  anterior  pair. 
The  female  genital  armature  is  described  by  Lacaze-Duthiers 
as  composed  of  a  subgenital  plate  formed  by  the  eighth  ster- 
nite,  while  the  eighth  and  ninth  abdominal  rings 
are  partly  aborted,  and  only  represented  by  two 
horny  arcs  closely  soldered  to  the  tergite  of  the 
tenth  ring.  The  rhabdites  of  the  eleventh  ring  are 
greatly  developed,  forming  the  immense  forceps, 
which  are  often  as  long  as  the  whole  body.  This  family  was 
ranked  as  a  separate  order  by  Leach  and  Kirby,  under  the  name 
of  Dermaptem,  and  were  called  Euplexoptera  by  Westwood. 

They  are  nocturnal  insects,  hiding  in  the  day  time  between 
leaves  and  in  flowers,  flying  about  at  dark.  They  feed  on  the 
corollas  of  flowers  and  on  fruit,  and  will  eat  bread  and  meat. 
They  are  rare  insects  in  this  country,  though  troublesome  in 
Europe  from  their  great  numbers.  An  Alpine  species  lives 
under  stones  in  Europe.  In  Forficula  the  antennae  are  fifteen- 
jointed.  Spongophora  bipunctata  Scudder  has  two  pale  spots 
on  the  elytra.  In  Labia  the  antennae  are  less  than  twelve- 
jointed.  Labia  minuta  Scudder  is  yellowish  brown,  with  the 
sides  of  the  abdomen  and  the  head  reddish  brown. 
37 


Fig.  571. 


578  NEUROPTEKA. 


NEUROPTERA. 

THESE  insects  have  the  body,  as  a  whole,  more  elongated 
than  in  other  insects,  with  large  broad,  net-veined,  thin,  mem- 
branous wings,  both  pairs  being  very  equal  in  size,  the  anterior 
pair  being  sometimes  smaller  than  the  hind  wings,  while  in 
some  genera  the  hind  ones  are  either  diminished  in  size  or 
obsolete.  The  mouth-parts  are  free,  the  mandibles  being  well 
developed,  and  the  abdomen  is  long  and  slender,  with  the 
genital  armor  always  present,  but  made  on  the  simplest  plan, 
not  forming  a  sting.  The  metamorphosis  is  either  incomplete 
or  complete ;  accordingly  the  pupa  is  either  active  or  inactive 
and  when  inactive  resides  in  a  cocoon.  The  greater  number 
of  species  are  aquatic ;  and  several  degraded  forms  (Lepisma, 
etc.)  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Myriapods. 

The  description  of  the  head  and  mouth-parts  of  the  Orthop- 
tera  applies  well  to  the  Neuroptera,  but  the  head  is  horizontal, 
flatter,  and  the  mouth-parts  are  less  symmetrical,  certain  parts 
being  greatly  developed  over  others.  As  a  general  rule  that 
part  of  the  head  situated  behind  the  mouth  is  larger,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  rest  of  the  head,  than  usual  in  the  Iarva3  of  the 
higher  insects,  and  also  the  mouth-parts  are  much  larger  and 
less  compact.  Thus  the  head  of  a  Neuropterous  larva  may  be 
actually  larger  than  the  entire  thorax  of  the  same  insect ;  in 
the  Hymenopterous  and  Lepidopterous  larvsa  it  is  the  reverse, 
the  head  is  often  smaller  than  even  the  prothoracic  ring. 

The  mouth-parts  are  inclined  to  become  very  large,  and  in 
the  larva  of  Libellula  the  labium  is  enormously  developed, 
masking  the  jaws  and  other  parts  when  at  rest,  and  capable 
of  great  extension,  while  it  is  armed  with  powerful  hooks, 
being  modified  palpi,  for  seizing  other  insects. 

The  thorax  is  large,  the  segments  being  well  developed,  and 
the  prgthorax  is  usually  large  and  square,  but  in  what  in  many 
respects  are  the  most  typical  insects  of  the  group,  the  Ephe- 
meridce  and  Libellulidce,  the  prothorax  is  very  small,  as  in 
the  highest  insects,  and  in  the  latter  group  the  greatly  enlarged 
flanks  of  the  mesothorax  seem  to  take  its  place. 


NEUROPTERA;  579 

The  wings  are  large,  and  in  the  Libellulidce  they  are  in 
constant  use.  The  legs  are  generally  of  simple  structure, 
these  insects  neither  walking  nor  leaping  much.  Rarely,  -as  in 
Mantispa,  are  they  adapted  for  seizing  their  prey,  as  they  are 
in  many  Hemiptera  and  Orthoptera. 

The  abdomen  of  the  Neuroptera  is  composed,  according  to 
Lacaze-Duthiers,  of  eleven  segments  (arthromeres) ,  and  the 
ovipositor  is  constructed  on  the  same  plan  as  in  the  Hymen- 
optera,  Hemiptera  and  Orthoptera,  though  in  the  different 
families  the  characters  vary  much  more  than  in  the  higher  sub- 
orders, in  this  respect  perfectly  according  with  the  anatomy 
of  the  other  parts  of  the  body  in  the  different  groups.  He 
states,  however,  as  observation  has  taught  us,  that  in  its 
structure  the  ovipositer  is  simpler  than  in  other  insects,  and 
the  farthest  removed  from  that  of  the  Hymenoptera. 

Lacaze-Duthiers,  whose  work  is  necessarily  incomplete  from 
treating  of  the  female  ovipositor  alone,  not  regarding  the 
analogous  parts  in  the  other  sex,  considers  the  Neuropterous 
ovipositor  (tariere)  as  having  three  types  of  structure.  The 
simplest  is  found  in  Libellula,  in  the  abdomen  of  which  there 
are  ten  segments  much  alike;  "the  eleventh  is  more  complex 
than  the  others  ;  it  has  the  same  structure  as  in  ^Eschna.  It 
is  especially  in  the  division  of  [the  family  containing]  Libellula 
and  its  allies  that  the  two  appendages  take  the  form  and  the 
function  of  pincers,  and  that  the  special  word  « forcipate,'  has 
been  used.  These  forceps  serve,  as  is  well  known,  for  clasping 
organs,  and  to  enable  them  to  perform  the  very  long  prelimi- 
naries to  fecundation."  The  outlet  of  the  oviduct  lies  between 
the  eighth  and  ninth  segments. 

The  nervous  system  of  the  Neuroptera  consists  of  the  cere- 
brellum,  with  its  lateral  productions,  the  optic  nerves,  forming 
a  cylinder  extending  between  the  eyes  and  presenting  four 
swellings.  (Leidy.)  There  are  three  thoracic  and  eight  ab- 
dominal ganglia  which  are  of  very  uniform  size,  and  connected 
by  double  commissures.  (See  Fig.  43.)  The  nervous  cord  is 
very  equably  developed  and  the  brain  portion  is  relatively 
smaller  than  in  the  higher  suborders. 

Professor  Leidy  has  described  the  digestive  organs  of  Cory- 
dalus  cornutus,  which  may  serve  as  a  type  for  the  rest  of  the 


580  KEUROPTERA. 

suborder.  It  agrees  with  most  other  genera  of  the  group  in 
having  a  long  oesophagus,  which  is  dilated  posteriorly  into  a 
spacious  proventriculus,  which  extends  as  far  back  as  the  fifth 
abdominal  segment.  The  large  intestine  presents  a  large  con- 
volution, and  abruptly  dilates  into  an  oval  or  fusiform  ccecum 
in  its  lower  third,  which  latter  opens  into  the  rectum.  In 
some  genera  there  is  a  long  sucking  stomach  inserted  on  one 
of  the  sides.  In  Corydalus  this  is  only  present  in  the  pupa, 
and  is  aborted  in  the  imago  ;  so  also  in  the  larva  the  "proven 
triculus,  with  its  apparatus  of  stomachal  teeth,"  is  adapted  to 
the  carnivorous  habits  of  the  insect,  but  in  the  pupa  the  teeth 
disappear,  u  while  in  the  imago  we  find  the  oesophagus  again 
lengthened,  still  contracted  at  its  commencement,  but  gradu- 
ally dilating  until  it  forms  a  capacious  Florence  flask-shaped 
proventriculus,  or  gizzard."  (See  Fig.  45.) 

"With  the  Perli doe  the  gizzard  is  wanting,  but  the  upper 
extremity  of  the  stomach  has  from  four  to  eight  coeca  point- 
ing forwards.  With  the  Libellulidce  the  oesophagus  is  long 
and  large,  and  protrudes  somewhat  into  the  straight,  oblong, 
constricted  stomach,  which  is  without  coeca,  and  is  succeeded 
by  a  very  short  ileum  and  colon.  The  digestive  tube  of  the 
EphemeridoR,  which  in  their  perfect  state  take  no  food,  is 
feebly  developed.  Its  walls  are  very  thin  throughout,  and  the 
oesophagus  is  directly  continuous  with  the  stomach,  which  is  a 
bladder-like  dilation,  and  succeeded  by  a  short,  straight  intes- 
tine. The  predatory  Panorpidce,  which  are  rapacious,  differ 
notably  from  the  other  Neuroptera,  and  resemble  rather  the 
preceding  order  (Orthoptera) .  The  oesophagus  is  short  and 
straight,  and  in  the  thorax  is  succeeded  by  a  spherical  muscu- 
lar gizzard  which  is  lined  internally  witli  a  brown  chitinous 
membrane  covered  with  stiff  hairs.  The  stomach  is  tubular 
and  straight ;  the  ileum  makes  two  convolutions  before  pass- 
ing into  the  long  colon."  (Siebold.)  In  Lepisma  the  oesoph- 
agus terminates  in  a  "kind  of  crop,  which  is  succeeded  by  a 
globular  gizzard  provided  with  six  teeth." 

There  are  two  simple,  short,  salivary  glands  in  the  Sialidce, 
while  in  the  Phryganeidce  and  Hemerobidce  "they'are 
ramified  and  highly  developed.  It  is  quite  remarkable  that 
there  is,  in  this  respect,  a  sexual  difference  with  the  Pan  or- 


NEUROPTERA.  581 

pi  dce^  the  males  have  three  pairs  of  very  long,  tortuous  tubes, 
while  with  the  females  the  only  vestiges  of  this  apparatus  are 
two  indistinct  vesicles."  (Siebold.) 

In  their  larval  state  the  aquatic  Neuroptera  breathe  by 
false  gills,  or  branchial  tracheae ;  these  generally  consist  of 
slender  filaments  situated  on  the  sides  of  the  abdominal  seg- 
ments. These  filaments  are  fleshy,  and  penetrated  by  tracheae, 
which  take  up  the  oxygen  from  the  water.  In  the  larvae  of  the 
Phryganeidce  these  false  gills  are  simple,  "rarely  ramified, 
and  united  in  groups  of  from  two  to  five,  which  stand  out  to- 
wards the  back."  Siebold  also  states  that  "with  those  of  the 
EpJiemeridce  each  of  the  anterior  abdominal  segments  has 
a  pair  of  these  branchiae  which  are  sometimes  ramified  in  the 
most  varied  manner,  and  sometimes  consist  of  two  kinds, 
some  being  lamelliform  and  alternating  with  the  others  which 
are  fasciculate.  With  all  the  Ep Jiemeridce  these  organs  have 
movements  which  are  sometimes  slow  and  rhythmical,  and 
sometimes  rapid  and  oscillatory.  .  .  .  The  trachean  branchiae 
of  JEschna,  Libellula  and  the  other  Libellulidce  are  formed 
upon  a  wholly  different  plan.  They  are  situated  in  the  very 
large  rectum,  and  consist  of  numerous  epithelial  folds  which 
are  traversed  by  a  great  number  of  very  fine  branches  of  many 
large  trachean  trunks.  (Fig.  62,  x.)  The  rectum  is,  moreover, 
invested  by  a  very  highly  developed  muscular  tunic,  and  its 
orifice  has  three  pyramidal  valves  which  regulate  the  entrance 
and  the  escape  of  the  water  required  for  respiration." 

In  the  larval  and  adult  insect  there  are  four  main  trunks  to 
the  tracheary  system,  two  on  each  side,  and  much  less  com- 
plicated than  in  other  insects. 

There  are  generally  six  or  eight  long,  flexuous  urinary  or 
Malpighian  vessels.  In  the  Neuroptera  the  ovaries  "consist 
always  of  multilocular  tubes,"  and  the  two  testes  are,  in  the 
Perlidce,  EpJiemeridce  and  Libellulidce,  composed  of  " a 
multitude  of  round  follicles,  disposed  botryoidally  around 
a  long  dilated  portion  of  each  of  the  deferent  canals.  .  . 
With  Panorpa  the  two  testicles  are  very  simple  and  ovoid  ; 
but  with  the  other  species  they  consist  of  two  tufts  of  long  or 
round  follicles.  With  Myrmeleon  and  Hemerobius  they  are 
oval  and  surrounded  by  a  distinct  envelope.  The  two  deferent 


582  NEUKOPTEKA. 

canals  are  short,  and  always  have  on  their  lower  extremity  two 
long  or  ovoid  accessory  follicles."  (Siebold.) 

The  classification  of  the  Neuroptera  is  difficult  from  the 
lowness  of  the  type,  which  presents  an  unusual  number  of  deg- 
radational  forms,  such  as  are  indicated  beyond,  and  because 
the  different  families  vary  so  much  among  themselves,  and 
contain  forms  which  mimic  the  higher  groups  of  insects. 
Though  the  type  is  the  lowest  among  hexapodous  insects,  yet 
there  constantly  recur  characters  which  are  found  only  in  the 
highest  insects.  For  example  the  Phryganeidce  are  Neu- 
ropterous  throughout,  yet  there  are  many  of  the  less  impor- 
tant characters  which  ally  them  most  intimately  with  the 
Lepidoptera,  especially  the  Tin ei dee. 

However  all  Neuroptera  agree  in  the  lax  composition  of 
the  body,  inducing  a  worm-like,  elongated  form.  The  meta- 
morphoses are,  in  the  more  typical  families,  less  complete  than 
in  other  insects,  except  the  Hemiptera  and  Orthoptera,  and 
upon  the  whole  the  organs  of  vegetative  life  are  largely  devel- 
oped over  those  of  animal  life,  making  them  generally  very 
sluggish  in  their  motions  (though  the  adult  Libellulidae  are  an 
exception) ,  and  inducing  an  abnormal  size  of  the  body,  as  this 
suborder  contains  many  of  the  largest  and  most  monstrous  of 
insects.  The  researches  of  Professor  Dana  and  Messrs.  Hartt 
and  Scudder  show  that  the  Neuroptera  shared  with  the  Orthop- 
tera the  possession  of  the  low  marshy  lands  of  Devonian  and 
Carboniferous  times,  and  the  forms  discovered  in  the  rocks  of 
those  periods  indicate  that  they  were  often  of  gigantic  propor- 
tions, and  among  the  most  degraded  of  their  type. 

Dr.  Anton  Dohrn  has  described,  under  the  name  of  Euge- 
reon Bockingi  (Fig.  572),  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  fossil 
insect  yet  discovered.  It  occurred  in  the  Permian  formation 
in  Germany.  He  considered  it  as  combining  Hemipterous  and 
Neuropterous  characters,  though  more  closely  allied  to  the 
Neuroptera.  Dr.  Hagen  writes  me  that  "Eugereon  belongs  to 
Dictyoneura,  Goldenberg,  and  is  perhaps  identical  with  one  of 
the  species  described  and  figured  by  Goldenberg."  Dictyo- 
neura is  said  by  Goldenberg  to  resemble  the  Neuropterous 
genus  Semblis.  Dr.  Hagen  also  informs  me  that  Gerstaecker, 
after  an  examination  of  Booking's  specimen,  "thinks  Eugereon 


NEUROPTEKA. 


583 


is  next  related  to  the  Ephemerina.  The  parts  of  the  mouth 
have  nothing  of  the  Hemiptera  about  them  and  they  are  even 
more  related  to 
the  Diptera." 
While  we  would 
defer  to  the 
judgment  of 
these  distin- 
guished ento- 
mologists who 
have  actually 
studied  the  fos- 
sil itself,  yet 
judging  from 
Dohrn' s  draw- 
ing we  would 
refer  the  insect 
to  the  Neurop- 
tera,  and  would 
suggest  that  in 
certain  charac- 


Fig.  572. 


ters  we  are  strongly  reminded  of  certain  more  abnormal  genera 
of  Hemerobidce  and  the  Panorpidce.  The  wings  while 
closely  resembling  the  Ephemerids,  as  Dr.  Hagen  has  sug- 
gested to  us,  also,  in  our  opinion,  recall  those  of  an  African 
species  of  Palpares,  and  of  the  fore  wings  of  Nemoptera,  and 
the  antennae  and  beak-like  mouth-parts  seem  analogous  to 
those  of  Panorpa  and  Boreus.* 

FIG.  572.  Eugereon  Bockingi  Dohrn,  enlarged  three  diameters;  A,  a,  lab- 
rum;  &,  first  pair  of  jaws  (mandibles);  c,  second  pair  (maxillae) ;  e,  labial  palpi; 
/,  fragments  of  antennae;  m,  portion  of  legs;  n,  middle  tibiae.  C,  a,  6,  antennas;  D, 
a,  head ;  b,  fore  femora ;  c,  prothorax ;  d,  prosternum  ( ?) ;  E,  tarsus  and  end  of  the 
tibia  of  the  left  fore  leg.  —  After  Dohrn. 

*Erichsonand  Siebold  have  grouped  the  Termitidce,  P$ocidce,  Embidce, 
Ephemeridcs  and  Lib ellulidce under  the  name'of  "false ""Neuroptera, and  con- 
sidered them  as  Orthoptera,  restricting  the  Neuroptera  to  the  Sialidce,  Hemer o- 
bidce,Panorpidce  and  Phryganeidce,ar\A  this  classification  has  been  adopted 
by  most  continental  entomologists.  Now  while  believing  in  the  unity  of  the  Neu- 
ropterous  type,  and  that  the  so  called  "  false  »  Neuroptera  (especially  the  May-flies 
and  the  dragon-flies)  are  really  the  most  typical  of  the  suborder,  being  the  most 
unlike  other  insects,  do  not  we  have  many  characters  in  these  palaeozoic  net- 
veined  insects,  which  unite  more  intimately  the  so  called  false  and  true  Neurop- 
ters  ?  We  would  not  forget  the  analogies  shown  in  these  fossil  net-veined  insects 


584  NEUKOPTEKA. 

It  is  a  rather  large  insect,  the  head  and  mouth- parts  measur- 
ing thirty-nine  millimetres,  the  three  thoracic  rings  twenty- 
eight  millimetres,  and  the  part  preserved  of  the  right  upper 
wing  forty-four  millimetres,  and  of  the  right  under  wTing  fifty- 
one  millimetres.  The  antennae  are  long  and  thread-like,  as  in 
Panorpa,  and  the  venation  of  the  wings  are  of  the  Neuropter- 
ous  type,  while  the  elongated  mouth-parts  are  Hemipterous  in 
appearance,  though  the  labial  palpi  (Ae)  are  well  developed, 
being  usually  absent  in  the  Hemiptera.  It  is  the  most  puz- 
zling form  yet  brought  to  light,  and  has  been  compared  by 
Dr.  I)ohrn  to  the  fossil  Archseopteryx  of  the  Solenhofen  slates, 
referred  by  some  naturalists  to  the  birds,  and  by  others  to  the 
reptiles. 

We  have  shown  elsewhere*  that  the  Neuropterous  families, 
except  the  most  typical,  i.e.,  the  Ephemeridce  and  Libellu- 
lidce,  mimic  every  other  suborder  of  insects.  They  are  in 
fact  comprehensive  or  synthetic  types,  combining,  as  do  all 
decephalized,  embryonic  forms,  the  structures  of  the  other  sub- 
orders of  insects,  and  thus  presenting,  in  advance,  features 
which  remind  us  of  characters  more  fully  wrought  out  in  higher 
and  more  compactly  finished  groups  of  insects. 

As  regards  the  preservation  of  the  dragon-flies,  Mr.  Uhler 
states  that  "the  large,  brilliant  green  dragon-flies  (Cordu- 
lina),  as  well  as  the  yellow,  brown-striped  Gomphina,  having 
the  eyes  wide  apart,  will  furnish  new  species  in  almost  all  parts 
of  the  country.  In  order  to  preserve  specimens  in  the  neatest 
manner  it  is  well  to  slip  them  immediately,  when  caught,  into 
paper  bags  of  suitable  size ;  first  taking  care  to  lay  back  the 
wings  so  that  they  will  be  applied  together,  to  prevent  mutila- 
tion. These  paper  bags  may  be  placed  loosely  in  a  box  carried 
for  the  purpose.  They  can  thus  be  taken  out  at  leisure,  killed 
by  applying  a  camel's  hair  pencil,  dipped  in  sulphuric  ether, 
chloroform,  or  benzine,  to  the  under  side  of  the  body,  and  then 
have  the  wings  spread  by  placing  them  upon  the  setting 

to  the  Orthoptera,  and  which  serve  to  unite  the  two  suborders  more  intimately 
than  ever.  Indeed  entomologists  in  the  future  may  unite  the  Orthoptera  and 
Neuroptera  (in  the  Linnaean  sense)  into  a  single  suborder  equivalent  to  the  Coleop- 
tera  or  Hymenoptera,  and  these  two  groups  may  stand  as  two  subordinate  divi- 
sions just  as  the  "Homoptera"  and  "Hemiptera"  are  subdivisions  of  the  Lin- 
naean group  of  Hemiptera. 

*  Journal  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  viii,  p.  590. 


TERMITIDJE.  585 

boards.  In  most  species  the  colors  change  after  death,  hence 
it  is  important  to  make  short  descriptions  of  the  colors  before 
killing  the  specimens."  The  smaller,  more  slender  and  deli- 
cate Neuroptera  should  be  pinned  directly  in  the  collecting 
box.  Many  species  are  caught  by  a  light  in  the  night  time, 
such  as  Polystoechotes  nebulosus  and  the  Phryganeidce; 
and  a  bright  light  placed  in  damp  situations  by  streams,  etc., 
will  attract  large  numbers,  the  smaller  species,  like  moths,  be- 
ing attracted  a  great  distance  by  light.  For  the  proper  study 
of  the  genera  of  these  insects,  and  often  of  the  species,  they 
should  be  collected  in  alcohol,  so  as  to  be  studied  in  a  flexible 
state.  Dr.  J.  L.  Leconte  has  published  in  the  "American 
Naturalist,"  iii,  p.  307,  some  new  directions  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  insects  which  will  apply  to  these  as  well  as  other 
insects.  "  Surgical  art  has  given  to  us  an  instrument  by  which 
a  poisonous  liquid  can  be  rapidly  and  most  effectively  applied 
to  the  entire  surface  of  large  numbers  of  specimens  as  they 
stand  in  the  cabinet  boxes,  without  the  trouble  of  moving 
them.  I  refer  to  the  '  Atomizer.' 

"Opinions  may  vary  as  to  the  nature  of  the  liquid  poison  to 
be  used,  but  after  several  trials  I  have  found  the  following 
formula  to  be  quite  satisfactory ;  it  produces  no  efflorescence, 
even  on  the  most  highly  polished  species,  while  the  odor  is 
quite  strong,  and  persistent  enough  to  destroy  any  larvae  or 
eggs  that  may  be  already  in  the  box :  —  Saturated  alcoholic 
solution  of  arsenious  acid,  eight  fluid  ounces ;  Strychnine, 
twelve  grains  ;  Crystallized  carbolic  acid,  one  drachm ;  Mineral 
naphtha  (or  heavy  benzine)  and  strong  alcohol,  enough  to 
make  one  quart.  I  have  not  stated  the  quantity  of  naphtha, 
since  there  are  some  varieties  of  light  petroleum  in  commerce 
which  dissolve  in  alcohol  only  to  a  slight  extent.  These  should 
not  be  used.  The  heavier  oils  which  mix  indefinitely  with  alco- 
hol are  the  proper  ones,  and  for  the  two  pints  of  mixture  ten 
to  twelve  fluid  ounces  of  the  naphtha  will  be  sufficient.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  test  the  naphtha  on  a  piece  of  paper.  If  it 
leaves  a  greasy  stain  which  does  not  disappear  after  a  few 
hours  it  is  not  suitable  for  this  purpose. 

"The  best  form  of  atomizer  is  the  long,  plated,  reversible 
tube  ;  it  should  be  worked  with  a  gum  elastic  pipe,  having  two 


586  NBUEOPTEKA. 

bulbs  to  secure  uniformity  in  the  current.  The  atomizing  glass 
tubes  and  the  bottle  which  usually  accompany  the  apparatus 
are  unnecessary:  a  common  narrow-necked  two  ounce  bottle 
will  serve  perfectly  to  hold  the  fluid." 

The  aquatic  larvae  and  pupae  can  easily  be  reared  in  aquaria 
in  jars  and  tumblers,  taking  care  that  the  weaker  species  are 
separated  from  those  more  powerful  and  bloodthirsty.  The 
little  Entomostraca,  or  water-fleas,  serve  as  food  for  many  of 
the  smaller  species.  With  very  little  care  many  species  can  be 
raised  in  this  way,  and  so  little  is  known  of  their  transforma- 
tions that  figures  and  descriptions  would  be  of  great  value. 
The  interesting  and  varied  habits  of  the  different  families  can 
be  also  easily  noted.  They  can  be  called  summer  insects,  since 
few  are  found  late  in  the  fall  or  early  in  the  spring,  though 
several  Per li dee,  Hemerobius,  Boreus  and  several  species  of 
Phryganeids  are  found  ere  the  snow  has  gone  in  the  spring, 
and  a  few  species  of  the  latter  family  are  found  in  November. 

TERMITID^E  Leach.  The  White  Ants  in  the  different  grades 
of  individuals,  and  their  complex  economy,  foreshadow  the  for- 
micaries of  the  ant  and  the  hive  of  the  bee.  The  bodies  of  the 
winged  individuals  are  shaped  somewhat  like  that  of  the  ant, 
but  they  differ  in  the  long,  narrow,  straight,  finely  net-veined 
wings,  the  costa  of  which  is  remarkably  straight,  while  both 
wings  are  equal  in  shape  and  size,  with  the  veins  arranged  in 
the  same  manner  in  both.  The  head  is  of  moderate  size,  hori- 
zontal ;  the  eyes  are  rather  small,  globose,  and  between  them 
are  two  ocelli,  the  third  and  more  anterior  one  being  nearly 
obsolete.  The  antennae  are  short,  with  about  twenty  joints, 
and  the  mandibles  are  small  triangular,  with  fine  teeth  on  the 
cutting,  or  inner  edge.  The  abdomen  is  ovate  and  shorter 
than  in  the  Neuroptera  generally.  In  all  these  points,  as  well 
as  in  their  habits,  the  white  ants  are  the  most  perfectly  organ- 
ized of  the  Neuroptera.  They  are  more  cephalized,  their 
bodies  are  developed  more  headwards,  and  their  intelligence 
and  remarkable  instincts  ally  them  also,  intellectually,  with  the 
most  perfect  of  insects,  the  Bees,  Wasps  and  Ants.  Thus  in 
the  lowest  suborder  of  insects  we  find  features  which  strikingly 
remind  us  of  the  highest  insects.  Nature  constantly  repeat- 


TERMITIM:.  587 

ing  the  same  idea  in  different  groups,  here  leaps  over  as  it 
were  whole  groups  of  insects,  as  if  by  prophecy  pointing  out 
the  advent  of  still  more  perfect  forms  and  higher  intelligences. 
Geology  teaches  us  that  the  white  ant  and  other  Neuroptera 
preceded  in  time,  as  they  do  in  structure,  their  higher  ana- 
logues. 

The  genus  Calotermes  differs  from  Termes  in  its  small  head, 
the  large,  transverse,  oblong  prothorax,  the  veined  costal  area, 
and  in  the  tarsi  being  furnished  with  an  apical  plantula  (or 
foot-pad  situated  between  the  claws).  C.  castaneus  Burmeis- 
ter  is  almost  cosmopolitan,  occurring  in  Western  and  tropical 
America.  In.  Termopsis  the  head  is  large,  the  ocelli  are  ab- 
sent, and  the  prothorax  is  small,  otherwise  it  agrees  with  Calo- 
termes. T.  angusticollis  Linn,  is  found  in  the  Pacific  States. 
The  type  of  the  family,  Termes,  has  a  large  rounded  head, 
with  two  ocelli,  and  a  small  heart-shaped  prothorax ;  the  costal 
area  is  free,  while  the  foot-pad  (plantula)  is  absent.  Our  com- 
mon white  ant,  Termes  flavipes  Kollar  is  found  from  Massachu- 
setts southward,  under  stones,  sticks  and  in  stumps.  It  is  of 
a  chestnut  color,  head  and  prothorax  black  brown,  with  brown- 
ish antennae  ringed  with  a  paler  hue,  with  white,  very  delicate 
wings,  and  the  mouth,  tibiaB  and  tarsi  are  yellow.  The  work- 
ers are  white,  with  honey  yellow  heads.  The  white  ants  of 
Africa  live  together  like  ants  in  colonies  of  vast  extent. 
The  males  and  females  are  winged  and  closely  resemble 
each  other  as  usual.  There  are  two  wingless  forms ;  the 
soldiers,  which  have  large  square  heads,  and  long  powerful 
mandibles,  with  a  large  prothorax,  and  the  workers  which 
have  small  rounded  heads  and  minute,  nearly  obsolete  mandi- 
bles. There  also  occur  among  the  workers  certain  individuals 
(Nasuti)  which  have  the  front  of  the  head  prolonged  into  a 
horn.  All  these  wingless  individuals  are  asexual,  the  organs 
of  reproduction  being  undeveloped.  They  have  been  consid- 
ered to  be  larvae  by  eminent  authorities,  but  they  are  found  in 
the  nest  in  abundance  when  the  males  and  females  have  arrived 
at  maturity.  They  must,  therefore,  be  considered  like  the 
workers  among  bees  and  ants,  as  individuals  specialized,  or  set 
apart  for  the  performance  of  certain  duties  involving  the  in- 
crease and  preservation  of  the  entire  colony.  Thus  the  sol- 


588  NEUROPTERA. 

diers,  as  they  are  termed  by  Srneathman,  with  their  warlike 
aspect,  act  as  "sentinels  and  soldiers,  making  their  appearance 
when  the  nest  is  invaded,  attacking  the  intruders  and  inciting 
the  laborers  to  work.  The  more  peaceful  and  laborious 
workers  are  estimated  to  be  one  hundred  times  more  numerous 
than  the  soldiers."  "They  collect  food,  form  covered  wa}Ts, 
guard  the  males  and  females  and  take  care  of  the  eggs  and 
young."  (Westwood.)  While  most  of  the  species  burrow  in 
wood,  or  under  ground,  others,  as  in  the  Termes  fatale  Linn. 
(T.  bellicosus  Smeathman)  ,  raise  conical  hillocks  of  remarkable 
strength  and  firmness,  often  ten  or  twelve  feet  high.  After 
impregnation  the  females,  as  in  the  case  of  the  ants,  lose  their 
wings.  They  are  then  conducted  into  the  interior  of  the  nest 
by  the  workers.  Here  the  body  of  the  female  gradually  be- 
comes enormously  distended  with  eggs,  being  over  two  inches 
in  length,  and  it  is  known  to  lay  80,000  in  the  course  of  a  day. 
The  pupa  of  Termes  lucifugus,  a  French  species,  was  found 
by  Latreille  in  the  spring,  with  four  white  tubercles,  or  wing 
pads.  Other  pupae  are  described  and  figured  by  Westwood, 
which  by  their  long  wing-pads,  prolonged  beyond  the  abdomen, 
closely  resemble  the  Homopterous  adult  Cercopidce.  Fossil 
Termites  occur  in  the  coal  formation  of  Germany. 

EMBIDJE  Burmeister.  These  are  small  insects,  forming  a 
connecting  link  between  the  white  ants  and  Psocus  ;  they  are 
characterized  by  the  linear  depressed  body,  with  the  head  free 
from  the  thorax,  the  wings  equal  in  size,  with  few  veins,  and 
triarticulate  tarsi.  The  larvae  are  found  under  stones  and  are 
protected  by  a  cocoon  which  they  renew  at  each  moulting  of 
the  skin.  (Gerstaecker.)  EmUa  Savigni  Westwood  is  found 
in  Egypt. 

A  species  of  Olyntlm?  the  only  genus  of  this  family  found 
in  North  America,  is  stated  by  Hagen  to  occur  in  Cuba. 


Leach.  These  minute  insects  would  be  easily  mis- 
taken for  Aphides,  both  the  wingless  as  well  as  the  winged 
individuals.  Their  bodies  are  oval,  the  head  free  from  the 
prothorax,  which  is  small  and  partially  concealed  by  the  wings. 
The  wings  are  unequal  in  size,  and  with  few  veins,  thus  depart- 


PSOCID^E . 


589 


ing  widely  from  the  usual  Neuropterous  type  of  venation,  and 
closely  resembling  that  of  the  plant-lice.  Mr.  R.  McLachlan 
states  (Entomologist's  Monthly  Magazine)  that  "the  eggs  are 
laid  in  patches  on  leaves,  bark,  or  other  objects,  and  the  fe- 
males cover  them  with  a 
web.  The  larvae  and  pupae 
greatly  resemble  the  per- 
fect insects."  The  larvae 
closely  resemble  the  pupae  ; 
the  ocelli  in  these  states 
are  absent,  and  the  tarsi  are 
two  or  three-jointed,  accord- 
ing to  the  species.  He  has 
observed  individuals  with 
but  partially  developed 
wings.  "  In  all  their  states 
they  probably  feed  on  dry 
vegetable  substances  and 
lichens.  They  are  univer- 
sally common,  living  more 
or  less  in  societies  on  tree  trunks  and  palings,  and  amongst 
the  herbage  of  trees,  especially  firs,  larches  and  yews,  and 
some  species  in  houses  and  warehouses.  I  believe  that  both 
sexes  possess  the  power  of  spinning  a  web,  not  distinguishable 
from  that  of  spiders.  They  are  exceedingly  active  and  diffi- 
cult of  capture."  (McLachlan.) 

In  the  nearly  wingless  genus  Clothilla,  from  California,  there 
are  no  ocelli,  the  wings  are  incomplete,  and  the  tarsi  three- 
jointed.  Clotliilla  picea  Motschulsky  is  but  .04  of  an  inch  long 
and  pitchy  black  in  color,  with  a  brassy  reflection.  In  the 
nearly  wingless  Atropos  the  ocelli  are  wanting  and  the  tarsi 
are  three-jointed,  while  the  rudimentary  wings  form  minute 
square  pads.  The  A.  divinatorius  of  Otho  Fabricius  is  a  little 
pale,  louse-like  insect,  seen  running  over  books  and  in  insect 
cases,  where  it  does  considerable  injury  to  specimens.  The 
Atropos  is  in  England  called  the  "death-watch,"  and  is  sup- 
posed to  make  the  ticking  sound  heard  in  spring.  Mr.  E. 
Newman  (Entomologist,  iii,  p.  66)  has  bred  "  Psocus pulicarius, 
or  some  allied  species,  from  Clothilla  pulsatoria"  (Fig.  573.) 


Pisr.  573. 


590  NEUROPTERA. 

The  genus  Psocws,  which  closely  resembles  in  its  appear- 
ance and  habits  the  Aphides,  though  the  species  are  not  suck- 
ing insects,  has  three  ocelli,  two  or  three-jointed  tarsi,  and  well 
developed  wings.  The  species  are  very  numerous,  and  abound 
during  the  close  of  summer.  Psocus  venosus  Burm.  is  said  by 
Fitch  to  live  on  the  maple,  while  P.  salicis  he  describes  as 
being  found  on  the  willow. 

PERLID^E  Leach.  This  group  comprises  those  Neuroptera 
with  long  flattened  bodies,  the  sides  of  which  are  parallel,  while 
the  prothorax  is  large  ;  the  antennae  are  long  and  thread-like, 
and  the  wings  are  unequal  in  -size,  the  posterior  ones  being 
broad,  triangular.  The  labial  palpi  are  present,  while  the 
mandibles  exist  ordinarily  in  a  rudimentary  state.  The  wings 
are  usually  charged  with  many  irregular  transverse  veins,  and 
when  folded  flat  on  the  back,  extend  beyond  the  abdomen. 
The  tarsi  are  three-jointed,  and  there  are,  in  the  typical  genera, 
two  terminal  setae  on  the  abdomen.  The  pupae  are  active,  with 
prominent  wing-pads.  They  are  found  in  rivers  under  stones, 
while  the  adults  are  found  resting  on  leaves  and  in  low  damp 
places.  The  larvae  resemble  the  adult,  except  in  being  wing- 
less, and  bear  a  general  resemblance  to  the  larvae  of  certain 
Ephemerids,  showing  the  near  relationship  of  the  two  families. 

The  genus  Pteronarcys  is  remarkable  for  retaining  in  the 
adult  state  external  gill-like  filaments  attached  to  the  under 
side  of  the  prothorax.  It  consequently  lives  in  exceedingly 
moist  places,  much  nearer  the  water  than  Perla.  P.  regalis 
Newman  is  fuscous,  the  head  is  no  broader  than  the  thorax, 
while  in  P.  proteus  Newman  the  head  is  broader  than  the  pro- 
thorax  and  the  abdomen  is  yellowish  beneath. 

In  Perla  the  wings  are  veiny,  the  transverse  veins  few  and 
very  regular,  while  the  hind  wings  have  a  large,  plicated  anal 
space.  The  palpi  are  thread-like,  and  there  are  two  abdominal 
setae.  Westwood  remarks  that  "  there  is  a  very  great  diversity 
in  the  sexes  of  the  typical  genus  Perla,  the  males  being  much 
smaller  than  the  females,  with  very  short  wings."  Perla  ab- 
normis  Newman  is  yellowish  fuscous,  and  the  wings  are  sub- 
hyaline  with  the  veins  clay-yellow. 

The  genus  Isopteryx  is  characterized  by  the  wings  having 


PERLID^E.  591 

the  transverse  veins  few  in  number,  almost  absent,  and  there 
is  no  basal  space  in  the  posterior  wings.  The  palpi  are  seta- 
ceous, the  last  joint  being  shortest.  Isopteryx  Cydippe  New- 
man is  pale  yellow  and  immaculate. 

Capnia  is  known  by  the  wings  being  veiny,  with  the  trans- 
verse veins  very  few  and  regular  ;  the  anal  area  of  the  posterior  . 
wings  is  large,  plicate,  and  the  palpi  are  filiform,  with  the  last 
joint  ovate,  longer  than  the  preceding  one,  and  there  are  two 
setae.  Capnia  pygmcea  Burm.  is  shining  black,  with  gray  hairs. 
It  is  common  in  New  York  in  February,  according  to  Dr.  Fitch. 
The  species  of  Tceniopteryx  have  the  wings  inrolled  and  veined, 
with  the  transverse  veins  very  scarce,  rather  regular  ;  the  anal 
area  of  the  posterior  wings  is  large  and  plicated  ;  the  palpi  are 
filiform,  with  the  last  joint  ovate.  There  are  no  abdominal 
setae,  and  the  tarsi  are  divided  into  three  long  equal  joints. 
They  fly  early  in  spring  and  late  in  the  autumn,  and  south- 
wards, during  the  winter.  T.  frigida  Hagen  is  black,  with 
grayish  hairs,  with  a  gray  band  on  the  middle  and  another  at 
the  apex  of  the  nearly  transparent  wings.  In  Nemoura  the 
wings  are  veiny,  flat,  and  the  transverse  veins  are  few,  very 
regular,  the  veins  of  the  pterostigma  forming  an  X.  The  anal 
area  of  the  posterior  wings  is  large  and  plicate,  and  there  are 
no  caudal  setae.  The  males  are  smaller  than  the  females,  with 
shorter  wings.  N.  alUdipennis  Walker  is  piceous,  shining, 
with  whitish  wings.  The  genus  Leuctra  differs  from  Nernoura 
in  the  wings  being  rolled  in  when  at  rest.  L.  tennis  Pictet  is 
fuscous,  with  three  elevated  lines  on  the  disk  of  the  thorax. 

Under  the  name  Palceopterlna,  Scudder  has  described  a 
group  considered  by  him  as  a  distinct  family  which  comprises 
but  three  fossil  species  discovered  in  the  Carboniferous  forma- 
tion at  Morris,  Illinois.  The  fragments  of  the  first  species 
found  were  described  by  Professor  J.  D.  Dana  in  1864,  under 
the  name  of  Miamia  Bronsoni  (Plate  1,  fig.  1,  the  dotted  lines 
represent  the  parts  restored  by  Mr.  Scudder).  He  states 
that  this  insect  "while  Neuropterous  in  wings,  closely  ap- 
proaching the  Semblids,  has  broad  costate  femurs,  and  even  a 
large  spinous  joint  to  the  anterior  legs,  peculiarities  which 
seem  to  be  almost  inconsistent  with  the  Neuropterous  type, 


592 


NEUROPTERA. 


although  in  part  characterizing  the  Mantispids,  and  which  are 
in  complete  harmony  with  the  Orthopterous  type."  (American 
Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  1864,  p.  33.) 

Professor  Dana  farther  states  "that  in  the 
broad  costate  femurs  of  the   second  pair  of 
legs  and  the  form  of  the  prothorax,  it  ap- 
proaches   the    Orthopters    of    the    Phyllium 
family,  and  is  very  unlike  any  known  Neu- 
ropters.     The  anterior  legs   are   peculiar  in 
having  a  large  and  broad  femur  armed  above 
with  very  slender  spines  as  long  as  the  joint, 
three  of  which,  though  mutilated,  are  seen  in 
the  specimen.     But  something  of  this  kind 
is  observed  under  Neuropters  in  the  Mantis- 
pids.    It  is  quite  probable  that  these  anterior 
Fig.  574.          legs  were  prehensile,  as  in  Mantispa,  and  the 
fact  that  the  tibia  and  tarsus  are  not  in  sight  in  the  specimen, 
favors  this  conclusion.  .  .  .  There  appears  to  have  been  a  pair 
of  short  obtuse  appendages  at  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen, 

much  as  in  Phyllium.  The 
head  is  mostly  obliterated." 
Mr.  S.  H.  Scudder  in  the 
"Memoirs  of  the  Boston  So- 
ciety of  Natural  History"  for 
1867,  shows  that  the  vena- 
tion of  this  genus  recalls  fea- 
tures of  several  other  Keu- 
ropterous  families,  such  as  the 
Termitidce,  the  Hemero- 
bidce  and  Sialidce. 

Mr.  Scudder,  wrho  has  given 
a  restoration  of  this  remark- 
able insect,  states  that  the 
head  is  somewhat  like  that  of 
Perla,  being  oval,  depressed,  with  long  oval  lateral  eyes. 
These  two  authors  disagree  as  to  the  "fore  legs"  (Dana),  Mr. 
Scudder  calling  the  parts  so  designated  by  Professor  Dana, 
the  head.  Gerstaecker  states  his  opinion  that  Miamia  is 
"without  doubt  a  Perlarian." 


-  575- 


EPHEMERIDJE.  593 

Mr.  Scudder  has  more  recently  described  in  the  "Palaeon- 
tology of  the  Illinois  Geological  Survey,"  iii,  p.  566,  two  other 
forms  of  this  group.  He  remarks,  "the  two  specimens  before 
me,  with  wings  better  preserved  than  in  the  individual  of  Mia- 
mia  Bronsoni,  prove  that  my  delineation  of  the  conjectural 
parts  of  the  wing  structure  of  the  Palcvopterina  was  in  part 
erroneous,  and  give  evidence  of  a  closer  relationship  of  the 
Palaeopterina  to  the  ancient  Termitina  than  I  had  supposed 
possible."  A  second  species  of  Miamia  from  Morris,  Illinois, 
he  calls  M.  Dance  (Fig.  574 ;  all  the  specimens  occurred  in 
balls  of  iron  stone).  It  is  four- fifths  smaller  than  M.  Bron- 
soni. He  also  remarks,  "the  other  fossil  which  I  would  refer 
to  the  Palceopterina  is  Chrestotes  lapidea  (Fig.  575).  The 
genus  differs  from  Miamia  in  the  shortness  and  rotundity  of 
the  wings,"  and  in  the  venation,  some  points  of  which  remind 
him  of  the  Blattarice. 

EPHEMERID.E  Leach.  The  May-flies,  or  Ephemerids,  as 
their  name  implies,  are,  when  fully  grown,  very  short-lived 
insects,  the  adult  living  but  a  few  hours.  The  body  is  slender 
and  weak,  being  very  long  ;  the  prothorax  is  of  moderate  size  ; 
the  antennae  are  subulate,  or  awl-like,  being  very  small,  as  in 
the  Libellulidce,  while  the  parts  of  the  mouth  are  rudimen- 
tary, the  insect  taking  no  food  in  the  adult  or  imago  state. 
The  wings  are  very  unequal  in  size,  the  hinder  pair  being  much 
smaller,  or  in  some  instances  (Cloe  and  Caenis)  entirely 
aborted  ;  the  transverse  veins  are  either  few  or  numerous  ;  the 
tarsi  are  four  or  five-jointed,  and  appended  to  the  long,  slender 
abdomen  are  two  or  three  long  caudal  filaments. 

The  sexes  unite  while  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  water,  and 
after  a  short  union  the  female  drops  in  the  water  her  eggs  "in 
two  long,  cylindrical  yellow  masses,  each  consisting  of  numer- 
ous minute  eggs."  Walsh  states  that  he  possesses  a  "sub- 
imago  of  Palingenia  bilineata,  which  oviposited  in  that 
state."  The  larvae  live  in  running  water  and  prey  on  small 
aquatic  insects,  the  body  being  long  and  flat,  with  long  hair- 
like  antennae,  and  small  eyes  situated  on  the  side  of  the  head, 
the  ocelli  not  usually  being  present,  and  long  sickle-shaped 
jaws,  while  along  each  side  of  the  abdomen  are  leaf-like  or 
38 


594  NEUROPTERA. 

bushy  false  gills,  and  the  body  ends  in  long  feathered  anal 
hairs.  They  live,  it  is  stated,  two  or  three  years,  and  reside 
in  burrows  in  the  mud,  under  stones,  or  among  grass  and 
weeds,  where  they  may  be  taken  with  the  water-net  in  great 
abundance,  and  are  beautiful  objects  for  the  aquarium.  Lub- 
bock  states  that  Chloeon  passes  through  twenty-one  moultings 
of  the  skin  before  it  assumes  the  imago  state ;  the  pupae  are 
active  and  have,  as  a  general  rule,  the  rudiments  of  wings. 
After  leaving  the  pupa  skin  the  insect  (subimago),  when  its 
wings  are  expanded,  takes  a  short  flight,  and  then  casts  an- 
other skin  before  reaching  the  final  imago  state.  They  often 
fly  in  immense  numbers,  and  become  stranded  in  winrows 
along  the  borders  of  lakes.  The  perfect  insects  should  be 
preserved  in  alcohol  for  study,  as  they  shrivel  up  when  pinned. 
They  should  be  described  when  alive  if  possible. 

The  genus  Ephemera  of  Linnaeus  has  three  long  and  equal 
caudal  setae ;  the  fore  wings  are  present,  with  very  numerous 
transverse  veins,  while  the  eyes  are  remote,  and  in  the  males 
simple.  Ephemera  decora  Walker  is  luteous,  with  the  end  of 
the  antennae  black  and  a  reddish  band  on  the  side  of  the  body. 

The  remains  of  a  gigantic  form  described  by  Mr.  Scudder 
under  the  name  of  Platephemera  antiqua  (Plate  1,  fig.  3)  has 
been  discovered  by  Mr.  C.  F.  Hartt  in  the  Devonian  formation 
of  New  Brunswick.  Another  fossil  wing,  Haplophlebium 
Barnesii  (Plate  1,  fig.  8),  accompanying  the  preceding,  has 
been  doubtfully  referred  to  the  May-flies  by  Mr.  Scudder.  It 
indicates  a  very  large  species.  Mr.  Scudder  also  figures,  in 
the  Palaeontology  of  the  Illinois  Geological  Survey,  certain  fos- 
sils from  lower  Carboniferous  strata,  which  "appear  to  be  the 
wings  of  insects,  and,  being  probably  more  nearly  allied  (p. 
571)  to  the  Ephemeridce  than  to  other  Neuroptera,  should 
be  grouped  under  the  generic  name  Ephemerites." 

In  Palingenia  there  are  three  caudal  setae,  the  middle  one 
being  short,  and  sometimes  almost  absent  in  the  males.  There 
are  four  wings  with  very  numerous  transverse  veins,  and  the 
eyes  are  remote  and  simple.  P.  bilineata  Say  is  a  common 
species  and  one  of  the  largest  of  the  family  ;  it  is  found  floating 
on  the  surface  of  lakes.  It  is  greenish  yellow,  with  a  reddish 
stripe  on  the  side  of  the  prothorax.  The  genus  Baetis  has  but 


EPHEMERID^E. 


595 


two  abdominal  setae,  while  the  four  wings  are  provided  with 
numerous  cross-veins.  The  eyes  are  simple,  and  in  the  males 
of  large  size  and  placed  very  near  each  other.  Baetis  inter- 
punctata  Say  is  a  yellowish  white  species  tinged  with  green, 
with  an  arcuate  black  line  on  the  front,  and  a  lateral  black 
point,  while  the  prothorax  has  one  black  stripe  on  the  side. 

The  singular  genus  Bcetisca  is  very  thick-bodied,  and  differs 
from  the  other  Ephemerids  in  the  fifth  abdominal  joints  being 
twice  as  long  as  any  of  the  others. 
The  pupa  (Fig.  576,  i ;  a,  lateral 
tooth ;  u,  antenna ;  in,  section  of 
the  abdomen,  the  numerals  indicat- 
ing the  segments ;  a,  branchiae, 
above  which  is  a  flap,  b)  "differs," 
according  to  Wtflsh,  *  *  from  all  de- 
scribed Ephemerinous  pupae  in  the 
antennae  being  eight-jointed  or  there- 
abouts, not  multiarticulate,  and  also 
in  the  branchiae  being  internal  and 
not  used  for  locomotive  purposes, 
and  from  all  larvae  and  pupae,  and  indeed  from  all  known 
hexapbd  insects  in  any  of  their  states,  in  the  pro-,  meso-  and 
metanotum  being  connate  and  confluent,  and  extending  over 
one-half  of  the  abdomen  in  the  form  of  a  large,  dilated,  convex 
carapace,  or  shield,  thus  giving  the  in- 
sect a  very  Crustacean  appearance." 
The  larva,  early  in  its  life,  has  rudi- 
mentary wings,  as  in  many  grasshoppers, 
but  in  the  pupa  state  they  are  not 
present. 

Near  Baetis  comes  Potamanthus,  which 
has  three  caudal  setae  and  four  wings 
provided  with  numerous  cross- veins  ;  the 
eyes  in  the  males  are  double,  large  and  Fis-  577- 

approximate.  The  Potamanthus  cupidus  of  Say  is  black,  with 
a  broad  dorsal  stripe  and  a  lateral  impressed  line  on  each  side 
Of  the  thorax.  P.  marginatus  Zetterstedt  (Fig.  577),  a  boreal 
European  species,  we  have  found  in  abundance  in  Labrador  fly- 
ing over  pools  in  July. 


Fig.  576. 


596  NEUROPTERA. 

In  CloZ  there  are  but  two  caudal  setae,  and  though  there  are 
usually  four  wings,  yet  the  hinder  pair  are  sometimes  wanting, 
and  there  are  few  transverse  veins.  The  eyes  in  the  males 
are  double,  large  and  approximate.  Cloe  pygmcea  Hagen  is 

brownish  gray,  with  the  feet  and 
setae  white,  and  the  wings  hya- 
line. It  is  a  Canadian  species. 
Ccenis  differs  in  having  three 
caudal  setae,  with  no  hind  wings 
developed,  and  few  cross-veins, 
and  the  eyes  in  the  males  are 
very  simple  and  remote.  Ccenis 
hilaris  Say  is  small  and  whitish, 
with  black  eyes,  and  the  thorax  is 
pale  fulvous,  with  short  obscure 
Fig.  578.  lines  beneath  and  on  the  sides. 
Hagen  states  that  the  most  abnormal  Ephemerid  is  Oligoneu- 
na,  distinguished  by  the  abortive  condition  of  the  legs,  the 
large  size  of  the  longitudinal  veins  of  the  wings,  the  rarity  of 
the  transverse  veinlets,  and  by  a  long  bristle-like  appendage 
at  the  base  of  the  fore  wing.  A  closely  allied  genus  has  been 
described  by  Dr.  Hagen  under  the  name  Lachlania.  It  has 
two  caudal  filaments,  where  Oligoneuria  has  three,  and  there 
are  three  strong  transverse  veins  in  the  fore  wings.  L.  abnor- 
mis  Hagen  (Fig.  578,  enlarged)  is  a  Cuban  species. 

Mr.  Scudder  regards  as  the  type  of  a  distinct  family,  which 
he  calls  the  Hemeristina,  a  single  form,  the  Hemeristia 
occidentalis  of  Dana,  which  occurred  with  Miarnia  Bronsoni  in 
the  Lower  Carboniferous  rocks  of  Illinois.  Mr.  Scudder  de- 
fines this  family  as  consisting  of  "Neuroptera  of  large  size. 
The  prothorax  is  quadrangular,  narrower  than  the  meso-  and 
metathorax,  though  not  proportionally  so  much  so  as  in  the 
Palceopterina;  the  femora  (probably  the  front  pair)  are  as 
in  the  Palceopterina,  but  proportionally  broader.  Wings 
large,  long,  about  twice  as  broad  beyond  the  middle  as  near 
the  base,  the  costal  border  convex  in  its  outer  half,  with  nu- 
merous and  prominent  cross-veins  but  no  reticulations ;  when 
at  rest,  overlapping  quite  completely,  even  close  to  the  base, 


LIBELLULHXE.  597 

much  as  in  the  Perlarice,  and  probably  with  the  sides  pro- 
tected near  the  base  by  the  deflected  marginal  and  scapular 
(subcostal)  areas."  Scudder  shows  that  while  the  venation  is 
much  the  same  as  in  Hemerobius,  as  stated  by  Professor  Dana, 
it  also  resembles  that  of  the  Sialidm  and  Ephemertdce  and 
Libellulidce.  Gerstaecker  thinks  that  Hemeristia  "at  least 
stands  nearer  to  the  Epliemeridce  than  to  any  other  family." 
(Bronn's  Klassen  und  Ordnungen  des  Thier-Reichs,  vol.  v.) 

LIBELLULIDCE  Latreille.  Dragon-flies,  Devil' s-darning-nee- 
dles,  or  Mosquito  Hawks,  are  readily  known  by  the  enormous 
head  and  thorax,  with  the  remarkably  long,  slender,  cylindrical 
abdomen.  The  head  is  large  and  globular,  with  immense  eyes 
often  encircling  the  head.  The  large  square  thorax  is  remark- 


able  for  the  small  size  of  the  tergal  parts,  while  the  pieces 
composing  the  flanks  are  greatly  enlarged,  rising  up  especially 
in  front,  taking  the  place  of  the  prothorax,  which  is  usually 
very  large  in  the  Neuroptera  generally,  but  is  in  this  family 
greatly  aborted,  as  these  insects  scarcely  ever  walk.  As  in 
the  Ephemeridce  the  antennae  are  short  and  setiform,  and 
the  mouth  is  not  furnished  with  palpi.  The  wings  *  are  large, 

*  FIG.  579.  Venation  of  a  fore  wing  of  Gomphus.  Veins.  — a,  a,  costal  vein;  b, 
subcostal  vein ;  c,  c,  median  vein ;  d,  submedian  vein ;  e,  postcostal  vein.  Sectors  — 
(branches  springing  from  areas,  veins,  cross-veins,  or  other  sectors).  Jf/,  princi- 
pal sector;  g,  nodal  sector;  h,  subnodal  sector;  k,  median  sector;  mm,  short  sec- 
tor; n,  upper  sector  of  the  triangle  (normally  a  prolongation  of  d);  o,  lower 
sector  of  the  triangle  (normally  a  prolongation  of  e);  o',  o",  its  branches.  (The 
figure  gives  an  angle  where  o'  bifurcates  from  o,  which  should  have  been  a  flow- 
ing curve.  Both  n  and  o  should  have  been  engraved  as  springing  from  the  lower 
angle  of  the  triangle,  t.")  Cross-reins. — p,  nodus;  q,  arc  or  arculus;  rrr,  -  -  -  ant^- 
cubitals.  (The  basal  antecubital  is  wrongly  engraved  as  dislocated  with  that  of 


598  NEUROPTERA. 

densely  reticulated,  very  equal  in  size,  and  in  some  cases  the 
hind  wings  are  a  little  larger  than  the  fore  wings.  The  tarsi 
are  three-jointed,  and  the  second  abdominal  segment  of  the 
males  is  furnished  with  accessory  genital  organs. 

4 '  Landois  notices  a  peculiar  sound-producing  organ  in  this 
family,  and  figures  that  of  .ZEschna  juncea.  It  is  situated  in 
the  prothoracic  stigmata,  which  are  placed  quite  at  the  front 
of  the  thorax,  and  concealed  by  the  head.  These  stigmata  are 
large  elongated  slits,  one  margin  of  which  is  simple,  whilst 
the  other  bears  a  sort  of  chitinous  comb  of  about  twenty  teeth, 
between  which  an  exceedingly  delicate  membrane  is  extended. 
The  metathoracic  stigmata,  which  in  general  are  the  chief  or- 
gans of  sound  in  this  part  of  the  body,  are  smaller,  and  bear 
on  one  side  a  semilunar  valve  with  stiff  hairs."  (Giinther's 
Zoological  Record  for  1867.) 

"During  the  pairing  of  the  sexes,  which  takes  place  during 
flight,  the  male  seizes  the  neck  of  the  female  with  his  anal 
claspers ;  the  female  then  curves  the  end  of  its  abdomen  to 
the  second  abdominal  ring  of  the  male,  which  has  a  swollen 
expansion  of  the  under  surface,  containing  in  a  longitudinal 
cleft  the  intromittent  organ,  which  conveys  the  seminal  fluid 
from  the  bladder-like  cavity  into  the  body  of  the  female.  But 
since  the  outlet  of  the  testicle  opens  on  the  ninth  segment 
of  the  abdomen,  the  males  previous  to  union  with  the  other 
sex,  must  fill  the  copulating  sac  with  the  seminal  fluid,  by 
curving  its  abdomen  upon  itself.  After  the  union  has  been 
effected  the  females  generally  let  go  of  the  males.  In  many 

the  second  or  subcostal  series);  sss, postcubitals.    Areas  and  Angles.  —  t,  the 

triangle  (discoidal) ;  u,  internal  triangle ;  V,  anal  triangle ;  W,  basal  area  (or  space) ; 
xx,  median  area  (or  space);  y,  membranule ;  z,  anal  angle  in  the  male,  the  dotted 
line  z'  showing  the  form  of  the  anal  corner  of  the  wing  in  the  female  Gomphu;. 
(The  angle  z  ought  to  have  been  engi-aved  as  much  more  acute  and  salient.)  A  A, 
discoidal  areolets  (in  the  figure  two  ranges  of  them  commencing  with  three). 
B,  pterostigma;  C,  its  basal  (or  internal)  side  prolonged  in  the  normal  manner;  D, 
"  quadrangle,"  "  quadrilateral,"  or  "  area  above  the  triangle,"  bounded  above  by 
m,  below  by  d,  basally  by  g,  and  terminally  by  an  unnamed  cross-vein;  EEE, 
postcostal  area  (or  space). 

Of  the  above  pterological  parts,  q  and  its  sectors,  r,  s,  t,  W,  y,  B,  and  in  the 
Calopterygina  and  Agrionina  "the  quadrilateral"  (D),  and  "  the  postcostal  area" 
(E),  are  the  most  important  in  classification.  —  From  Hagen  with  modifications  by 
Walsh.  Following  the  nomenclature  adopted  in  this  work,  aa  would  indicate 
the  marginal  vein;  b,  the  costal;  c,  the  subcostal;  d,  probably  the  median,  and  e, 
the  submedian  vein. 


LIBELLULIM:.  599 

species  of  Libellula,  however,  during  oviposition,  the  male 
retains  his  hold  on  the  neck  of  the  female,  and  both  fly  over 
the  surface  of  standing  water,  the  female  touching  the  surface 
of  the  pool  with  the  tip  of  her  abdomen,  and  letting  the  eggs 
fall  into  the  water. 

"In  some  genera  (Libellula,  Agrion)  the  two  sexes  of  a  spe- 
cies differ  greatly  in  color,  the  males  having  bright  variegated 
colors,  while  the  females  are  dusky,  being  more  of  one  color. 
The  males  of  many  species  have,  on  the  abdomen,  several  days 
after  exclusion  from  the  pupa  case,  a  bluish  powdery  exuda- 
tion. The  genus  Calopteryx  and  allies  differ  sexually  in  the 
color  of  the  wings."  (Gerstaecker.) 

"Brauer  indicates  the  occurrence  of  dimorphism  in  the  fe- 
males of  some  species  of  the  genus  Neurothemis,  some  of 
them  having  the  wings  very  richly  veined,  as  in  the  males, 
whilst  others  have  widely  netted  veins  like  those  of  the  ordi- 
nary Libellulae."  (Gimther's  Zoological  Record  for  1867.) 

During  July  and  August  the  various  species  of  Libellula  and 
its  allies  most  abound.  The  eggs  are  attached  loosely  in 
bunches  to  the  stems  of  rushes  and  other  water-plants.  In 
laying  them,  the  dragon-fly,  according  to  Mr.  P.  R.  Uhler's 
observations,  "alights  upon  water-plants,  and,  pushing  the 
end  of  her  body  below  the  surface  of  the  water,  glues  a  bunch 
of  eggs  to  the  submerged  stern  or  leaf.  Libellula  auripennis 
I  have  often  seen  laying  eggs,  and  I  think  I  was  not  deceived 
in  my  observation  that  she  dropped  a  bunch  of  eggs  into  the 
open  ditch  while  balancing  herself  just  a  little  way  above  the 
surface  of  the  water.  I  have  also  seen  her  settled  upon 
the  reeds  in  brackish  water  with  her  abdomen  submerged  in 
part,  and  there  attaching  a  cluster  of  eggs.  I  feel  pretty  sure 
that  L.  auripennis  does  not  always  deposit  the  whole  of  her 
eggs  at  one  time,  as  I  have  seen  her  attach  a  cluster  of  not 
more  than  a  dozen  small  yellow  eggs.  There  must  be  more 
than  one  hundred  eggs  in  one  of  the  large  bunches.  The  eggs 
of  some  of  the  Agrions  are  bright  apple-green,  but  I  cannot 
be  sure  that  I  have  ever  seen  them  in  the  very  act  of  oviposi- 
tion. They  have  curious  habits  of  settling  upon  leaves  and 
grass  growing  in  the  water,  and  often  allow  their  abdomens  to 
fall  below  the  surface  of  the  water.  Sometimes  they  fly  against 


600 


NEUROPTERA. 


the  surface,  but  I  never  saw  what  I  could  assert  to  be  the  pro- 
jecting of  the  eggs  from  the  body  upon  plants  or  into  the 
water.  The  English  entomologists  assert  that  the  female 
Agrion  goes  below  the  surface  to  a  depth  of  several  inches  to 
deposit  eggs  upon  the  submerged  stems  of  plants."  The 
Agrions,  however,  according  to  Lacaze-Duthiers,  a 
French  anatomist,  make  with  the  ovipositor  a  little 
notch  in  the  plant  upon  which  they  lay  their  eggs. 

These  eggs  hatch  during  the  middle  of  the  sum- 
mer, and  the  young  larva  (Fig.  62)  when  first  hatched 
differs  from  the  more  mature  larva  (Fig.  580),  in  not 
Fig.  580.  Caving  the  rudiments  of  wings,  and  in  the  long, 
spider-like  legs.  The  larva  is  very  active  in  its  habits,  being 
provided  with  six  legs  attached  to  the  thorax,  on  the  back  of 
which,  after  the  first  one  or  two  moults,  are  the  little  wing- 
pads,  or  rudimentary  wings.  The  large  head  is  provided 

with  enormous  eyes,  while  a  pair  of 
simple,  minute  eyelets  (ocelli)  are 
placed  near  the  origin  of  the  small 
bristle-like  feelers,  or  antennae. 
Seen  from  beneath,  instead  of  the 
formidable  array  of  jaws  and  ac- 
cessory organs  commonly  observed 
in  most  carnivorous  larvae,  we  see 
nothing  but  a  broad,  smooth  mask 
covering  the  lower  part  of  the  face, 
but  when  some  unwary  insect  comes 
within  striking  distance  the  battery 
of  jaws  is  unmasked,  and  opens 
upon  the  victim.  This  mask  (Fig. 
581,  under  side  of  head  of  a  dragon- 
fly larva,  with  the  labium  fully  ex- 
tended ;  a?,  a?',  a",  the  three  subdivi- 
sions ;  y\  maxillae.  For  other  details 
of  the  head  of  the  larva  of  Diplax, 
see  p.  60)  is  peculiar  to  the  young, 
or  larva  and  pupa,  of  the  dragon-fly.  It  is  the  labium,  or  under 
lip  greatly  enlarged,  and  armed  at  the  broad  spoon-shaped 
extremity  (x)  with  two  sharp  hooks,  adapted  for  seizing  and 


581. 


LIBELLULUXE. 


601 


retaining  its  prey.  At  rest,  the  terminal  half  is  so  bent  up 
as  to  conceal  the  face,  and  thus  the  creature  crawls  about,  to 
all  appearance,  the  most  innocent  and  harmless  of  insects. 

Not  only  does  the  immature  dragon-fly  walk  over  the  bottom 
of  the  pool  or  stream  it  inhabits  but  it  can  also  leap  for  a  con- 
siderable distance,  and  by  a  most  curious  con- 
trivance. By  a  syringe- like  apparatus  lodged 
in  the  end  of  the  body,  it  discharges  a  stream 
of  water  for  a  distance  of  two  or  three  inches 
behind  it,  thus  propelling  the  insect  forwards. 
This  apparatus  combines  the  functions  of  loco- 
motion and  respiration.  There  are,  as  usual, 
two  breathing  pores  (stigmata)  on  each  side  of  Fis-  582- 
the  thorax.  But  the  process  of  breathing  seems  to  be  mostly 
carried  on  in  the  tail.  The  tracheae  are  here 
collected  in  a  large  mass,  sending  their 
branches  into  folds  of  membrane  lining  the 
end  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  which  act  like 
a  piston  to  force  out  the  water.  The  entrance 
to  the  canal  is  protected  by  three  to  five  tri- 
angular horny  valves  (Fig.  582,  9,  10  ;  Fig. 
583,  side  view),  which  open  and  shut  at  will.  When  open 
the  water  flows  in,  bathing  the  internal  gill-like  organs  which 
extract  the  air  from  the  water.  This  is  then 
suddenly  expelled  by  a  strong  muscular  effort. 

In  the  smaller  genera,  Agrion  (Fig.  584,  side 
view  of  false-gill,  showing  but  one  leaf),  Lestes 
and  Ccdopteryx,  the  respiratory  leaves,  called  the 
tracheary,  or  false-gills,  are  not  enclosed  within 
the  body,  but  form  three  broad  leaves,  permeated 
by  tracheae,  or  air-vessels.  They  are  not  true 
gills,  however,  as  the  blood  is  not  aerated  in 
them.  They  only  absorb  air  to  supply  the  tra- 
cheae, which  aerate  the  blood  only  within  the 
general  cavity  of  the  body.  These  false  gills  also 
act  as  rudders  to  aid  the  insect  in  swimming. 

It  is  easy  to  watch  the  dragon-flies  through  their 
transformations,  as  they  can   easily  be   kept  in       Fis-  584- 
aquaria.      Little,   almost  nothing,  is  known   regarding   their 


Fig.  583. 


602 


NEUROPTERA. 


habits,  and  any  one  who  can  spend  the  necessary  time  and 
patience  in  rearing  them,  so  as  to  trace  up  the  different  stages 
from  the  larva  to  the  adult  fly,  and  describe  and  figure  them 
accurately,  will  do  good  service  to  science.  Mr.  Uhler  states 
that  we  know  but  little  of  the  young  stages  of  our  species, 
but  "the  larva  and  pupa  of  the  Libellulce  may  be  always  known 
from  those  of  the  ^Eschnce  by  their  shorter,  deeper,  and  more 
robust  form,  and  generally  by  their  thick  clothing  of  hair." 
The  pupa  (Fig.  585,  pupa  probably  either  of  ^Eschna  con- 
stricta  or  JE.  clepsydra)  scarcely  differs  from  the  larva,  except 
in  having  larger  wing-pads.  It  is  still  active,  and  preys  on 
other  insects.  When  the  insect  is  about  to  assume  the  pupa 
state  the  body,  having  outgrown  the  larva 
skin,  by  a  strong  muscular  effort  opens  a 
rent  along  the  back  of  the  thorax,  and 
the  insect  having  fastened  its  claws  into 
some  object  at  the  bottom  of  the  pool, 
the  pupa  gradually  works  its  way  out  of 
the  larva  skin.  It  is  now  considerably 
larger  than  before.  Immediately  after 
this  tedious  operation  its  body  is  soft, 
but  the  crust  soon  hardens.  This  change, 
with  most  species,  probably  occurs  early 
in  summer. 

When  about  to  change  into  the  adult 
fly  the  pupa  climbs  up  some  plant  near 
Fig.  585.  t^  surface  of  the  water.     Again  its  back 

yawns'  wide  open,  and  from  the  rent  our  dragon-fly  slowly 
emerges.  For  an  hour  or  more  it  remains  torpid  and  listless, 
with  its  flabby,  soft  wings  remaining  motionless.  The  fluids 
leave  the  surface,  the  crust  hardens  and  dries,  rich  and  varied 
tints  appear,  and  the  dragon-fly  rises  into  its  new  world  of 
light  and  sunshine. 

In  Agrion  and  its  allies  (Agrionina)  the  antennae  are  four- 
jointed,  the  eyes  are  small  compared  with  those  of  Libellula, 
and  distinct ;  the  wings  are  equal,  while  the  abdomen  is  cylin- 
drical and  long  and  slender.  In  Calopteryx  the  wings  are 
very  broad  and  densely  reticulated  ;  the  pterostigma  is  absent 
in  the  males,  that  of  the  females  irregular  and  areolate  ;  the 


,  LIBELLULID^E.  603 

basal  space  has  no  transverse  veins,  and  the  male  appendages 
are  forcipate.  (Hagen.)  Calopteryx  apicalis  Burm.  is  shining 
brassy  green,  with  long  black  feet. 

In  Lestes  there  are  two  antecubital  transverse  venules ;  the 
fourth  apical  sector  is  broken  ;  the  postcostal  space  is  simple  ; 
and  the  quadrangular  space  is  trapezoidal, 
with  the  exterior  inferior  angle  acute ; 
the  pterostigma  is  large,  oblong,  and  the 
appendages  in  the  male  are  forcipated. 
Lestes  eurina  Say  is  blue,  varied  with 
green  and  violet.  The  beautiful  genus 
Agrion  has  the  apical  sector  straight,  the 
postcostal  space  simple,  the  quadrangular 
space  trapezoidal,  with  the  exterior  inferior  angle  acute ;  the 
pterostigma  small,  rhomboidal,  while  the  male  abdominal  ap- 
pendages are  short.  Agrion  civile  Hagen  is  brassy-black, 
varied  with  blue  or  green,  with  a  hairy  head  and  thorax.  A. 
saucium  Burm.  (Fig.  586)  is  red,  variegated  with  black,  and  is 
a  common  species. 

In  the  group  ^Eschnina  the  wings  are  unequal,  and  all  the 
triangles  of  the  wing  are  of  the  same  form.  In  Gomphus  and 
its  allies  the 
wings  are  un- 
equal,  the 
hinder  ones  be- 
ing broader, 
and  the  trian- 
gles of  both 
pairs  of  wings 
have  no  trans- 
verse veins. 
Gomphus  fra- 
ternus  Say  is 
yellow  spotted  Fis-  587- 

with  black,  with  black  feet.  The  genus  Anax  differs  in  the 
anal  angle  of  the  posterior  wings  being  rounded  in  the  male, 
and  the  abdomen  has  a  lateral  interrupted  ridge.  Anax  Junius 
Drury  is  a  large  and  widely  spread  species ;  it  is  green,  spot- 
ted with  blue  and  fuscous,  with  a  yellow  head.  ^Eschna  differs 


604 


NEUROPTERA. 


in  having  the  anal  angle  of  the  posterior  •  wings  of  the  male 
acute.  ^Eschna  heros  Fabr.  is  one  of  our  largest  and  most 
abundant  dragon-flies.  It  is  fuscous,  marked  with  yellowish 
green,  and  with  two  oblique  green  stripes  on  the  side  of  the 
thorax. 

In  the  third  group  of  this. immense  family,  the  Libellulina, 
the  wings  are  unequal,  and  the  triangle  of  the  anterior  wings 


Fig.  588. 

is  dissimilar,  while  the  anterior  genital  hamule  of  the  male  is 
free.  In  Cordulia  the  anal  angle  of  the  posterior  wings  of  the 
male  is  acute,  and  the  body  is  brassy  green.  C.  tenebrosa  Say 

is    found    in    the    Western 
States. 

The  genus  Libellula  is 
characterized  by  the  short, 
rather  flattened  abdomen, 
narrowing  rapidly  towards 
the  tip,  and  the  male  clasp- 
ing organs  are  scarcely  visi- 
ble. Libellula  trimaculata 
DeGeer  (Fig.  587,  male)  is 
so  called  from  the  three 

dark  clouds  on  the  wings  of  the  female.  The  male  differs  in 
having  a  dark  patch  at  the  front  edge  of  the  wings,  and  a  sin- 
gle broad  cloud  just  beyond  the  middle  of  the  wing.  Libel- 


SIALID^E. 


605 


Fis- 


lula  quadrimaculata  Linn.  (Fig.  588)  is  reddish  yellow,  with 
four  dark  clouds  on  the  wings  which  are  yellow  anteriorly  on 
the  base.  In  Diplax  the  abdomen  is  a  little  shorter  than  the 
wings,  and  is  slender, 
flattened,  compressed  at 
the  base,  while  the  feet 
are  long  and  slender. 
Diplax  rubicundula  Fabr. 
is  a  very  abundant  spe- 
cies, being  yellowish  red. 
Diplax  Berenice  Drury 
(Fig.  589,  male;  fig.  590, 
female)  is  black,  with  the 
head  blue  in  front,  spotted  with  yellow,  while  the  thorax  and 
abdomen  are  striped  with  yellow.  There  are  fewer  stripes  on 
the  body  of  the  male.  D.  Elisa  Hagen  (Fig.  591)  is  black, 

with  the  head  yellowish  and 
with  greenish  yellow  spots 
on  the  sides  of  the  thorax 
and  base  of  the  abdomen. 
The  Nannopliya  bella  of 
Uhler  (Fig.  592)  is  a  smaller 
form,  with  an  unusually 
short  abdomen,  and  the 
reticulations  of  the  wings 
are  large  and  simple.  It  is 
black,  while  the  male  is  frosted  over  with  a  whitish  powder. 

SIALID^E  Leach.  This  family  is  not  a  numerous  one,  but  the 
species  are  interesting  as  comprising  some  of  the  largest  of  in- 
sects. Hagen  defines  the  group  briefly 
as  having  the  body  short  and  thick, 
while  the  prothorax  is  large  and  square. 
The  antennae  are  long  and  setaceous ; 
the  wings  are  large,  reticulated,  the  pos- 
terior ones  with  the  anal  .space  plicated, 
and  the  tarsi  are  five-jointed.  Fis-  592- 

"The  female  of  Sialis,"  according  to  "Westwood,  "deposits 
an  immense  quantity  of  eggs,  which  she  attaches  one  by  one 


606  KEUROPTERA. 

to  rushes  or  other  aquatic  plants.  They  are  of  a  cylindrical 
form,  terminating  at  the  top  in  a  sudden  point ;  they  are  at- 
tached side  by  side  with  the  greatest  regularity."  The  larvae, 
as  in  those  of  Corydaltis,  are  broad  and  flattened,  with  a  pair 
of  long,  thick,  respiratory  filaments  attached  to  the  side  of 
each  ring  of  the  abdomen.  The  body  of  the  pupa  is  curved, 
with  the  wings  laid  along  the  breast,  much  as  in  the  Phry- 
ganeid  pupae.  The  larva  is  active  and  predaceous,  being 
armed  with  strong  jaws.  When  full-fed  it  leaves  the  pools  or 
streams  in  which  it  has  been  living  and  makes  an  earthern  cell 
in  the  bank,  in  which  the  inactive  pupa  undergoes  its  remain- 
ing transformations. 

In  Sialis  the  prothorax  is  large  and  square,  almost  equal  in 
size  to  the  head  ;  there  are  no  ocelli ;  the  antennae  are  filiform, 
and  the  wings  irregularly  net-veined,  the  veins  being  stout. 

The  fourth  joint  of  the  tarsi  is 

T^\   lifc      KM  jfaydt       dilated  and  twice  lobed.     The 
W¥  ^     ^JP^^r     a  *arva  i§  mucn  like  that  of  Cory- 
/*--  d,      p-  d     dalus,  but  differs  in  having  the 
abdomen     terminating     in     a 
Fig-  593'  ."long  and  slender  setose  tail." 

Sialis  infumata  Newman  (Fig.  593,  caudal  appendages  of  the 
male,  from  Walsh)  is  black,  with  the  head  not  narrower  be- 
hind, while  S.  Americana  Rambur  is  rust-red,  and  the  head  is 
narrower  behind.  The  wings  expand  about  an  inch. 

Chauliodes  is  a  much  larger  insect,  with  a  quadrangular  pro- 
thorax  nearly  as  large  as  the  head.  There  are  three  ocelli 
placed  close  together,  and  the  antennae  are  either  pectinated  or 
serrated.  The  wings  are  veiny,  the  transverse  veins  slender. 
The  joints  of  the  tarsi  are  cylindrical,  and  the  caudal  appen- 
dages of  the  male  are  conical  and  simple.  Walsh  describes  the 
larva  of  C.  rastricornis  Rambur  as  resembling  that  of  Cory- 
dalus,  but  being  much  smaller,  measuring  1.60  of  an  inch,  and 
the  abdomen  has  one  segment  less,  with  no  caudal  setae,  "so 
that  Chauliodes  forms  a  connecting  link  in  this  respect  between 
Corydalus  and  Sialis,  the  larva  of  which  is  said  to  have  'one 
long,  slender,  setose  tail/"  and  the  under  side  of  the  abdomen 
is  "entirely  destitute  of  the  remarkable  paddle-like  branchiae 
found  in  Corydalus."  The  pupa  resembles  that  of  Corydalus. 


SIALID2E. 


607 


Chauliodes  pectinicornis  Linn.,  our  most  common  species.,  is 
yellowish  ashen,  with  reddish  pectinated  antennae.  In  C.  ser- 
ricornis  Say  the  antennae  are  serrate.  In  Corydalus,  the  largest 
form  known,  the  pro- 
thorax  is  square  but 
narrower  than  the  head 
and  the  antennae  are 
stout  but  filiform.  The 
male  of  C.  cornutus 
Linn.  (Fig.  594,  fe- 
male ;  fig.  595,  male  ; 
fig. 596,  pupa;  fig.  597, 
larva),  has  very  long 
mandibles,  about  twice 
as  long  as  the  head, 
whence  its  specific 
name.  According  to 
the  Editors  of  the 
"  American  Entomol- 
ogist," the  eggs  of 
this  insect  (Fig.  598) 
are  "oval,  about  the 
size  of  a  radish  seed, 
and  of  a  pale  color, 
with  some  dark  mark- 
ings. They  are  usu- 
ally deposited  in  a 
squarish  mass  upon 
reeds  or  other  aquatic 
plants  overhanging  the 
water."  Hagen  does 
not  "  think  that  the 
lateral  filamentous  ap- 
pendages are  connect- 
ed with  respiration ; 
the  little  sponges  at  rig.  594. 

the  base  of  the  filaments  and  a  little  behind  them  are  the  true 
branchiae."  "The  reason  that  the  larva  of  Corydalus  has  both 
branchiae  and  spiracles  is,  that  it  lives,  like  Sialis,  some  weeks 
out  of  the  water  before  its  transformation."  (Hagen.) 


608 


NEUROPTERA. 


The  genus  Raphidia  is  not  aquatic  in  its  habits  as  it  is  found 
under  the  bark  of  trees  pursuing  small  insects.  The  adult  has 
a  long  neck  (prothorax),  which  is  much  narrower  than  the  head, 
and  the  antennae  are  short  and  filiform,  while  the  ovipositor  of 
the  female  is  long  and  ensiform,  probably  enabling  it  to  deposit 
its  eggs  in  the  chinks  in  the  bark.  The  larva  is  long  and 

slender;  before 
transforming  it 
makes  no  cocoon. 
At  first  the  pupa 
is  inactive,  but 
according  to  Mr. 
Waterhouse 
(Westwood's  In- 
troduction), it  be- 
comes active 
while  the  imago 
skin  is  develop- 
ing, and  walks 
about,  as  the  pu- 
pa skin  is  exceed- 
ingly thin.  The 
genus  is  only 
found  on  the  Pa- 
cific coast  of  this 
continent,  anoth- 
er proof  of  the 
analogy  of  the  in- 
sect fauna  of  the 
"Western  shores 
of  this  country 
to  that  of  Europe, 
where  this  genus 
also  abounds. 


Fig.  595. 


In  their  form  and  habits,  including  both  those  of  the  larva, 
and  of  the  partially  active  pupa,  which  wiggles  violently  and 
even  leaps,  as  the  larva  does,  as  stated  by  Percheron,  whom 
Mr.  Westwood  quotes  ( jouit  de  la  meme  faculte  de  contorsion  et 
de  sauts,  que  la  larve  execute  a  un  si  haut  degre),  have  we  not 
brought  forcibly  before  us  the  Thysanura? 


HEMEROBID^:. 


609 


HEMEKOBID^:  Leach.  The  Aphis  Lions  and  Lace-winged 
flies,  which  are  included  in  this  family,  have  long,  slender,  cy- 
lindrical bodies.  The  wings  are  large,  with  numerous  veins, 
the  posterior  ones  with  no  anal  space ;  the  ocelli  are  usually 
absent,  and  the  tarsi  are  five-jointed. 

The  larvae  vary  considerably  in  form,  but  are  usually  flat- 
tened or  short,  thick,  ovate  and  fleshy,  with  large  sickle-like 
mandibles  ;  "the  under  side  of  these  organs  is  deeply  grooved, 
and  the  maxillae,  which  are  nearly  equal  to 
them  in  size,  and  of  a  similar  form,  play  in 
this  groove."  (Westwood.)  With  these  they 
pierce  the  bodies  of  their  victims  and  suck 
out  their  juices.  The  sides  of  the  abdominal 
segments  are  fringed  and  have  lateral  tuber- 
cles bearing  a  thin  tuft  of  radiating  hairs. 

The  body  of  the  pupa  is  more  cylindrical, 
being  curved,  and  with  the  limbs  and  wings 
folded  to  the  breast.  The  larva  spins  a  silken 
cocoon,  and  the  pupa  is  inactive. 

In  Aleuronia  the  body  is  covered1  with  a 
whitish  powder ;  the  eyes  are  reniform,  and 
the  antennae  are  moniliform.  The  wings  are 
ciliated  ;  the  longitudinal  veins  are  few  in 
number,  while  the  transverse  ones  are  almost 
absent.  Aleuronia  Westwoodii  of  Fitch  is  a  Fi£-  596- 
very  small  insect,  being  black,  covered  with  a  whitish  pow- 
der, with  a  pale  abdomen  and  feet.  The  singular  genus 
Coniopteryx,  whose  larva  somewhat  resembles  a  Smynthurus, 
one  of  the  Thysanura,  showing  the  close  relationship  of 
these  aberrant  forms,  is  characterized  by  Hagen  as  being 
powdered  with  whitish  scales,  having  globose  eyes  and  monili- 
form antennae.  The  wings  are  not  ciliated,  the  longitudinal 
veins  are  few,  and  there  are  some  transverse  veins.  The  pos- 
terior wings  of  the  males  are  small.  Coniopteryx  vicina  Hagen 
is  black,  covered  with  grayish  powder,  and  the  wings  have 
eight  longitudinal  veins,  all  joined  together  by  a  single  trans- 
verse vein.  It  is  about  one-seventh  of  an  inch  in  length. 
Haliday  (in  Westwood' s  Introduction)  thinks  that  the  larva  of 
the  European  C.  tineiformis  preys  on  plant-lice.  When  about 


610 


ISTEUKOPTERA. 


to  transform  it  spins  an  "orbicular  pouch  of  fine  white  silk 
of  close  texture,  generally  on  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  in  chinks  of 
the  bark,  or  among  moss.  The  pupa  is  quiescent." 

The  singular  genus  Nemoptera  is  at  once  recognized  by  the 
remarkably  long,  narrow,  linear  hind  wings  which  reach  far 
beyond  the  abdomen.  The  larva  has  a  remarkably  long, 

almost  filiform  thorax,  and  was  de- 
scribed under  the  name  of  Necro- 
philus.  The  species  are  found  in 
Western  Asia  and  in  Northern 
Africa. 

The  genus  Hemerobius  has  mo- 
niliform  antennae,  the  wings  having 
the  subcostal  and  median  veins 
joined  together  at  the  apex,  and  the 
costal  space  of  the  anterior  wings 
is  broader  at  the  base,  with  a  re- 
current forked  vein  ;  the  transverse 
series  of  venules  are  gradate  (like 
a  pair  of  steps) .  We  have  found  in 
Maine  a  larva  (Fig.  599,  tergal  and 
side  view)  of  this  genus  on  the  bark 
of  a  birch  tree  in  October,  where  it 
was  seen  preying  on  Aphides,  and 
had  covered  its  abdomen  with  the 
empty  skins  of  its  victims,  forming 
a  thkk  mantle  as  seen  in  the  figure. 
Hemerobius  alternatus  Fitch  is  white 
or  yellowish,  varied  with  fuscous, 
with  tawny  hairs.  According  to 
Fig.  597.  Fitch  it  is  found  upon  pine  and 

hemlock  bushes.  H.  occidentalis  Fitch  has  hyaline  wings,  not 
mottled  as  usual  with  smoky  dots  or  clouds,  but  adorned  with 
two  faint  parallel  lines ;  it  expands  .38  of  an  inch.  I  have 
raised  specimens,  referred  -to  this  species  by  Dr.  Hagen, 
which  occurred  in  the  pupa  state  (Fig.  600),  in  considerable 
numbers  under  a  cloth  wrapped  around  a  pear  tree  in  a 
garden  in  Salem.  The  cocoon  is  oval,  cylindrical,  dense,  and 
surrounded  by  a  much  thinner  mass  of  silk  more  globular 


HEMEROBID^. 


611 


598- 


in  form.  The  partially  active  pupae  crawled  out  of  the  co- 
coons, and  were  found  scattered  about  in  the  paper  containing 
them. 

The  genus  Polystoechotes  is  of  much  larger  size  than  Heme- 
robius  or  Chrysopa,  and  Hagen  suggests  that  the  larva  is 
aquatic.  P.  punctatus  Fabr.  is  widely  distributed, 
flying  lazily  at  night-fall.  The  aberrant  genus  Man- 
tispa  is  a  most  interesting  form,  from  the  great  length 
of  the  prothorax,  which  with  other  characters  remind 
us  strikingly  of  the  Orthopterous  genus  Mantis.  The 
fore  legs  are,  like  those  of  Mantis,  adapted  for  seizing 
other  insects.  Mantispa  brunnea  Say  is  our  most 
common  species,  occurring  in  the  Middle  and  Western 
States  and  southwards  to  Central  America. 

Chrysopa  (Fig.  601,  eggs,  larva,  and  adult  of  C. 
perla  of  Europe),  the  Lace-winged 
Fly,  is  abundant  and  of  great  use,  as 
in  the  larva  state  it  preys  on  plant- 
lice.  Its  body  is  slender,  with  deli- 
cate  gauze  -like  wings,  and  is  generally  green, 
with  golden  eyes.  When  disturbed  it  often 
emits  a  foetid  odor.  Their  eggs,  supported  by 
long  pedicels,  are  often  laid  in  a  group  of 
Aphides  or  in  plants  infested  by  them.  When 
hatched  the  voracious  larva  finds  its  food 
ready  at  hand,  and  destroys  immense  numbers 
of  plant-lice,  whence  its  name,  Aphis-lion.  It 
turns  to  a  pupa  late  in  summer,  and  thus  passes  the  winter 
within  a  very  dense,  round,  whitish  cocoon  situated 
in  the  crevices  of  bark,  etc. 

In  Europe  gardeners  search  for  these  Aphis-lions 
and  place  them  on  fruit  trees  overrun  with  lice, 
which  they  soon  depopulate.     The  Chrysopa  ocu- 
lata  of  Say  (Fig.  602,  and  eggs)  is  our  most  abun- 
dant form.     It  gives  out  a  foul  smell  when  handled. 
By  this  genus  we  are  led  to  the  Ant-lion,  or  Myrme- 
leon.     It  is  a  larger  insect  than  any  of  the  fore-      Fig.  GOO. 
going  genera,  and  reminds  us  in  many  respects  of  the  dragon- 
flies.     The  antennae  are  short  and  stout,  clavate,  while  the  body 


Fig.  599. 


612 


NEUKOPTEKA. 


is  very  long  and  slender,  and  the  wings  are  long,  narrow  and 
densely  veined.  The  larva  (Fig.  603)  bears  a  close  resemblance 
to  that  of  Chrysopa.  It  makes  a  pitfall  in  fine  sand  at  the  bot- 
tom of  which  it  hides,  leaving  only  the  tips  of  its  mandibles  in 

sight,  which  are  extended 
and  ready  to  seize  any 
insect  which  may  fall 
into  them.  The  pupa  re- 
tains the  large  mandibles 
and  uses  them  in  cutting 
601-  its  way  out  of  its  cocoon. 

Myrmeleon  obsoletus  Say  (Fig.  604)  is  not  rare  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  country,  and  has  been  found  at  Salem,  Mass.,  by 
Dr.  E.  P.  Colby.  M.  abdominalis  Say  has  also  been  found  as 

far  north  as  Milton,  Mass.,  by 
Mr.  J.  Schoneld.     Mr.  R.  Tri- 
men,  speaking  of  the  Entomo- 
Fig.  602.  logy  of  Natal,  South   Africa 

(Entomological  Monthly  Magazine) ,  notes  the  habits 
of  a  "huge  Myrmeleon,  of  the  genus  Palpares,  the 
spotted  and  variegated  aspect  of  whose  wings  will 
cause  you  to  mistake  them  for  moths.  .  .  .  These 
great  insects  are  very  unlike  Libellulidce  in  their 
flight,  flapping  wildly  and  irregularly  about,  as  if  their  Fi°- 
muscular  apparatus  were  too  weak  to  wield  their  stretch  of 
wings.  In  repose  the  wings  are  folded  above  each  other  so  as 
to  form  an  acute-angled  roof  above  the  abdomen.  They  differ 
in  this  respect  from  the  long-horned  Ascalaplii,  which  deflect 

the  wings  on  either  side, 
and  hold  the  abdomen 
erect  or  nearly  so." 

Ascalaphus   with    its 
long    filiform    ^nobbed 
antennae,     and     broad 
wings  and  gay  colors  is 
Fis-  604.  the  butterfly  among  Neu- 

roptera.  It  flies  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  seeking  the  hottest 
places  and  is  abundant  in  the  deserts  of  the  East.  The  body 
and  feet  are  short  and  the  large  wings  are  less  densely  veined 


PANORPIDJE.  613 

than  in  Myrmeleon.  The  eggs  when  laid  are  hedged  around 
by^little  pales  like  a  fence  "and  are  so  placed  that  nothing  can 
approach  the  brood  ;  nor  can  the  young  ramble  abroad  till  they 
have  acquired  strength  to  resist  the  ants  and  other  insect  ene- 
mies. The  abdomen  of  the  larva  is  depressed  and  oval,  with 
ten  pectinations  on  each  side."  (Westwood.)  It  closely  re- 
sembles that  of  Myrmeleon.  McLachlan  states  that  the  eggs 
of  Ascalaphus  macaronius  were  observed  by  Kollar  deposited 
on  a  grass  stem.  Ascalaphus  hyalinus  Latr.  is  found  in  the 
Southern  States  and  Mexico. 

PANORPID^E  Leach.  This  family  is  interesting  as  affording 
a  passage  from  the  winged  Neuroptera  to  the  degraded  wing- 
less forms  which  are  often  excluded  from  the  suborder  by 
writers,  and  placed  apart  by  themselves  under  the  title  of 
Thysanura.  Hagen  thus  defines  the  group:  "body  cylindri- 
cal or  conical ;  head  exserted  ;  antennae  shorter  than  the  wings  ; 
mouth  rostrated  ;  lateral  palpi  biarticulated  ;  prothorax  small ; 
wings  either  almost  absent  or  narrow,  equal,  longer  than  the 
body,  narrowed  at  base ;  the  posterior  wings  with  no  anal 
space  ;  tarsi  of  five  joints." 

In  Panorpa,  the  Scorpion  Fly,  so  called  from  the  long  for- 
ceps-like tip  of  the  male  abdomen,  there  are  three  ocelli  and 
the  wings  are  narrow.  The  genital  organs  of  the  male  are 
greatly  lengthened  out,  and  are  forcipated,  with  the  last  seg- 
ment inflated  ;  the  two  tarsal  Hooks  are  serrated,  and  the  an- 
tennae are  bristle-like. 

Lacaze-Duthiers  selects  the  ovipositor  of  Panorpa  as  being 
an  intermediate  type,  as  regards  complexity,  between  Libellula 
and  J^schna.  "When  disturbed,  the  female  of  Panorpa  Ger- 
manica  or  communis,  darts  out  a  long  slender  tube  towards 
the  disturbing  object.  Soon  a  little  drop  of  a  whitish  liquid 
appears  at  its  extremity ;  it  is  a  means  of  defence.  While  at 
rest  the  conical  abdomen,  terminating  in  a  point,  appears  to 
be  composed  of  a  less  number  of  segments."  At  first  sight 
there  seems  to  be  but  two,  though  in  reality  there  are  three 
segments  between  the  oviduct  and  the  anal  outlet,  since  the 
ninth  ring  is  very  small  and  partly  aborted,  being  concealed 
beneath  the  others.  The  eleventh  segment  consists  of  five 


614  NEUROPTEKA. 

pieces,  a  tergite,  two  sternal  scales,  and  two  appendages  articu- 
lated to  the  tergal  piece.  *  . 

M.  Lacaze-Duthiers  does  not  extend  the  comparison  of  the 
ovipositor  of  Panorpa  to  those  of  Podura  and  Smynthnrus,  but 
we  can  see  how  easy  the  transition  is.  Only  let  the  long  flexi- 
ble ovipositor  of  Panorpa  be  permanently  extended,  which  in 
insects  usually  involves  its  being  bent  and  appressed  to  the 
under  side  of  the  abdomen,  and  with  a  few  other  slight  modifi- 
cations we  have  the  leaping  ovipositor  of  the  Podura  and  its 
allies ! 

The  larva  is  terrestrial,  as  Stein  has  found  the  pupa  buried  an 
inch  deep  in  moist  earth,  at  the  foot  of  an  alder  stump.  (West- 
wood.)  Brauer  states  that  the  larva  is  long,  cylindrical,  with 
long  filaments  arising  from  tubercles 
on  the  body.  In  its  general  appear- 
ance it  resembles  certain  caterpillars, 
and  also  Ph^ganeid  larvae.  P.  ru- 
fescens  Rambur  (Fig.  605,  enlarged) 
is  the  most  common  form  in  New 
England.  It  is  of  a  yellowish  red 
color,  with  the  antennae  black,  except  the  three  or  four  basal 
joints  which  are  reddish.  It  is  about  half  an  inch  long  and 
the  wings  expand  an  inch. 

The  Tipula-like  genus  Bittacus,  though  it  has  four  wings,  is, 
in  its  remarkably  slender  body  and  long  legs,  much  like  the 
Crane-flies.  There  are  seven  species  in  this  country,  one  of 
which,  B.  pilicornis  Westwood,  has  been  found  in  Canada  and 
New  York.  The  winter  insect,  Boreus,  is  wingless  in  the  fe- 
male sex,  and  in  its  habits  and  form  as  well  as  its  minute  size, 
reminds  us  strikingly  of  Podura  and  Lepisma,  though  the  re- 
semblance has  not  to  our  knowledge  been  specially  noticed  by 
entomologists.  In  this  genus  the  ocelli  are  absent,  and  the 
males  have  very  imperfect  style-like  wings,  while  the  females 
are  entirely  wingless.  "The  abdomen  of  the  female  is  termi- 
nated by  a  three-jointed  ovipositor,  the  under  side  of  which  is 
defended  by  a  produced  valve-like  bilobed  plate  arising  from 
the  under  side  of  the  seventh  segment.  The  male  has  the 
abdomen  terminated  by  two  short,  recurved,  attenuated,  pilose 
styles."  (Westwood.)  In  this  description  we  are  reminded  of 


PHRYGANEIDJE.  615 

the  Spring-tails  (Podura) ,  which  leap  by  means  of  the  long  ovi- 
positor, and  corresponding  male  organs,  bent  beneath  the  body. 

Dr.  Fitch  has  described  two  forms  of  these  winter  insects 
which,  like  Podura,  occur  in  moss  and  are  found  leaping  on  the 
snow,  Boreus  nivoriundus.  is  about  one-seventh  of  an  inch 
long,  and  is  reddish,  with  a  bronze  tinge,  while  B.  brumalis  is 
entirely  brassy-black,  and  is  a  still  smaller  species. 

We  must  not  pass  over  the  singular  genus  Merope,  which  is 
interesting  in  this  connection.  It  has  no  ocelli,  while  the 
compound  eyes  are  large,  reniform  and  united  on  the  top  of 
the  head.  The  antennae  are  short  and  thick,  narrowed  at  the 
apex,  while  the  wings  are  broad,  with  numerous  transverse 
veins,  and  the  male  abdomen  has  large  forceps.  The  Merope 
tuber  of  Newman  is  very  rare.  It  is  clay  yellow  (luteous),  and 
expands  nearly  an  inch.  Hagen  remarks  that  "the  genus  and 
species  are  very  singular  and  abnormal ;  perhaps  the  most  re- 
markable of  all  hitherto  known  Neuroptera.  It  certainly  be- 
longs to  the  Panorpina." 

PHRYGANEID^E  Latreille.  Some  of  the  members  of  this 
family  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  smaller  moths,  such 
as  the  Tineidce.  As  characterized  briefly  by  Dr.  Hagen, 
their  bodies  are  compressed,  cylindrical ;  the  head  is  free,  an- 
tennae long,  thread-like,  the  mouth  is  imperfectly  developed, 
and  the  labial  palpi  are  triarticulate.  The  prothorax  is  small ; 
the  wings  longer  than  the  body,  with  few  transverse  veins, 
while  the  posterior  wings  have  the  anal  space  large,  plicated 
(rarely  absent),  and  the  tarsi  are  five-jointed.  In  all  these 
characteristics,  together  with  the  cylindrical  form  of  the  larva, 
the  quiescent  pupa  which  is  very  much  like  that  of  a  moth  with 
its  wings  and  limbs  free,  instead  of  being  soldered  together, 
and  in  the  habits  of  the  larva,  which  in  some  genera  resemble 
those  of  the  Sialidce,  this  family  stands  above  the  Neurop- 
tera to  be  hereafter  mentioned,  and  in  a  serial  arrangement, 
such  as  we  are  forced  -to  make  in  our  books,  this  seems  to  us 
to  be  their  proper  place,  while  in  nature  they  appear  to  us  to 
stand  off  by  themselves  parallel  with  the  Si  all  dee  and 
HemerobidcB,  certain  genera  of  which,  in  the  imago  state 
(such  as  Coniopteryx) ,  they  closely  resemble,  while  they  seem 


616  NEUROPTERA. 

to  rank  higher  than  the  Panorpidce,  which  next  to  the 
Thysanura  are  in  our  view  the  lowest  family  among  the  Neu- 
roptera. 

The  larvae  are  more  or  less  cylindrical,  with  well  developed 
thoracic  feet,  and  a  pair  of  feet  on  the  end  of  the  abdomen, 
varying  in  length.  The  head  is  small,  and  like  that  of  a  Tor- 
tricid  larva,  which  the  Caddis  or  Case-worm,  as  the  larva  is 
called,  greatly  resembles,  not  only  in  form,  but  in  its  habit  of 
rolling  up  submerged  leaves.  They  also  construct  cases  of  bits 
of  sticks,  sawdust,  or  grains  of  sand,  which  they  drag  over  the 
bottom  of  quiet  pools,  retreating  within  when  disturbed.  They 
live  on  vegetable  matter,  and  on  water-fleas  (Entomostraca) 
and  small  aquatic  larvae.  When  about  to  pupate  they  close 
up  the  mouth  of  the  case  with  a  grating,  or  as  in  the  case  of 
Helicopsyche  by  a  dense  silken  lid  with  a  single  slit,  and  in 
some  instances  spin  a  slight,  thin,  silken  cocoon,  within  which 
the  pupa  state  is  passed.  The  pupa  is  much  like  that  of  the 
smaller  moths,  except  that  the  wings  and  limbs  are  free  from 
the  body.  Dr.  Hagen  informs  me  that  after  leaving  its  case 
it  makes  its  way  over  the  surface  of  the  water  to  the  shore, 
sometimes  going  a  long  distance.  "Westwood  states  that 
"the  females  deposit  their  eggs  in  a  double  gelatinous  mass, 
which  is  of  a  green  color,  and  is  retained  for  a  considerable 
time  at  the  extremity  of  the  body ;  the  mass  is  subsequently 
attached  to  the  surface  of  some  aquatic  plant,  and  Mr.  Hyde- 
man  has  observed  the  female  of  Phryganea  grandis  creep  down 
the  stems  of  aquatic  plants  under  the  water,  very  nearly  a  foqt 
deep,  for  the  purpose  of  oviposition."  A.  Meyer  mentions 
.several  instances  of  the  union  of  the  sexes  of  different  species 
of  this  family,  with  the  production  of  fertile  eggs.  (Giinther's 
Zoological  Record  for  1867.) 

Only  one  exception  to  the  aquatic  habits  of  this  famity  is 
the  Enoicyla  pusilla  Burmeister  which,  according  to  Mc- 
Lachlan,  in  Europe  u  lives  out  of  the  water  amongst  moss  at 
the  roots  of  trees.  The  larva  is  destitute  of  the  external 
respiratory  filaments  common  to  almost  all  caddis- worms,  but 
the  spiracles  are  not  very  evident.  E.  pusilla  is  also  remark- 
able, inasmuch  as  the  female  is  wingless,  and  little  resembling 
the  male."  Von  Siebold  discovered  that  an  Ichneumon  (Agrio- 


PHEYGANEID^. 


617 


typus  armatus)  attacks  the  fully  grown  larva  of  a  Phryganea 
( Aspatherium) ,  which  inhabits  a  smooth  'cylindrical  case, 
which  the  Ichneumon  converts  into  a  pupa  case  by  spinning 
a  long  broad  band  of  silk  around  the  anterior  opening.  (Ger- 
staecker.) 

In  Neuronia  and  Phryganea  the  maxillary  palpi  differ  in  the 
two  sexes,  and  there  are  two  spurs  on  each  of  the  fore  legs, 
and  four  on  the  middle  and  hind  legs.     The  maxil- 
lary palpi  in  the  males  are  four-jointed,  in  the  females 
five-jointed,    and   there  "are   three    ocelli.     Neuroma 
differs  from  Phryganea   in  having  its 
antennae  a  little  shorter  than  the  wings, 
whereas  in  the  latter  they  are  longer, 
jnd  the   fore  wings    are   hairy.     Neu- 
ronia semffasciata  Say  is  fulvous,  with 
the  fore  wings  transversely  flecked  with 
brownish-black,  a  small   basal   spot,  and  an  abrupt, 
median  streak  at  the  hinder  margin  of  the  wing,  while 
the  disk  has  two  yellowish  spots,  and  there  is  a  short 
fuscous  subapical  band  on  the  hind  wings.     Fig.  606    Fig.  606. 
represents  the  case  of  the  European  Phryganea  grandis  Linn. 
In  the  group  Limnopliilides  the  maxillary  palpi  of  the  males 
are  three,  those  of  the  fe- 
males    five-jointed ;     ocelli 
three  ;  anterior  wings  rather 
narrow,  the  apex  obliquely 
truncated   or   rounded.      In 
Limnopliilus  the  tibial  spurs  of  the  three  pairs 
of  legs  are  arranged  thus,  1,  3,  4  (i.  e.,  one 
spur  on  the  front  pair  of  tibiae ; 
three  on  the  middle,  and  four 
on   the   hinder   pair),  and   the 
apex  of  the  anterior  wings  is 
truncated.     L.   perpusittus 
Walker  is  a  boreal  species,  oc-     "'WiMiiffllir 
curring  at  Hudson's  Bay.     Limnopliilus  rhom- 
bicus  Linn.  (Fig.  607,  case  made  of  bits  of  moss)         Fig'  610< 
is  an  ochreous  species,  with  luteous  hairs.     Fig.  608,  a,  case, 
represents  a  case-worm  which  we  have  found  in  great  abund- 


Fig. 


Fig.  608. 


618 


NEUROPTERA. 


ance  in  Labrador.  Though  we  have  not  reared  the  imago  we 
suppose  it  to  be  the  Limnopliilus  subpunctulatus  of  Zetterstedt, 
the  most  abundant  species  we  met  in  Labrador.  The  case 
is  straight,  cylindrical,  and  built  of  coarse  gravel,  and  the 
larva  is  a  thick,  cylindrical,  whitish  worm.  Fig.  609  repre- 
sents the  case  of  L.  flavicornis  Fabr.,  a  European  species, 
which  is  often  constructed  of  small  shells.  Fig. 
610  illustrates  the  case  of  the  European  L.pellu- 
cidus  Olivier,  which  is  formed  of  large  pieces  of 
Fig.  en.  leaves  laid  flat  over  each  other. 

In  Sericostoma  the  ocelli  are  wanting,  and  the  palpi  are 
pilose,  the  maxillary  palpi  of  the  males  are  four-jointed,  cover- 
ing the  face  like  a  mask.  S.  Americanum  Walker  is  black 
with  black  hairs ;  the  antennae  are  twice  the  length  of  the 
body,  while  the  anterior  wings  are  much  longer  than  the  hind 
ones.  Fig.  611  represents  the  tube  of  a  European  species  of 
this  genus. 

In  Helicopsyclie  the  spurs  are  arranged  thus :  2,  2,  4,  and 
the  maxillary  palpi  of  the  males  mask  the  face,  being  recurved. 
We  have  found  the  larvae  of  Helicopsyclie  glabra  Hagen  (Fig. 


6       Fig.  612. 


612,  a,  lunate  patch  on  the  basal  abdominal  ring;  a,  front 
view  of  the  head,  enlarged  ;  m,  mandible  ;  e,  eye ;  6,  vertical 
view  of  the  end  of  the  abdomen,  enlarged),  about  changing 
to  pupae,  the  middle  of  July,  in  Wenham  Lake,  Mass.  One 
had  spun  its  operculum  and  lay  with  its  head  just  behind 


PHRYGANEID^. 


619 


it.  The  body  of  the  larva  is  curved,  though  not  spirally,  and 
when  out  of  the  case  it  is  cylindrical,  thickest  on  the  basal 
ring  of  the  abdomen,  and  is  pale  greenish,  while  the  head, 
thorax  and  legs  are  brownish ;  it  is  .25  of  an  inch  in  length/ 
The  head  is  hairy  and  is  smaller  than  usual,  a  little  narrower 
than  the  thorax,  with  black,  acute  unidentate  mandibles. 
The  thoracic  rings  are  horny  above,  somewhat  hairy,  and 
the  legs  are  slender  and  hairy.  The  abdomen 
ends  rather  abruptly,  with  two  short  tubercles 
ending  in  a  hook;  both  sides  being  alike,  the 
body  throughout  as  symmetrical  as  other  larvae  Fig.  613. 
of  this  family,  though  living  in  a  helicoid  case.  On  each  side 
of  the  basal  segment  of  the  abdomen  is  a  lunate,  corneous, 
hairy  spot,  by  which  the  larva  probably  retains  its  hold  in  the 
case  when  the  head  and  thorax  are  protruded.  The  case  is 
usually  very  regularly  helix-like  in  form,  though  the  umbilicus 
varies  in  size.  It  is  composed  of  fine  grains  of  sand  so 
arranged  that  the  outer 
surface  is  smooth.  It  is 
closed  during  the  pupa 
state  by  a  dense,  silken 
concave,  suborbicular 
operculum,  with  concen- 
tric lines,  rounded  on  the 
side,  and  but  slightly  con- 
vex on  the  other,  with  a 
slightly  curved  slit  for  the 
passage  of  water  situated 
on  the  less  convex  side, 
each  side  of  the  slit  be- 
ing provided  with  slender 
straight  teeth  which  near- 
ly touch  each  other,  thus 
forming  an  imperfect 
grate.  The  larva  does 
not  spin  a  cocoon.  Fig.  Fis-  614. 

613  represents  the  case  of  H.  arenifera  Lea,  from  Indiana. 
Mr.  J.  A.  McNiel  has  brought  from  Pulvon,  west  coast  of 
Nicaragua,  similar  larvae,  belonging  to  a  species  very  closely 


620  NEUROPTERA. 

allied  to  that  described  above.  They  differ  in  being  a  little 
larger  and  more  hairy.  The  case  is  similar,  though  with  a 
rough  exterior.  The  pupa  (Fig.  614,  a,  antennae,  curved  back 
behind  the  eyes  ;  Z,  labrum  ;  m,  mandibles  ;  mp,  maxillary  palpi ; 
to,  wings)  of  this  Nicaraguan  larva  is  curved  in  a  slightly 
spiral  manner,  the  antennae  are  curved  over  and  behind  the 
eyes,  reaching  to  the  seventh  abdominal  ring ;  the  maxillary 
palpi  are  laid  backwards  on  the  side  of  the  thorax,  and  the 
labial  palpi  lie  between  them,  though  diverging  from  each 
other.  The  wings  are  pressed  to  the  body  under  the  legs, 
the  latter  being  fringed  with  long  hairs.  On  the  end  of  the 
abdomen  are  two  slender  tubercles  ending  in  fine  hairs,  and 
alike  on  both  sides,  the  pupa,  like  the  larva,  being  symmetri- 
cal throughout.  The  larvae  seem  to  live  in  clear  water  on  a 
sandy  bottom,  often  attached  to  submerged  sticks, 
unio  shells,  etc. 

In  Leptocerus  the  antennae  of  the  males  are  ex- 
tremely long ;  tibial  spurs  thus :  2,  2,  2.  L.  niger 
Linn,  is  black,  shining,  with  black  hair ;  the  antennae 
are  black,  the  basal  half  annulated  with  snow-white, 
while  the  basal  joint  is  reddish ;  the  feet  are  luteous, 
the  intermediate  ones  being  snow-white,  while  the 
Fig.  615.  anterior  wings  are  steel-blue  black,  and  the  hind 
wings  blackish.  It  is  found  in  Europe  and  the  United  States. 
Fig.  615  represents,  Dr.  Hagen  informs  me,  a  case  of  either 
this  species  or  L.  sepulchralis  Walker,  or  else  a  similar  species. 
The  larva  builds  a  thin,  long,  conical,  sandy  tube  supported 
between  two  needles  of  the  pine.  The  specimens  figured  were 
found  by  Rev.  E.  C.  Bolles  at  Westbrook,  Maine. 

In  Setodes  the  species  are  snow-white ;   the  spurs  are  ar- 
ranged thus :  0,  2,  2.     S.  Candida  Hagen  is  pale  j^ellow,  with 
the  anterior  wings  snowy  white.     It  occurs  in  the  Southern 
States.     McLachlan  states  that  "some  species 
of  Setodes  make  delicate  little  tubes,  entirely 
formed  of  a  silky  secretion,  without  any  mix- 
Fig.  GIG.          ture  of  extraneous  matters."     Fig.   616  repre- 
sents a  tube  of  a  European  species  of  Setodes  formed  of  sand. 
In  Hydropsyche  and  allies  the  ocelli  are  three  in  number,  or 
entirely  wanting,  while  the  last  division  of  the  maxillary  palpi 


PHRYGANEID^E. 


621 


is  very  long,  filiform  and  multiarticulate.  In  Hydropsyclie  the 
spurs  are  arranged  thus :  2,  4,  4.  The  antennae  are  rather 
long  and  slender,  the  ocelli  are  absent,  and  the  intermediate 
feet  of  the  female  are  dilated.  H.  scalaris  Hagen  is  black 
gray,  with  white  hairs,  and  the  antennae  are  yellowish,  and 
obliquely  striated  with  black  at  the  base ;  the  first  joint  is 
covered  with  snow-white  hairs.  Philopotamus  has  three  ocelli, 
and  the  tibial  spurs  are  arranged  thus :  2,  4,  4. 

In  Rliyacopliila  the  maxillary  palpi  have  the  last  joint  entire, 
straight,  shorter  than  the  rest ;  while  there  are  three  ocelli,  and 
the  tibial  spurs  are  arranged  thus  :  3, 4,  4.  R.  fuscula  Walker 
is  rust-red,  with  some  black  hairs  and  a  subfuscous  spot  on 
each  side  of  the  thorax.  It  comes  from  Hudson's  Bay. 

Another  curious  Neuropterous  insect  found  in  the  iron-stone 
concretions  of  Morris,  111.,  is  the  Megathentomum  pustulatum 
of  Scudder  (Fig.  617,  natural  size),  described  and  figured  by 
him  in  the  "Palaeon- 
tology of  the  Illinois 
State  Geological  Sur- 
vey." "The  fragment 
represents  a  wing  (ap- 
parently an  upper  one) 
of  a  Neuropterous  in~ 
sect.  It  is  gigantic  in 
size,  very  broad,  with 
distant  nervures,  sim- 
ple infrequent  divarica- 
tions, and  in  the  outer 
half  of  the  wing,  which 
alone  is  presented,  a 

cross  neuration,  composed  solely  of  most  delicate  and  irregu- 
lar veinlets.  The  wing  is  also  furnished  with  a  great  number 
of  larger  and  smaller  discolored  spots,  the  surfaces  of  the 
larger  ones  irregularly  elevated."  Mr.  Scudder  thinks  the 
wing  is  allied  to  that  of  Coniopteryx,  adding  "it  appears  to 
belong  to  a  family  hitherto  undescribed.  I  do  not  know  of  a 
single  insect,  living  or  fossil,  which  approaches  it  in  the  struc- 
ture of  the  wings." 


622  NETJROPTERA. 

The  two  succeeding  families  were  by  Latreille  placed  in  a 
group  by  themselves  (Thysanura),  which  was  considered 
equivalent  to  the  Neuroptera,  or  Diptera,  for  example.  More 
recently  they  have  been  placed  among  the  Neuroptera,  though 
Burmeister  considered  them  as  Orthopterous,  by  the  close  re- 
semblance of  the  mouth-parts  of  Lepisma,  especially  the  la- 
bium,  to  those  of  the  Blattarice.  But  in  descending  through 
the  last  three  families  thysanurous  characters  have  constantly 
revealed  themselves,  as  we  have  shown  above,  and  the  tran- 
sition from  some  Sialidan,  Hemerobid  and  Panorpid  forms  is 
not  so  abrupt  as  it  might  seem.  Indeed  these  low,  apterous 
insects  stand  hi  the  same  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  Neurop- 
tera as  the  Flea  does  to  the  rest  of  the  Diptera,  or  the  Lice 
and  Thrips  to  the*  higher  Hemiptera.  In  all  these  degraded 
forms  the  metamorphosis  is  but  slightly  marked.  The  pupa 
is  active  and  closely  resembles  the  larva,  where  in  the  higher 
insects,  such  as  the  butterfly  or  bee,  the  pupa  bears  a  close 
resemblance  to  the  adult,  winged  form. 

These  interesting,  minute,  wingless  forms,  also  afford  a  pas- 
sage from  the  true  winged  insects  to  the  Myriapods,  by  the  uni- 
form size  of  the  rings  of  the  bod}^,  which  form  a  continuous 
series  from  the  head  to  the  opposite  extremity,  as  in  the  genus 
Lepisma  and  allies,  without  showing  the  usual  well  marked 
division  into  head,  thorax  and  abdomen.  Even  the  place  of 
abdominal  legs  is  supplied  in  Lepisma  by  the  rows  of  small 
stylets  which  prop  up  the  long  slender  abdomen. 

LEPISMATID^  Burmeister.  Bristle-tails.  These  agile  crea- 
tures, which  are  revealed  by  turning  over  stones  and  sticks  in 
damp  situations,  and  are  often  seen  about  houses,  have  a  long 
flattened  body,  with  metallic  scales,  in  form  somewhat  like 
those  of  butterflies.  The  antennae  are  very  long,  setiform, 
many-jointed ;  the  mouth-parts  are  free,  with  long  palpi ;  the 
maxillary  palpi  being  seven-jointed  and  the  labial  palpi  four- 
jointed.  The  mandibles  are  stout,  sunken  in  the  head,  and 
armed  with  teeth  for  gnawing.  The  prothorax  is  very  large, 
and  all  the  rings  of  the  body  are  of  much  the  same  size,  so 
that  the  insect  bears  a  general  resemblance  to  the  Myriapods. 
The  anal  stylets  are  long  and  large,  which  with  the  smaller 


CAMPODEuE.  623 

ones  inserted  on  the  subterminal  rings  of  the  abdomen  aid 
greatly  in  locomotion,  though  these  insects  run  with  great  ra- 
pidity and  do  not  leap  like  the  Poduridce,  and  thus  remind 
us,  as  well  as  in  their  general  appearance,  of  cer- 
tain wingless  cockroaches. 

In  Lepisma  (Fig.  618)  the  eyes  are  minute,  con- 
sisting of  twelve  simple  eyes,  with  short  bristles 
on  the  tip  of  the  abdomen,   of  which  three  are 
longest,  while  Machilis  differs  in  having  compound 
eyes,    and   longer   abdominal    bristles.     Lepisma 
saccharina  Linn.,  or  an  allied  species,  is  often  very 
common  in  houses,  where  it  eats  holes,  in  silks  and 
silken  tapestry,  devours  the  paste  and  mutilates 
the  leaves  of  books.     L.  domestica  Pack.,  is  a  beau- 
tiful white  hairy  species,  spotted  with  black,  and  is      Fig- 618> 
common  about  fire  places  in  Salem.     Machilis  variabilis  Say 
(PL  10,  figs.  8,  9),  is  dark  brown,  with  long  caudal  stylets.     It 
is  common  all  over  the  middle  and  southern  states,  and  occurs 
as  far  north  as  Salem,  Mass. 

CAMPODE^E  Meinert.  Under  this  name  Dr.  Meinert  has 
established  a  family  consisting  of  two  but  little  known  genera, 
which  haf  e  flat  and  elongated  bodies  and  no  springing  appara- 
tus, nor  eyes,  and  though  the  author  excludes  the  Lepismae  from 
the  Thysanura,  we  would  suggest  that  the  Campodese  seem 
intermediate  between  the  running  Lepismse  and  the  springing 
Podurae.  The  antennae  are  setaceous  or  filiform,  and  the  feet 
are  adapted  for  running,  with  distinct,  elongated,  two-clawed 
tarsi.  There  are  two  anal  cerci  arising  from  the  tenth  and  last 
abdominal  segment.  There  are  six  thoracic  spiracles,  the 
Podurse  having  none  (Meinert).  The  genus  Japyx  of  Haliday 
has  short,  inarticulate,  horny  anal  cerci.  J.  solifugus  Haliday 
lays  few  eggs,  but  those  very  large.  It  lives  under  stones  and 
when  disturbed  resembles  "a  Lithobius  in  the  character  of  its 
movements,"  and  bears  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  a  young 
Forficula.  J.  Saussurii  Humbert  lives  in  Mexico.  The  other 
genus,  Campodea,  has  many- jointed  anal  cerci.  C.  staphylinus 
Westw.  of  Europe  lives  under  stones.  C.  Americana  Pack, 
has  similar  habits.  C.  Codkei  Pack,  lives  in  Mammoth  Cave. 


624  NEUROPTERA. 

PODURID^E  Burmeister.  The  Spring-tails  are  the  typical 
Thysanura,  as  they  differ  more  than  Lepisma  and  allies  from 
all  other  insects.  The  anal  bristles,  which  are  free  in  Lepisma, 
are  here  united  and  bent  beneath  the  body,  forming  the 
"spring"  by  which  they  leap  to  a  prodigious  height  for  such 
minute  insects.  The  body  is  cylindrical,  not  flattened,  and  is 
covered  either  with  hairs  or  scales.  The  four  or  six-jointed 
antennae  are  short  and  thick,  and  the  eyes  are  simple,  usually 
four  to  eight  on  each  side.  The  mouth-parts  are  not  well  de- 
veloped, though  mostly  present,  the  mandibles  being  small, 
with  minute  teeth,  and  the  maxillary  palpi  entirely  wanting 
(Gerstaecker),  though  Lubbock  states  that  the  "second  pair 
of  maxillae  [labium]  are  membranous  and  delicate."  The  pro- 
thorax  is  small,  convex,  while  the  two  hinder  thoracic  rings 
are  large  and  similar  to  each  other.  The  legs  are  stout,  with 
tarsi  consisting  of  but  a  single  joint.  The  abdomen  consists 
of  six,  sometimes  only  three  segments,  with  a  long  anal  stylet 
forming  the  forked  tail,  or  "spring,"  beneath.  (Gerstaecker.) 
They  are  found  in  gardens,  or  hot-beds,  on  manure  heaps  in 
winter,  and  on  the  snow ;  they  may  also  be  seen  leaping  on  the 
surface  of  the  water  in  quiet  pools.  According  to  Nicolet 
these  insects  are  very  prolific,  as  he  found  1360  eggs  in  a  sin- 
gle individual.  The  embryo  is  developed  in  twelve  days. 
They  moult  often,  and  at  periods  of  fourteen  days  each. 

The  intestinal  canal  consists  in  great  part  of  a  long  and 
voluminous  chyle-making  stomach,  into  the  lower  end  of  which 
six  free  Malpighian  tubes  pour  their  contents.  (Nicolet.)  In 
Papirius  Saundersii,  as  in  many  other  apterous  Articulata,  the 
testis  is  formed  on  the  same  type  as  the  ovary.  On  each  side 
of  the  body  is  a  simple  tube  opening  into  a  triangular  reser- 
voir with  its  base  in  front.  The  nervous  system  of  Smynthurus 
consists,  according  to  Nicolet,  of  four  ganglia,  with  a  double 
connecting  cord.  Two  of  these  ganglia  occupy  the  head  and 
form  the  cesophageal  collar.  The  two  others  consist  of  a  tho- 
racic and  one  abdominal  ganglion.  There  are  in  Podura  four 
pairs  of  stigmata  in  the  four  basal  rings  of  the  abdomen.  Next 
to  the  two  main  tracheae  are  six  pairs  of  rather  long  vesicles 
united  with  them  by  loops.  (Gerstaecker.) 

Lubbock  states  that  in  Smynthurus  there  are  but  two  spira- 


PODLTRID^. 


625 


cles,  adding  that  "it  is  very  unusual  for  an  articulate  animal 

to  have  only  two  spiracles,  and  their  position  is  still  more  ex- 

traordinary,  for  they  open  on  the  under  side  of  the  head, 

immediately  below  the  antennae,  ...  on  the* 

inner   side  of  the   basis   of  the   mandibles." 

"In  the  manner  of  subdivisions  the  tracheae 

of  Smynthurus  differ  from  those  of  the  true  in- 

sects, and  agree  more  closely  with  the  Myrio- 

poda  and  tracheal  Arachnida,  in  the  fact  that 

they  do  not  often  give  off  branches  nor  form 

tufts,  but  generally  divide  dichotomously,  and 

run  considerable  distances  without  a  separa- 

tion."    (Mr.   Lubbock,    whom  we  have  just 

quoted,  states  that  Papirius  has  no  tracheae.) 

In  Smynthurus  the  ovaries  consist,  according 

to  Lubbock,  of  a  single  egg-tube.     On  the  un- 

derside of  the  abdomen  is  a  sucking  tube,  slen-         Fig.  619. 

der  and  forked  in  Smynthurus,  but 
short  in  Podura,  etc.,  by  which  the 
animal  adheres  to  smooth  surfaces. 
In  the  genus  Podura  the  body  is 
long,  with  four-jointed  antennae,  and 
the  flexible  spring-tail  is  short,  while 
in  Desoria,  which  is  found  in  the 
Alps,  the  tail  is  long.  The.  genus 
Degeeria  is  knownvby  the  ovate  body, 
and  basal  half  of  the  spring  equal- 
ling the  fork  in 
length.  A  species 
(Fig.  619)  closely 

resembling  the  European  D.  nivalis  Nicolet, 

we  have   found   in    summer  resting  on  the 

leaves  of  the  Clematis.     The  Lepidocyrtus  al- 

binos Nic.  (Fig.  620)  is  a  minute  pearly  white 

species  found  in   Europe  ;   its   scales    (Fig. 

621)  are  thin  and  with  distinct  markings. 
Smynthurus  is  short,  differing  greatly  in 

form  from  Podura,  and  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the 

larva  of  Coniopteryx.     The  body  is  short,  nearly  spherical,  and 
40 


620- 


626  AEACHNIDA. 

in  its  form  approaches  the  spiders,  as  noticed  by  Latreille. 
The  four-jointed  antennae  are  long  and  elbowed,  while  there 
are  eight  simple  eyes  on  each  side  of  the  head.  The  species 
are  found  on  tlte  leaves  of  garden  plants.  In  Papirius  of 
Lubbock, the  antennae  are  said  to  be  "  four-jointed,  but  with- 
out a  well  marked  elbow,  and  with  a  short  terminal  segment, 
offering  the  appearance  of  being  many-jointed.  * 

ORDER  II.     ARACHNIDA. 

THE  typical  forms  of  this  order  have  the  body  divided  into 
two  regions,  the  head-thorax  (cephalothorax)  and  abdomen. 
The  head  is  sometimes  quite  distinct,  but  is  generally  sunken 
into  the  thorax,  which  bears  four  pairs  of  legs,  while  the  abdo- 
men has  no  organs  of  locomotion,  though  the  abdomen  is  pro- 
vided with  three  pairs  of  jointed  appendages  (the  spinnerets) , 
which  are,  however,  homologous  with  the  legs.  The  metamor- 
phosis is  very  incomplete  in  the  lower  forms,  while  in  the 
spiders  there  is  none  at  all  after  the  animal  leaves  the  egg. 
The  head  is  without  antennae,  pr  compound  eyes.  The  order 
shows  its  close  relationship  with  the  Dipterous  insects,  especi- 
ally when  compared  with  the  wingless  Chionea  and  Nycteribia, 
and  its  lowest  forms  (certain  mites)  bear  a  close  resemblance 
to  some  of  the  lower  Crustacea,  as  the  young  stages  and  em- 
bryonic development  are  remarkably  similar.  The  typical 
forms  of  the  order  homologize  too  closely  with  the  apterous 
insects  to  allow  them  to  be  separated  as  a  distinct  class.  We 
shall  see  below  that  the  rank  here  assigned  to  the  group  ac- 
cords well  with  their  anatomical  characters  and  habits. 

In  some  genera  there  is  a  decided  line  of  demarcation 
between  the  head  and  the  thorax,  which  is,  however,  very 
distinct  during  embryonic  life,  and  we  do  not  perceive  that 
gradual  transition  from  mouth-parts  to  swimming  legs  which 
obtains  in  the  Crustacea.  The  order,  however,  has  much 
lower,  more  degraded  forms  than  the  Myriopods  even,  as 
the  genus  Demodex  testifies,  which  may  recall  readily  certain 
intestinal  worms.  This  we  would  consider  as  but  an  example 

*  EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  10. —Fig.  1,  Lepisma  saccharina  Linn?;  Fig.  2,  3 
Degeeria  flavocincta  Pack.;  Fig.  4,  5,  D,  purpurascens  Pack.;  Fig.  6,  7,  Isotomi 
plumbea  Pack.;  Fig.  8,  9,  Machilis  variabilis  Say. 


PI.  10. 


THYSANURA. 


ARACHNIDA.  627 

of  what  often  occurs  among  all  degraded  forms,  of  a  recur- 
rence to  the  archetypal  form  of  the  articulate  type,  and  not  for 
this  reason,  as  some  authors  have  done,  would  we  place  the 
Arachnids  of  Latreille  in  a  class  by  themselves,  below  the 
Myriapods  ;  nor  on  recurring  to  the  spiders  alone,  with  their 
high  organization  and  wonderful  instincts,  would  we  follow 
Professor  Owen  and  others  in  placing  them  even  above  the 
true  insects. 

We  must  look  upon  the  Spider  as  a  hexapodous  insect,  de- 
graded, wingless,  and  partially  decephalized.  A  part  of  the 
elements,  constituting  the  head  in  insects,  have  been,  as  it 
were,  withheld  from  the  head  and  detained  in  the  thorax,  which 
has  thus  an  increase  in  one  pair  of  limbs.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  sensorial,  or  pre-oral,  region  of  the  head,  is  wanting  in  two 
most  important  members,  i.  e.,  the  compound  eyes  and  the  an- 
tennae. Both  Zaddach  and  Claparede  state  that  there  are  no 
organs  in  the  spiders  homologous  with  the  antennae  of  insects. 
The  simple  fact  that  the  homology  of  the  organs  generally  is 
so  close  between  the  two  groups  shows  that  they  must  fall  into 
the  same  class.  The  same  can  be  said  of  the  Myriapods. 

The  circulatory  system  is  very  perfect  in  the  spiders  and 
scorpions,  but  in  most  of  the  lower  mites  there  is  no  dorsal 
vessel,  or  vascular  system  at  all,  the  fluids  being  supposed  to 
circulate  in  the  general  cavity  of  the  body,  "and  by  the  aid 
of  the  muscular  movements  and  the  contractions  of  the  intesti- 
nal canal,  transferred  in  an  irregular  manner  hither  and  thither 
in  the  visceral  cavity  and  in  the  extremities."  (Siebold.)  In 
the  Phalangidce  there  is  a  distinct,  three-chambered  dorsal 
vessel,  or  heart.  In  the  spiders  and  scorpions,  however,  the 
vascular  system  is  highly  organized,  as  shown  by  Newport  (in 
the  Scorpions),  and  Claparede  (in  Lycosa).  Here  then,  is,  as 
in  Sphinx,  a  dorsal  and  ventral  vessel  with  lateral  veins,  or  ve- 
nous sinuses,  performing  the  functions  of  true  veins.  The  main 
dorsal  vessel  is  mostly  situate  in  the  abdomen,  as  the  lungs 
have  their  seat  in  that  region,  where  the  most  important  respi- 
ratory function,  that  of  supplying  the  blood  with  fresh  oxygen, 
is  performed.  Claparede  has  shown  that  in  Lycosa  the  blood 
flows  through  the  dorsal  vessel  from  the  head,  instead  of  towards 
the  head,  as  in  the  six-footed  insects. 


628 


ARACHNID  A. 


The  nervous  system  consists  of  a  small  brain,  a  group  of 
thoracic  ganglia  and  a  few  abdominal  ganglia,  which,  however, 
are  aborted  in  the  spiders.  The  cerebral  ganglia,  or  brain,  lie 
just  above  the  oesophagus,  and  send  down  two  cords  embrac- 
ing the  throat,  and  also  distribute  nerves  to  the  ocelli  and 
mouth-parts. 

In  the  mites  (Acarina),  where 'the  body  is  oval,  and  not 
divided  into  the  two  distinct  regions,  there  is  no  brain,  and 
but  a  single  ganglion  lodged  in  the  abdomen,  from  which  are 
distributed  the  nerves  supplying  the  head  and  the  peripheral 
parts.  In  the  spiders  the  brain  is  of  considerable  size,  and  the 
thoracic  ganglia  or  u  suboesophageal  ganglia,"  are  large,  send- 
ing off  on  each  side  four  large 
processes  from  which  proceed 
the  nerves  supplying  the  feet. 

In  the  scorpion  (Pedipalpi) 
the  nervous  system  is  still  more 
highly  organized.  The  brain  is 
not  large ;  it  is  composed  of 
the  two  spherical  superoesopha- 
geal  ganglia  fused  together, 
sending  off  the  usual  nerves  to 
the  mouth-parts.  This  brain- 
like  organ  is  connected  by  two 
filaments  with  the  ventral  gan- 
glionic  mass,  formed  by  the 
probable  union  of  several  gan- 
glia,  and  situated  in  the  middle 
of  the  false  cephalothorax.  The 
continuation  of  the  nervous  cord  consists  of  seven  abdominal 
ganglia,  with  the  commissures  united  into  a  single  cord. 

The  maxillary  palpi,  functionally,  take  the  place  of  antennae, 
showing  how  one  organ  may  perform  the  office  of  another  in  a 
different  group  of  animals.  It  is  also  evident  that  the  spider 
combines  in  the  same  organ  the  senses  of  taste,  smell  and  feel- 
ing, which  are  supposed  in  insects  to  reside  in  the  two  pairs  of 
palpi  and  the  antennae. 

The  alimentary  canal  is  formed,  according  to  Siebold,  on  two 
types.  In  the  mites  and  spiders,  the  stomach  is  produced  lat- 


Pig.  622. 


ARACHNIDA.  629 

erally  into  large  ccecal  appendages  (Fig.  622,  alimentary  canal 
of  Tegenaria  civilis  ;  a,  stomach,  with  coeca  ;  c,  liver  ;  d,  renal 
organ ;  e,  fat  body) ,  and  then  passes  into  a  short,  small  intes- 
tine, going  straight  to  the  end  of  the  body.  In  the  Pedipalpes 
(Phrynidae  and  Scorpions)  the  intestinal  canal  is  more  simple, 
not  having  any  coecal  dilatations  to  the  very  small  stomach. 

The  salivary  glands  are  often  of  large  size,  especially  in 
Ixodes,  and  are  thus  adapted  to  their  blood-sucking  habits, 
much  saliva  being  needed  to  mix  with  their  food.  In  the 
spiders  and  scorpions  the  liver  is  well  developed  and  distinct 
from  the  intestinal  tube,  being  in  the  spiders  a  brown  or  dirty 
yellow  mass  filling  a  large  part  of  the  abdominal  cavity  and 
enveloping  most  of  the  other  viscera. 

As  during  the  growth  of  the  young  spider  the  head  is  thrown 
back  on  top  of  the  thorax  to  which  it  is  thus  most  closely  uni- 
ted, it  follows  that  the  simple  eyes,  from  two  to  twelve  in 
number,  are  situated  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  cephalo- 
thorax,  while  no  other  sensory  organs,  i.  'e.,the  compound  eyes 
and  antennae,  are  ever  developed.  Thus  in  the  adult  spider 
the  mandibles  seem  to  be  pushed  far  in  front  of  the  ocelli,  and 
to  occupy  what  is  originally  the  proper  or  normal  site  of  the 
ocelli,  and  in  insects  of  the  antennae,  which  no  doubt  has  led 
most  authors  to  homologize  them  with  the  antennae  of  hexa- 
podous  insects.  Claparede  says  "all  the  appendages  are  post- 
oral,  hence  there  are  no  organs  homologous  with  the  antennae." 
Thus  the  mouth-opening  is  brought  far  forward  ;  it  is  flanked  on 
each  side  by  a  mandible  (Plate  10,  fig.  3,  c,  a,  movable  claw,  or 
fang),  a  large,  powerful  limb,  which  does  not  move  horizontally 
but  vertically;  behind  are  the  large,  well  developed  maxillae 
(Plate  10,  fig.  2,  b  ;  7,  maxillary  palpus  ;  8,  male  palpus),  with 
their  long,  leg-like  palpus.  Thus  the  function  of  the  insectean 
antennae  must,  in  the  spiders,  reside  in  the  maxillary  palpi. 
Claparede's  researches  on  the  embryology  of  the  spiders  and 
mites  have  demonstrated  that  the  front  pair  of  legs  of  Arach- 
nids are  homologous  with  the  labial  palpi  of  insects,  which, 
as  we  have  previously  stated  (p.  59),  in  the  latter,  are  late  in 
embryonic  life  thrown  forwards,  and  associated  with  the  max- 
illae and  other  mouth-parts,  while  in  the  Arachnids  they  retain 
their  embryonic  position  and  are  grouped  with  the  legs  (see 


630  AKACHNIDA. 

fig.  59,  4)  and  are  usually  of  the  same  form.  Thus  one  cepha- 
lic segment  of  insects  is  permanently  retained  in  the  thorax 
among  the  Arachnids,  whereas  we  have  seen  in  the  embryo  of 
the  dragon-fly  (Figs.  59,  61,  4)  it  assumes  an  intermediate 
position  between  the  head  and  thorax,  the  remaining  anterior 
part  of  the  head  being  clearly  separated  by  a  deep  suture.  In 
Fig.  59,  we  see  the  labial  palpi  (4)  grouped  with  the  three  pairs 
of  legs  ;  a  position  permanent  in  the  Arachnida.  The  dragon- 
fly, at  the  period  represented  by  Fig.  59,  p.  57,  may  be  legiti- 
mately compared  with  the  scorpion,  especially  Cyclopthalrnus, 
from  the  coal  measures. 

While,  as  Black  wall  states,  nothing  is  known  with  certainty 
concerning  the  organs  of  smell  and  hearing  in  spiders,  Mr. 
R.  Beck  "  suggests  that  spiders  are  capable  of  distinguishing 
sounds  to  some  extent  by  means  of  very  delicate  waving  hairs 
which  are  found  on  the  upper  surfaces  of  their  legs.  During 
life  they  move  at  their  peculiarly  cup-shaped  bases,  with  the 
least  motion  of  the  atmosphere,  but  are  immovable  after 
death.  It  is  well  known  that  sound  is  due  to  vibrations  which 
are  generally  conveyed  by  undulations  of  the  air ;  now  I  am 
perfectly  satisfied  that  if  these  undulations  are  of  a  certain 
character  the  hairs  I  am  alluding  to,  upon  the  spider's  leg,  will 
move,  and  I  wish  you  particularly  to  notice  that  they  are  of 
different  lengths,  so  that  some  might  move  whilst  others  would 
not,  and  also  that  the  longest  is  at  the  extremity  of  the  leg, 
and  therefore  can  receive  an  undulation  which  might  die  away 
higher  up.  I  may  just  mention  that  there  is  a  group  of  these 
peculiar  hairs  on  the  flea.  The  legs  of  a  spider  are  most  sen- 
sitive organs  of  feeling,  if  they  do  not  also  embrace  those  of 
hearing."  (Entomologist,  London,  1866,  iii,  p.  246.) 

The  four  thoracic  feet  have  seven  joints,  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  two  basal  joints  homologize  with  the  coxa  and  tro- 
chantine  of  insects,  in  which  the  two  joints  are  retracted,  side 
by  side,  and  closely  fused  together.  The  tergal  part  of  the 
thoracic  segments  is  large,  overlapping  the  pleural,  while  the 
sternum  is  a  rather  large,  broad  breast-plate.  The  abdomen 
is  generally  somewhat  spherical,  and  in  but  few  instances  is  it 
drawn  out  and  the  rings  well  developed,  as  in  the  scorpion. 
In  the  mites  it  is  fused  closely  with  the  cephalothorax. 


ARACHNIDA.  631 

In  the  genus  Hersilla  we  see  clearly  that  the  three  pairs  of 
spinnerets  are  but  modified  legs.  The  second  and  inner  pair 
are  generally  the  smallest,  while  the  third  and  largest  pair  are 
the  most  posterior.  Their  office  is  to  reel  out  the  silk  from  the 
silk-glands.  The  tip  of  the  articulated  spinnerets  ends  in  a 
cone,  perforated  by  myriads  of  little  tubes  (over  1,000  in 
Epeiira,  about  300  in  Lycosa,  and  a  less  number  in  the  smaller 
species)  through  which  the  silk  escapes  in  excessively  delicate 
threads,  which  unite  to  form  the  common  thread  visible  to  the 
naked  eye.  (Plate  10,  fig.  4,  spinnerets  of  Epe'ira  vulgaris  en- 
larged twenty-five  diameters  ;  fig.  5,  a  spinning  tube.) 

The  Acarina  are  supposed  to  have  glands  analogous  to  the 
silk  glands,  whose  product,  like  silk,  hardens  on  exposure  to 
the  air,  and  by  which  certain  parasitic  genera,  such  as  Uro- 
poda,  fix  themselves  solidly  to  their  host.  Siebold  states  also, 
that  "many  species  of  Hydrachna  fix,  by  a  kind  of  glue,  the 
anterior  portion  of  their  body  on  aquatic  plants,  and  in  this 
position  await  the  completion  of  their  moulting.  The  organs 
secreting  this  substance  have  not  yet  been  discovered.  It  is 
well  known  that  the  European  Tetraiiychus  telarius  spins 
large  webs  on  the  leaves  of  trees  and  on  house-plants. 

The  reproductive  system  is  much  as  described  in  insects,  ex- 
cept that  the  external  appendages  are  rarely  developed  in 
either  sex.  The  genital  armor  is  situated  at  the  base  of  the 
abdomen  ;  it  is  concealed  when  present  under  the  skin. 

In  the  Acarina  the  two  ovaries  open  on  the  middle  of  the 
abdomen,  or  on  the  under  side  of  the  thorax,  either  between 
or  behind  the  last  pair  of  legs.  In  Hydrachna  the  oviduct 
opens  into  an  ovipositor  by  which  the  insect  is  enabled  to  lay 
its  eggs  under  the  skin  of  the  fresh-water  mussel  on  which  it  is 
parasitic,  and  other  mites  oviposit  in  a  similar  way  under  the 
epidermis  of  plants. 

In  most  spiders  the  two  ovaries  have  their  outlet  in  an  ori- 
fice situated  between  the  two  lung-sacs.  They  have  a  distinct 
receptaculum  seminis,  especially  marked  in  Epeira.  "The 
Scorpionidce  have  three  ovaries,  consisting  of  as  many  lon- 
gitudinal ones,  united  by  four  pairs  of  transverse  one's."  The 
outer  two  of  the  former  are  oviducts,  leading  out  at  the  base 
of  the  abdomen. 


632  AKACHNIDA. 

The  testes  of  Ixodes  consist  of  four  or  five  pairs  of  unequal 
follicles,  opening  out  near  the  base  of  the  abdomen."  The 
males  are  distinguished  from  the  females  by  their  larger  "cheli- 
ceres "  (maxillary  palpi)  and  larger  pair  of  clasping  legs.  In 
the  spiders  the  testes  are  "two  long,  simple,  interlaced  caeca, 
concealed  beneath  the  hepatic  lobes,"  which  lead  by  two  def- 
erent canals  to  the  base  of  the  abdomen,  through  a  simple 
fissure,  which,  however,  is  not  applied  to  the  vulva.  The  com- 
plicated hollow  spoon- shaped  palpi  are  supposed  to  be  the  in- 
tromittent  organs.  u  They  are  filled  with  sperm  and  applied  to 
the  entrance  of  .the  vulva.  For  this  purpose  the  last  joint  of 
the  palpi,  which  is  always  hollow  and  much  enlarged,  contains 
a  soft  spiral  body,  terminated  by  a  curved,  gutter-like,  horny 
process.  Beside  this  there  is  an  arched,  horny  filament,  and 
several  hooks  and  other  appendages  of  the  most  varied  forms. 
These  appendages  are  protractile  and  serve,  some  to  seize  the 
female,  and  others  as  conductors  of  the  sperm."  (Siebold.) 
While  the  majority  of  the  Arachnida  are  developed  as  usual 
after  the  laying  of  the  eggs,  a  few,  such  as  the  scorpions  and 
Oribatidce  and  other  mites,  are  known  to  be  viviparous, 
and  it  is  probable  that  an  alternation  of  generations  occurs  in 
some  of  the  lower  mites.  The  Tardigrades  are  hermaphro- 
dites. 

The  Arachnida  breathe  both  by  tracheae  and  lung-like  organs. 
The  mites,  the  false  scorpions,  the  harvest-men  and  Solpu- 
gidce  are  provided  with  tracheae,  communicating  externally 
by  means  of  spiracles,  generally  two  in  number,  and  concealed 
between  the  anterior  feet.  In  Hydrachna,  which  lives  con- 
stantly beneath  the  water,  the  tracheae  "possess  probably,  the 
power  to  extract  from  the  water,  the  air  necessary  for  respira- 
tion." (Siebold.)  In  the  false  scorpions  a  pair  of  lateral  stig- 
mata are  situated  on  each  of  the  two  basal  rings  of  the 
abdomen.  From  these  spring  "four  short,  but  large  trachean 
trunks  from  which  arise  numerous  unbranched  tracheae  spread- 
ing through  the  entire  body."  In  the  Solpugidce  there  are 
three  pairs  of  stigmata  and  the  tracheae  ramify  and  are  distrib- 
buted  much  as  in  insects,  and  in  the  Phalangidoe,  the  tra- 
cheary  S37stem  is  well  developed,  arising  from  two  stigmata 
opening  between  the  insertion  of  the  posterior  legs. 


AKACHNIDA.  633 

In  most  of  the  spiders  (such  as  Segestria,  Dysdera  and  Ar- 
gyroneta)  there  are  both  a  tracheary  system  and  lungs.  The 
two  stigmata,  from  which  these  tracheae  lead,  open  near  the 
pulmonary  opening.  In  two  other  genera,  Salticus  and  Micro- 
phantes,  there  are  two  stigmata  situated  at  the  posterior  end  of 
the  abdomen.  Siebold  calls  attention  to  a  tracheary  system 
in  many  Aranese  opening  by  a  transverse  fissure  placed  near 
the  spinnerets.  From  this  opening  a  main  trunk  leads  in, 
soon  dividing  into  four  simple  tracheae,  which  are  not  round  as 
usual,  "but  are  flattened,  riband-like,  and  without  the  trace 
of  a  spiral  filament ;  these  extend,  with  a  gradual  attenuation, 
to  the  base  of  the  abdomen.  .  .  .  The  air  received  into  these 
organs  is  separated  into  as  fine  portions  as  that  of  the  lungs.* 

The  so  called  lungs  of  the  spiders  are  little  round  sacs  open- 
ing by  transverse  fissures  on  the  under  side  of  the  base  of  the 
abdomen.  The  inner  surface  is  divided  into  thin  lamellae, 
connected  together  like  the  leaves  of  a  book.  Each  of  these 
is  formed  by  a  membranous  fold,  between  the  two  leaves  of 
which  the  air  enters  from  the  general  cavity  of  the  lung,  and 
is  divided  into  very  minute  portions.  No  traces  of  blood  ves- 
sels have  been  found  in  these  pulmonary  lamellae."  (Siebold.) 

Among  the  organs  of  special  secretion  the  poison  and  silk 
glands  require  description.  There  are  two  poison  glands 
emptying  into  the  throat,  and  thence  opening  out  through  hol- 
lows in  the  jaws.  (Plate  10,  fig.  3,  a,  b.)  In  the  scorpion  the 
poison  gland  is  lodged  in  the  last  abdominal  segment  at  the 
base  of  the  sting. 

The  silk,  as  contained  in  the  glands,  is  a  viscid  transparent 
fluid,  which  on  exposure  to  the  air  hardens  into  silk  ;  it  is  drawn 
out  by  the  legs  through  three,  rarely  two  pairs  of  spinnerets. 
There  are  usually  five  of  these  glands  lodged  in  the  abdomen, 
and  the  "threads  probably  have  different  qualities,  according 
to  the  glands  from  which  they  are  secreted."  (Siebold.) 

"  To  form  the  thread  this  liquid  is  drawn  through  the  tubes, 

*  According  to  Dr.  Burnett,  Blanchard  regards  these  anomalous  tracheae  as 
only  elongated  pulmonary  sacs.  Leuckart,  however,  considers  that  these  organs 
are  only  a  sort  of  trachese  deprived  of  the  usual  spiral  filament  to  keep  their  walls 
from  collapsing,  and  he  considers  that  the  pulmonary  sacs  of  the  spider  afe  sim- 
ply modifier!  tracheae.  —  Dr.  W.  L  Burnett's  Translation  of  Siebolds's  Anatomy  of 
the  Invertebrata. 


634  ARACHNIDA. 

which  divide  it  into  such  small  fibres  that  it  dries  almost  im- 
mediately on  coming  in  contact  with  the  air.  The  spicier  has 
the  power  of  uniting  these  fibres  into  one  or  several  threads, 
according  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  to  be  used.  The 
thread  commonly  used  for  the  web  is  composed  of  hundreds 
of  simple  fibres,  each  spun  through  a  separate  tube.  As  the 
thread  runs  from  the  body  it  is  guided  by  the  hind  feet,  which 
hold  it  off  from  contact  with  surrounding  objects,  until  the 
desired  point  is  reached,  when  a  touch  of  the  spinners  fastens 
it  securely."  (Emerton,  American  Naturalist,  ii,  p.  478.) 

The  eggs  are  laid  but  once  a  year  in  June.  The  evolution 
of  the  embryo  begins  immediately,  and  goes  on  with  a  rapidity 
according  with  the  temperature.  The  egg  consists,  as  Herold 
observed,  simply  of  a  vitelline  membrane,  but  no  chorion ;  it 
is  perfectly  homogeneous,  and  has  no  micropyle.  The  contents 
are  an  emulsion  of  fatty  globules  suspended  in  a  scant}'' 
amount  of  liquid,  which  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  al- 
bumen (or  white)  of  the  eggs  of  vertebrates.  No  trace  of  the 
"  germinative  vesicle"  has  as  yet  been  traced  in  the  eggs  of 
insects,  though  perhaps  it  has  been  overlooked  from  its  trans- 
parency. 

The  first  stages  in  the  egg  after  they  are  laid,  are  the  follow- 
ing :  at  the  surface  of  the  vitellus  appear,  here  and  there, 
small,  very  clear  and  perfectly  circular  spots ;  they  are  the 
nucleus  of  the  future  blastoderm  (primitive  skin,  from  which 
the  organs  of  the  embryo  successively  originate  or  "bud" 
out).  These  nuclei  act  as  centres  of  attraction  on  the  mole- 
cules of  the  vitellus  for  the  formation  of  the  cellules.  The 
unmodified  vitellus  diminishes  in  the  same  proportion  as  the 
peripheric  layer  of  granules  increases.  The  granules  multiply 
rapidly,  and  soon  the  surface  of  the  egg  appears  to  be  divided 
into  a  certain  number  of  areas,  each  of  which  is  occupied  in 
the  centre  by  a  circular  and  transparent  space  surrounded  with 
small  opake  granules,  which  become  less  and  less  dense  as  we 
go  to  the  outer  surface.  These  hexagonal  cellules  form  an  uni- 
form layer  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  egg ;  it  is  the  blasto- 
derm. Up  to  this  time  the  changes  precisely  accord  with  those 
observed  in  the  hexapodous  insects. 

The  next  stage  is  the  formation  of  ventral  tubercles,  the  ru- 


ARACHN1DA. 


635 


diments  of  the  limbs  of  the  embryo.  The  first  change  is  the 
formation  of  the  "primitive  streak,"  or  the  splitting  of  the 
blastoderm,  which  is  due  to  a  local  multiplication  of  the  cel- 
lules along  the  median  line  of  the  egg. 

These  tubercles  result  from  a  simple  thickening  of  the  blas- 
toderm, and  what  is  ultimately  destined  to  be  the  back  (tergum) 
of  the  animal,  arises  from  a  similar  thickening  of  the  blasto- 
derm, which  he  calls  the  "primitive  cumulus."  This  mass, 
easily  distinguished  by  its  whiteness,  always  floats  on  the  top 
of  the  yolk  of  the  egg,  keeping  its  position  next  the  eye  of 
the  observer.  The  "cumulus,"  at  first  almost  hemispherical, 
elongates  over  the  surface  of  the  blastoderm,  becoming  pyri- 
form.  This  region  is  the  posterior,  or  anal,  pole  of  the  egg. 


Tig.  624. 


Fig.  623. 


Fig.  625. 


We  see  the  "cumulus"  spreading  from  the  anal  pole  over  the 
surface  like  a  veil,  but  it  is  less  white  than  the  polar  region. 
This  veil  continues  to  spread  over  the  entire  surface  to  a  pole 
opposing  the  anal,  which  Claparede  terms  the  cephalic  pole. 
Each  pole  forms  a  very  prominent  projection.  At  this  stage 
the  body  of  the  embryo  becomes  well  marked  and  subdivided, 
worm-like,  into  rings.  (Fig.  623.)  The  extent  of  the  dorsal 
region  is  greatly  limited,  while  that  of  the  ventral  side  is 
greatly  increased. 

The  entire  ventral  region,  occupying  most  of  the  whole  egg, 
is  homologous  with  the  primitive  ventral  streak.  It  is  at  this 
time  that  the  formation  of  the  protozoonites  (elemental  rings, 


636  ARACKNTDA. 

or  primordial  segments)  takes  place.  Six  of  these  zones  or 
segments  arise  between  the  cephalic  and  anal  poles ;  these 
zones  represent  the  ventral  arcs.  The  two  anterior  rings  bear 
the  mouth-parts,  the  mandibles  and  maxillae  ;  while  the  others 
form  rings  corresponding  to  the  four  pair  of  feet.  These  pro- 
tozoonites  are  very  transitory,  only  existing  for  a  short  period  ; 
they  gradually  retreat  towards  the  ventral  side,  enlarge  and 
nearly  touch  each  other. 

The  embryo  (Fig.  624)  now  grows  much  longer,  and  new  em- 
bryonal segments  are  formed  in  the  abdomen  just  as  they  grow 
out  in  the  worms,  and  Myriapods,  and  also  in  the  Crustacea,  ac- 
cording to  Rathke's  researches.  Thus  while  the  cephalothora- 
cic  rings  appear  simultaneously  the  abdominal  segments  appear 
one  after  the  other.  The  first  one  appears  between  the  last  tho- 
racic ring  and  the  anal  "  hood,"  or  pole.  Meanwhile  the  lateral 
extremities  of  the  protozoonites  have  become  enlarged ;  these 
enlargements  form  the  appendages.  These  tubercles,  or  rudi- 
mentary limbs,  appear  on  the  abdominal  as  well  as  on  the  tho- 
racic rings  (Fig.  625).  This  fact  is  one  of  great  interest,  as 
showing  a  resemblance  to  the  Crustacean  with  its  abdominal 
legs,  and  more  especially  to  the  abdominal  footed  Myriapods, 
and  the  larvae  of  many  true  six-footed  insects.  Thus  the 
young  spider  is  at  first  like  a  caterpillar,  having  "false,"  de- 
ciduous, abdominal  legs.  Five  abdominal  rings  are  present  in 
Pholcus. 

Next  follows  the  development  of  the  "post-abdomen,"  or 
tail,  which  being  differentiated  from  the  anal  pole  or  "hood," 
becomes  detached  from  the  yolk  mass,  and  is  folded  back  upon 
the  embiyo,  just  as  the  abdomen  of  a  crab  is  folded  in  an  op- 
posite way  to  the  ventral  side  of  the  body.* 

This  "post-abdomen,"  after  dividing  into  three  segments, 
disappears  completely  during  the  growth  of  the  embryo.  This 
is  the  more  interesting,  as  the  "post-abdomen"  of  the  scor- 
pion is  retained  permanent^.  Meanwhile  the  two  cephalic 

*  And  in  like  manner  the  cephalic  lobes,  containing  the  ocelli,  are  seen  in  the 
author's  figures  folded  back  upon  the  base  of  the  head,  so  that  the  antennae  are 
never  developed,  and  the  mandibles  of  the  spider  take  their  place,  in  advance  of 
the  eyes.  The  structure  and  succession  of  the  rings  of  the  insectean  head  are 
most  readily  explained,  and  some  clue  is  given  to  their  number  and  succession 
by  comparison  with  the  embiyo  of  spiders. 


ARACHNIDA.  637 

lobes  have  developed,  and  the  blastoderm  has  divided  into  a 
dermal,  or  outer  layer,  and  a  muscular,  or  inner  layer  of 
cells.  The  outer  layer  forms  the  chitinous  body-wall,  or  crust, 
while  from  the  inner  layer  are  developed  the  digestive,  vascu- 
lar and  other  organs  besides  the  muscles. 

After  the  rudiments  of  the  appendages  are  formed  the  epi- 
mera  appear.  At  this  period  we  are  struck  with  the  perfect 
identity  between  all  the  appendages  of  the  body  at  their  first 
origin.  In  the  Arachnida  the  formation  of  the  primitive  seg- 
ments takes  place  much  sooner  than  in  most  other  articulates, 
where  they  often  do  not  appear  until  after  the  rudiments  of  the 
limbs  are  developed. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  evolution  of  the  spiders  is 
the  tardy  appearance  of  the  rudiments  of  the  .legs.  The  ven- 
tral arcs,  or  protozoonites,  subdivide  into  ventral  and  pleural 
parts,  which  signalize  the  formation  of  the  permanent  rings 
of  the  body.  The  author's  figures 
and  statement  show,  though  he 
does  not  state  the  fact  clearly, 
that  development  progresses  from 
each  end  of  the  body  towards  the 
centre,  as  we  have  shown*  to  be 
the  case  in  insects.  Thus  the 
posterior  half  of  the  body  repeats 
the  mode  of  development  and 
general  form  of  the  anterior,  or 
cephalic  pole. 

The  third  period  in  the  life  of 
the  embryo  dates  from  the  forma-  Fig.  626. 

tion  of  the  ventral  rudiments  to  the  exclusion  of  the  spider. 
The  first  change  consists  in  the  lengthening  and  meeting 
of  the  rudimentary  legs.  The  mouth-parts  develop  first. 
At  this  period  the  limb-bearing  (pleural)  region  of  the 
body  separates  and  the  sternal  piece  or  breast-plate  appears 
as  a  "slower,  later  formation."  Now  the  thoracic  legs  grow 
much  more  rapidly  than  the  mouth-parts  and  lie  interlocked 
upon  the  breast.  (Fig.  626. f)  When  the  first  pair  of  legs  are 

*  Proceedings  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  Feb.  7, 1866. 
.  626,   m,  mandibles;  mx,  maxillae;  I,  fourth  pair  of  legs;  p,  postabdomen. 


638  ARACHNIDA. 

long  enough  to  cross  each  other  the  jointed  structure  of  the 
limbs  disappears,  and  they  soon  become  divided  into  their 
usual  number  of  joints,  though  the  tarsal  joints  are  the  last  to 
be  perfected.  At  this  time  the  maxillae  become  differentiated, 
or  split  up,  into  the  basal  lobe  and  its  appendage,  or  palpus. 
Claparede  compares  the  basal  lobe  to  the  coxa  of  the  legs, 
though  it  is  formed  long  before  the  coxae  of  the  feet  them- 
selves. The  anterior  pair  of  appendages  form  the  mandibles. 

The  formation  of  the  head  is  next  in  order.  The  "cephalic 
lobe"  is  divided  into  what  the  author  calls  two  "procephalic 
lobes,"  separated  by  a  deep  incision,  and  at  this  period  the 
head  appears  very  distinct  from  the  thorax.  Afterwards  the 
anterior  or  ante-oral  part  of  the  head  is,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
"post- abdomen,"  folded  back  on  the  top,  and  then  closely  sol- 
dered to  the  thorax,  thus  forming  the  so  called  "cephalo- 
thorax."  These  procephalic  lobes  are  separated  by  a  third 
lobe  or  "triangular  plate"  which  grows  up  between  them, 
forming  the  epicliile.  The  mouth  first  appears  as  a  longitu- 
dinal furrow  in  this  triangle,  the  posterior  border  of  which 
becomes  the  so  called  labium  ("glossoide"  of  Latreille).  The 
labium  thus  originates  in  the  spiders  in  an  entirely  different 
way  from  the  appendages,  and  is  not  formed,  as  Brulle  sup- 
posed, by  the  soldering  of  the  maxillae,  hence  we  shall  adopt 
Latreille's  term  "glossoide"  for  this  piece. 

The  two  procephalic  lobes  afterwards  unite,  and  are  soldered 
together  on  the  median  line,  to  form  the  anterior  face  of  the 
head.  This  approach  takes  place  from  above,  over  the  buccal 
frame  (epichile).  The  mandibles  are  thus  in  advance  of  the 
mouth,  though  primitively  behind  it.  "The  head  is  then  in 
the  embryo  of  the  spider  very  distinct  from  the  thorax.  Only 
towards  the  end  of  embryonic  life  does  the  soldering  of  the 
;  cranium '  and  of  the  prothorax  become  so  intimate  that  their 
limits  become  indistinct.  It  is  only  from  this  moment  that 
there  exists  a  true  cephalothorax."  (Claparede.) 

Towards  the  end  of  embryonic  life  the  simple  eyes  appear, 
arising  from  four  little  furrows,  called  the  "ophthalmic  fur- 
rows." They  are  colored  by  the  deposition  of  a  small  quantity 
of  pigment.  They  appear  at  an  earlier  period  in  the  Acarina. 

Formation  of  the  heart  and  viscera.     After  the  walls  of  the 


AEACHNIDA.  639 

body  and  its  appendages  have  been  formed  the  dorsal  vessel 
appears.  It  is  formed  thus :  when  the  division  of  the  blasto- 
derm into  its  muscular  and  outer  layers  takes  place  the  cells 
multiply  and  are  heaped  up  along  the  median  line  of  the  body, 
so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  cordon  (cord),  not  only  in  the  abdomi- 
nal, but  in  the  thoracic  region  of  the  body.  The  vessel  prob- 
ably originates  in  the  spaces  between  the  cells,  but  the  author 
has  been  unable  to  trace  either  its  origin  or  that  of  the  blood- 
corpuscles.  But  the  rudimentary  heart  soon  presents  rhyth- 
mic pulsations,  and  in  the  limbs  we  see  the  arteries  filled 
with  a  homogeneous  fluid,  in  which  can  be  detected  the  pres- 
ence of  small  corpuscles,  moving  by  impulses  synchronous  with 
the  sj^stole  of  the  dorsal  vessel,  showing  that  this  fluid  is  the 
blood.  The  heart  already  presents  several  dilatations  (cham- 
bers) corresponding  to  the  abdominal  segments. 

,The  nervous  system  does  not  appear  to  be  formed  when  the 
embryo  assumes  the  ventral  instead  of  the  dorsal  position. 
The  digestive  system  is  very  rudimentary  when  the  embryo 
quits  the  egg.  The  alimentary  canal  is  probably  hollowed  out 
of  the  middle  of  the  vitelline  mass,  being  a  membranous  tube 
formed  around  the  remaining  yolk  mass.  The  lungs  and  spin- 
nerets are  well  formed  when  the  embryo  is  hatched,  while  the 
e}fes  appear  later. 

The  same  processes  of  development  go  on  in  the  scorpions, 
the  "  post-abdomen "  of  the  Araneina  (which  we  have- seen 
folded  back  on  the  base  of  the  abdomen  and  finally  to  disap- 
pear) in  them  being  retained,  forming  the  long,  articulated 
"tail;"  thus  the  distinction  into  abdomen  and  post- abdomen 
is  very  artificial  as  the  two  parts  merge  into  each  other,  especi- 
ally in  Solpuga,  Chelifer  and  Phrynus. 

In  the  mites  the  arrest  of  development  is  still  more  marked, 
as  the  three  regions  of  the  body  are  in  the  adult  not  differen- 
tiated, and  the  entire  body  assumes  an  oval  form,  the  abdomi- 
nal parts  being  short,  thus  strikingly  resembling  the  embryo 
of  Pholcus,  and  the  spiders  generally,  as  seen  in  Claparede's 
figures. 

In  the  Acarina  there  is  a  true  metamorphosis,  the  larvae 
of  some  forms  when  first  hatched  being  worm-like  ;  then  there 
is  an  oval  stage  when  the  young  mite  has  but  three  pairs  of 


640  ARACHNIDA. 

feet  (though  in  others  at  this  stage  there  are  four  pairs),  and 
after  another  moulting  the  fourth  pair  of  limbs  appear.  The 
young  mite  is  analogous  to  the  "Nauplius"  stage  of  many 
low  Crustacea. 

Claparede*  has  observed  in  Atax  Bonzi,  which  is  a  parasite 
on  the  gills  of  fresh-water  mussels,  that  out  of  the  originally 
laid  egg  (Plate  11  fig.  3,  embryo  of  Atax  Bonzi ;  ?c,  head-plate  ; 
ag,  infolding  of  the  belly ;  dm,  intermediate  skin ;  mo,  outer 
shell  of  the  egg  ;  md,  mandibles  ;  mo;,  maxillae  ;  pl-p3,  legs  ; 
vt,  yolk.  Fig.  4,  front  view  of  the  same)  ;  not  a  larva,  but 
an  egg-shaped  form  hatches,  which  he  calls  a  "deutovum." 
(PL  11  fig.  1,  bursting  of  the  egg-shell  into  two  halves,  mo,  on 
the  day  that  the  deutovum,  dm,  hatches  out ;  md,  mandibles ; 
ma;,  maxillae  ;  jt?3,  third  pair  of  legs  ;  Z/i,  body  cavity  ;  sp,  com- 
mon beginning  of  the  alimentary  canal  and  nervous  system ; 
am&,  haemaboeba,  amoeba-like  bodies,  which  represent  the  blo^d 
corpuscles ;  there  being  no  circulation  of  the  blood,  the  move- 
ments of  the  haemaboeba  constitute  a  vicarious  circulation. 
Fig.  2,  the  deutovum  free  from  the  first  egg-shell ;  lettering 
same  as  in  Fig.  1,  oc,  rudiments  of  the  simple  eyes ;  R,  beak; 
h,  7i',  rudimentary  stomach  and  liver).  From  this  deutovum 
(which  is  not  the  "amnion"  of  insects)  is  developed  a  six- 
footed  larva.  This  larva  passes  into  an  eight-footed  form,  the 
"second  larva,"  (the  "nymph"  or  pupa,  of  Dnjardin  and 
Robin)  which  transforms  into  the  adult  mite.  The  pupa  dif- 
fers from  the  adult  in  having  longer  feet,  and  four  instead  of 
ten  genital  cups,  the  latter  being  the  usual  number  in  the  adult. 

The  larvae  are  elongated  oval,  with  six  long  legs  and  four 
ocelli.  They  swarm  for  a  short  time  over  the  gills  of  the  mus- 
sel they  are  living  on  and  then  bore  into  the  substance  of 
the  gill  to  undergo  their  next  transformation.  Here  the  young 
mite  increases  in  size  and  becomes  round.  The  tissues  soften, 
those  of  the  different  organs  not  being  so  well  marked  as  in 
the  first  larval  stage.  The  limbs  are  short  and  much  larger 

*The  development  of  spiders  and  of  the  Arachnids  generally,  has  been  traced 
by  Rathke,  Herold,  and  more  especially  by  Claparede,  in  a  -work  of  great  ability, 
from  which  we  have  drawn  the  preceding  account,  often  using  the  aiTthor's  own 
words.  His  observations  were  made  on  various  genera  of  spiders  (Pholcus,  etc.) 
His  "Studies  on  Mites,"  from  which  Plate  11  is  copied,  appeared  in  Siebold's  and 
Kolliker's  Journal  of  Scientific  Zoology,  1868,  part  iv. 


METAMORPHOSIS    OF     TSCITES1. 


'«:•"''•        ;  "*;  ''/I-  * 


ARACHNIDA.  641 

than  before,  the  whole  animal  assuming  an  embryo-like  appear- 
ance, and  moving  about  like  a  rounded  mass  in  its  enclosure. 
Indeed  is  this  process  not  (though  Claparede  does  not  say  so) 
a  histolysis  of  the  former  larval  tissues,  and  the  formation  of  a 
new  body,  as  in  the  change  of  the  six-footed  insect  beneath  the 
larva  skin,  where  the  pupa  is  formed  ?  A  new  set  of  limbs 
grow  out,  this  time  there  being  four  instead  of  three  pairs  of 
legs,  while  the  old  larval  skin  is  still  embraced  within  the 
membrane  containing  the  second  larval  rounded  mass.  Soon 
the  body  is  perfected,  and  the  pupa,  as  we  may  properly  call  it, 
slips  out  of  the  larval  membrane. 

The  "second  larva"  after  some  time  undergoes  another 
change ;  the  limbs  grow  much  shorter  and  are  folded  beneath 
the  body,  the  animal  being  immovable,  while  the  whole  body 
assumes  a  broadly  ovate  form,  and  looks  like  an  embryo  just 
before  hatching,  but  still  lying  within  the  egg.  This  may  also 
be  comparable  with  the  formation  of  the  adult  fly  within  the 
puparium.  (Compare  Weismann's  account  of  this  process  in 
Musca,  pp.  63,  64.)  This  period  seems  to  be  an  exact  repeti- 
tion of  the  histolysis,  and  the  formation  of  new  tissues  for  the 
building  up  of  a  new  body  which  preceded  the  pupal  stage, 
while  the  adult  mite  slips  out  of  its  pupal  membrane  just  as 
the  pupa  threw  off  its  larval  membrane.  This  process,  again, 
may  be  compared  to  an  adult  butterfly,  or  fly,  emerging  from 
its  pupal  membrane. 

Thus  the  mites,  at  least  several  species,  pass  through  a  series 
of  metamorphoses  similar  to  those  of  such  insects  as  have  a 
complete  metamorphosis  (except  that  the  Acarian  pupa  is 
active),  while  the  absence  of  such  a  metamorphosis  in  the 
spiders  is  paralleled  by  the  incomplete  metamorphosis  of  the 
Orthoptera  and  many  Neuroptera,  which  reach  adult  life  by 
simple  moultings  of  the  skin. 

In  the  genus  Myobia  there  is  not  only  a  deutovum,  besides 
the  original  egg,  but  also  a  tritovum-stage.  The  eggs  of  this 
mite  are  long,  oval  and  conical  at  the  posterior  end.  The  em- 
bryo, with  the  rudiments  of  limbs,  is  represented  by  Fig.  5  of 
Plate  11.  The  little  tubercles  md  and  m#,  represent  the  man- 
dibles and  maxillae,  while  the  three  pair  of  legs,  pl-ps,  bud 
out  from  the  middle  of  the  body ;  Ic  represents  the  head-plate. 
41 


642  ARACHNIDA. 

The  maxillae  and  mandibles  finally  unite  to  form  a  beak  (R 
Fig.  6)  and  the  three  pairs  of  feet  (pl-p3)  are  folded  along 
the  median  line  of  the  body.  The  farther  development  of  the 
embryo  is  now  for  a  time  arrested,  and  a  peculiar  tooth-like 
process  (Fig.  7,  d)  is  developed.  Claparede  thinks  that  by 
means  of  this  the  anterior  end  of  the  egg-shell  is  cut  off,  and 
the  embryo  protrudes  through,  when,  as  in  Fig.  7,  it  is  seen 
to  be  surrounded  by  a  new  membrane,  the  deutovum  (eft), 
equivalent  to  that  of  Atax.  The  front  pair  of  legs  (p1)  have 
grown  larger  and  stand  out  in  front  and  on  each  side  of  the 
beak  (R).  The  growing  embryo  again  forces  off  the  anterior 
end  of  its  deutovum,  and  the  oval  end  of  the  egg  protrudes 
through,  and  is  surrounded  by  another  membrane.  This  is  the 
tritovum.  The  embryo  is  now  surrounded  by  the  membrane 
of  the  tritovum,  and  also  by  the  deutovular  membrane  and  the 
original  egg-shell,  the  last  two  having  lost  a  small  portion  of 
their  anterior  ends.  During  the  tritovum-stage  the  fore  pair 
of  feet  become  curved  in  like  claws,  and  the  beak  sinks  down 
into  the  body. 

Now  the  six-footed  larva  (Fig.  8)  breaks  through  the  shell 
and  closely  resembles  the  adult  (Plate  11.  fig.  9).  The  first 
pair  of  feet,  modified  for  grasping  the  hairs  of  the  field-mouse, 
on  which  it  is  a  parasite,  take  the  place  of  the  maxillne,  which 
have  been  arrested  in  their  development,  and  the  mandibles 
(pr)  assume  a  style-like  form.  After  one  or  more  moultings  of 
the  skin  a  fourth  pair  of  feet  (p4)  are  acquired,  and  the  adult 
form  results,  which  the  author  considers  as  the  type  of  a  new 
family  of  Acarina.  Claparede  also  suggests  the  affinity  of 
Myobia  to  the  Tardigrades  (Echiniscus  and  Lydella),  especially 
from  the  study  of  the  structure  of  the  style-like  mandibles  and 
their  supports.  We  feel  convinced,  after  examining  Clapa- 
rede's  figures  and  descriptions  that  this  comparison  is  very 
significant,  and  this  has  led  us  to  consider  the  Tardigrades 
as  a  family  of  true  mites,  related  to  Myobia  and  Demodex. 

A  French  naturalist,  C.  Robin,  has  recently  observed  in  cer- 
tain bird  sarcoptids,  to  which  the  parasite  of  the  Downy 
Woodpecker  noticed  above  is  allied,  "that  the  males  pass 
through  four,  and  the  females  through  five  stages,  indicated  as 
follows  :  (1)  the  egg,  on  issuing  from  which  the  animal  has  the 


ARACHNIDA.  643 

form  of  (2)  a  hexapod  larva,  followed  by  the  stage  of  (3)  octo- 
pod  nymphse  [four-footed  pupae],  without  sexual  organs.  (4) 
From  some  of  these  nymphse  issue :  a,  sexual  males,  after  a 
moult  which  is  final  for  them;  6,  from  others  issue  females 
without  external  sexual  organs,  resembling  the  nymphse,  but 
larger,  and  in  some  species  furnished  with  special  copulatory 
organs.  Finally,  after  a  last  moult  following  copulation,  these 
females  produce  (5)  the  sexual  and  fecundated  females,  which 
do  not  copulate,  and  in  the  ovary  of  which  eggs  are  to  be  seen. 
No  moult  follows  that  which  produces  males  or  females  fur- 
nished with  sexual  organs  ;  but  previously  to  this  the  moults 
are  more  numerous  than  the  changes  of  condition."  "  The  larvse 
undergo  from  two  to  three  moults  before  passing  to  the  state 
of  nymphse."  These  latter  also  undergo  two  or  three  moults. 
(Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural  History,  1868,  p.  78.) 

In  some  other  species  of  mites  no  males  have  been  found, 
and  the  females  have  been  isolated  after  being  hatched,  and 
yet  have  been  known  to  lay  eggs,  which  produced  young  with- 
out the  interposition  of  the  males.  This  parthenogenesis  has 
been  noticed  in  several  species.  But  few  fossil  Arachnids 
have  been  yet  discovered.  Roemer  has  described  a  spider 
from  the  coal  formation  of  Germany  under  the  name  of  Proto- 
lycosa,  while  two  species  of  scorpions,  and  a  Phalangium-like 
spider  have  been  detected  in  the  same  formation  in  this 
country. 

In  studying  spiders,  of  which  we  have  several  hundred  spe- 
cies, the  number  and  relative  situation  of  the  eyes,  and  the 
relative  length  of  the  different  pairs  of  legs,  should  be  noticed  ; 
their  webs  and  the  manner  of  constructing  them ;  their  habi- 
tats, whether  spreading  their  webs  upon  or  in  the  ground,  or 
in  trees,  or  on  herbage,  or  whether  the  species  are  aquatic,  or 
erratic,  and  pursue  their  prey  without  building  webs  to  entrap 
them,  should  be  observed.  So,  also,  how  they  deposit  their 
eggs,  and  the  form  and  appearance  of  the  silken  nidus,  and 
whether  the  female  bears  her  eggs  about  her,  and  how  this  is 
done,  whether  holding  on  to  the  egg-sac  by  her  fore  or  hind 
legs,  should  all  be  carefully  noticed.  Care  must  be  taken  not 
to  mistake  the  young  for  full-grown,  mature  species,  and  de- 
scribe them  as  such.  Spiders  can  be  reared  in  boxes  as 


644  AEACHNIDA. 

insects.  The  only  way  to  preserve  them  is  to  throw  them  into 
alcohol;  when  pinned  they  shrivel  up  and  lose  their  colors, 
which  keep  well  in  spirits. 

The  colors  of  spiders  vary  much  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year,  especially  during  the  frosts  of  autumn,  when  the  changes 
produced  are  greatest.  All  spiders  are  directly  beneficial 
to  agriculture  by  their  carnivorous  habits,  as  they  all  prey 
upon  insects,  and  do  no  harm  to  vegetation.  Their  instincts 
are  wonderful,  and  their  habits  and  organization  worthy  of 
more  study  than  has  yet  been  paid  them  in  this  country.  We 
have  no  species  poisonous  to  man,  except  when  the  state  of 
health  renders  the  constitution  open  to  receive  injury  from 
their  bite,  just  as  mosquitoes  and  black  flies  often  cause 
serious  harm  to  some  persons. 

The  Arachnids  are  divided  into  three  groups,  or  suborders, 
the  Araneina,  the  Pedipalpi,  and  the  Acarina. 


ARANEINA. 

THE  Spiders  are  distinguished  from  other  Arachnids  by  hav- 
ing mandibles  used  exclusively  for  biting,  a  spherical,  sac-like 
abdomen,  not  divided  into  segments,  and  attached  to  the  head- 
thorax  by  a  slender  pedicel.  The  maxillae  resemble  the  tho- 
racic feet.  They  breathe  both  by  lungs  and  tracheae,  and  do 
not  undergo  a  metamorphosis,  the  young  on  being  hatched  hav- 
ing four  pairs  of  legs. 

The  mandibles  (Plate  12,  fig.  3,  front  view,  with  the  eight 
ocelli  above)  are  vertical  and  end  in  a  powerful  hook,  in  the 
end  of  which  opens  a  duct  (Plate  12, 3  a,  b)  connected  with  the 
poison  gland  situated  in  the  head.  The  maxillae,  represented 
by  the  so  called  palpi,  though  in  reality  the  maxillae  themselves, 
with  a  flattened  coxal  lobe  at  the  base  (Plate  12,  fig.  2, 6,  palpi 
of  female  ;  fig.  8,  do.  of  male)  are  simple  in  the  female,  but  in 
the  male  the  terminal  joint  is  enlarged  and  modified  greatly  as 
an  accessory  genital  organ.  The  cephalothorax  is  not  jointed, 
and  there  are  usually  eight,  rarely  six,  simple  eyes  (ocelli). 
In  the  genus  Nops  from  Cuba  there  are,  however,  only  two, 
while  in  certain  cave-inhabiting  species,  according  to  Menge, 


ARANEINA.  645 

such  as  the  Anthrobia  Mammothia  of  Tellkampf  from  Mam- 
moth Cave,  and  other  spiders  inhabiting  European  caves,  there 
are  none. 

We  quote  an  interesting  account  of  the  habits  of  spiders, 
especially  the  mode  of  spinning  their  webs,  published  by  Mr. 
J.  H.  Emerton  in  the  "American  Naturalist"  (ii,  p.  478),  who 
has  studied  our  native  species  with  much  care. 

"  The  feet  of  spiders  are  wonderfully  adapted  for  walking  on 
the  web.  Each  foot 'is  furnished  with  three  claws  (Plate  12, 
Fig.  6,  a,  6,  6),  the  middle  one  of  which  (a)  is  bent  over  at  the 
end,  forming  a  long  finger  for  clinging  to  the  web,  or  for  guid- 
ing the  thread  in  spinning.  The  outer  claws  (e,  e)  are  curved 
and  toothed  like  a  comb.  Opposite  the  claws  are  several  stiff 
hairs  (c)  which  are  toothed  like  the  claws,  and  serve  as  a 
thumb  for  the  latter  to  shut  against." 

"  When  a  spider  wishes  to  build  a  web  she  usually  selects  a 
corner,  so  that  the  structure  may  be  attached  on  several  sides. 
She  then  runs  a  few  threads  along  the  objects  to  which  the  web 
is  fastened,  to  facilitate  her  passage  from  point  to  point.  The 
web  is  commenced  by  a  line  or  two  across  the  point  where  the 
centre  is  to  be,  which  is  not  usually  the  geometric  centre,  but 
nearer  the  top  than  the  bottom.  Radiating  lines  (Plate  12,  fig. 
1,  6,  &,  6)  are  then  spun  from  the  centre  in  all  directions.  In 
doing  this  the  spider  often  crosses  from  one  side  of  the  web 
to  the  opposite,  so  that  the  finished  portion  is  always  tightly 
drawn,  and  the  tension  of  the  completed  web  is  the  same  in 
every  part." 

"  Having  finished  the  framework,  the  spider  begins  near  the 
centre  and  spins  a  thread  (Fig.  1,  c,  c,  c)  spirally,  around 
the  web  to  the  circumference,  fastening  it  to  each  radius  as  it 
crosses.  The  distance  between  the  spirals  varies  with  the  size 
of  the  spiders,  being  about  as  far  as  they  can  reach.  This 
spiral  thread  serves  to  keep  the  parts  of  the  web  in  place  dur- 
ing the  rest  of  the  process,  and  is  removed  as  fast  as  the  web 
is  finished.  It  also  furnishes  a  ready  means  of  crossing  from 
one  radius  to  another  where  they  are  farthest  apart.  All  the 
thread  spun  up  to  this  stage  of  the  process  is  smooth  when 
dry,  and  will  not  adhere  if  touched  with  a  smooth  object/' 

"The  spider,  having  thus  formed  the  web,  begins  to  put  in 


646  ARANEINA. 

the  final  circles  at  the  outside,  walking  around  on  the  scaffold- 
ing previously  prepared,  which  she  gradually  destroys  as  she 
proceeds,  until  in  the  finished  web  only  a  few  turns  in  the  cen- 
tre are  left.  The  thread  of  the  circles  last  spun  is  covered  with 
viscid  globules,  strung  upon  it  like  beads  at  short  distances. 
If  an  insect  comes  in  contact  with  the  thread,  it  immediately 
adheres,  and  its  struggles  only  bring  a  larger  part  of  its  body 
into  contact  with  the  web.  Dust  and  seeds  also  stick  to  the 
web,  so  that  in  a  single  day  it  is  often  so  clogged  as  to  be  of 
no  farther  use.  The  web  also  becomes  torn  by  the  struggles 
of  the  prey,  and  by  wind  and  rain,  so  that  it  requires  repair 
or  renewal  every  night.  In  mending  a  web  the  spider  usually 
removes  all  except  the  outside  threads,  biting  them  off  and 
rolling  them  into  a  hard  ball  between  her  jaws,  so  that  when 
released  it  will  drop  quickly  to  the  ground.  This  probably 
gave  rise  to  the  opinion,  sometimes  advanced,  that  the  old  web 
is  eaten  by  the  spider. 

"When  the  web  is  finished  she  stations  herself  in  the  centre, 
where  a  small  circle  is  left  free  of  the  adhesive  threads.  Her 
usual  position  is  head  downward,  with  each  foot  on  one  of  the 
radii  of  the  web,  and  the  spinners  ready  to  fasten  themselves 
by  a  thread  at  the  least  alarm.  She  often  remains  in  her  hole 
with  one  foot  out,  and  resting  on  a  tight  thread  connected  with 
the  centre  of  the  web,  so  that  any  vibration  is  quickly  detected. 
If  the  web  be  gently  touched  the  spider  will  rush  into  the  cen- 
tre, and  face  towards  the^disturbed  part.  She  will  then  jerk 
smartly  several  of  the  radii  leading  in  that  direction,  to  see  if 
the  intruder  is  a  living  animal.  If  this  test  is  followed  by  the 
expected  struggle  she  runs  out  towards  the  victim,  stepping  as 
little  as  possible  on  the  adhesive  threads,  seizes  it  in  her  jaws, 
and  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  feel  the  effects  of  the  bite,  envelops 
it  in  a  silken  covering,  and  hangs  it  up  to  suck  at  her  leisure. 
In  spinning  this  envelope  the  insect  is  held  and  turned  around 
mainly  by  the  short  third  pair  of  feet,  while  a  flat  band  of 
threads  is  drawn  from  the  spinners  by  the  hind  pair  working 
alternately  like  the  hands  in  pulling  a  rope,  and  wound  over  it 
in  every  direction,  so  that  in  a  few  seconds  it  is  so  covered  as 
to  be  unable  to  move  a  limb.  When  a  web  is  shaken  by  the 
wind  the  spider  will  sometimes  draw  in  all  her  feet  towards  her 


Plate  12, 


THE    COMMON    GARDEN    SPIDER. 


. 
TETRAPNEUMONES.  647 

body,  thereby  tightening  the  web  in  every  direction  so  that  the 
vibration  is  prevented. 

"  The  construction  of  nets  for  catching  food  is  not  the  only 
use  of  the  thread  made  by  these  spiders.  They  seldom  move 
from  place  to  place  without  spinning  a  line  after  them  as  they 
go.  They  are  able  by  its  use  to  drop  safely  from  any  height, 
and  when  suspended  by  it  are  carried  by  the  wind  across  wide 
spaces  without  any  exertion  on  their  part,  except  to  let  out  the 
thread.  The  crevices  in  which  they  pass  the  winter  and  the 
leisure  hours  of  summer,  are  partly  lined  and  enclosed  by  a 
coating  of  silk  resembling  that  used  for  confining  captured  in- 
sects. The  eggs  are  enclosed  in  a  cocoon  of  the  same  mate- 
rial, and  there  the  young  remain  until  they  are  strong  enough 
to  shift  for  themselves,  growing  to  nearly  double  their  size 
without  apparent  nourishment. 

"Several  hundred  young  are  produced  by  a  single  female, 
but  probably  it  is  seldom  that  one-tenth  of  this  number  ever 
reach  adult  size.  Nearly  all  the  spiders  which  we  see  in  webs 
are  females  or  young.  They  spend  most  of  their  time  in  the 
vicinity  of  their  webs,  and  many  doubtless  pass  their  lives 
within  a  few  yards  of  the  place  of  their  birfh.  The  adult  males 
are  seldom  seen  building  or  occupying  webs :  they  remain  con- 
cealed during  the  day,  and  at  night  wander  about  from  web  to 
web.  When  young  there  is  no  obvious  difference  between  the 
sexes,  but  as  the  time  for  the  last  moult  approaches,  the  ends 
of  the  palpi  of  the  male  swell  to  several  times  their  former 
size.  When  the  time  for  the  final  moult  arrives,  both  sexes 
retire  to  their  holes  and  cast  off  the  skins  of  their  entire  bodies, 
even  to  the  claws.  This  process  obliges  them  to  remain  con- 
cealed until  the  new  skin  has  acquired  sufficient  strength  and 
firmness,  when  they  again  return  to  their  webs.  The  females 
still  resemble  the  young,  except  in  size,  but  the  males  are 
distinguished  from  them  by  the  greater  length  of  their  limbs, 
the  diminished  size  of  the  posterior  half  of  the  body,  and  the 
large  and  complicated  joints  of  the  palpi  (Plate  12,  fig.  8)." 

TETRAPNEUMONES  Latreille.  The  large  hairy  species  of 
Mygale  differ  from  other  spiders  in  having  four  lung-sacs  and 
as  many  stigmata,  and  only  two  pairs  of  spinnerets,  of  which 


648 


, 
ARANEINA. 


one  pair  is  very  small,  while  there  are  eight  ocelli.  The  differ- 
ent species  make  cylindrical  holes  in  the  earth ;  that  of  M. 
nidulans  of  the  West  Indies  is  closed  by  a  lid  of  earth  covered 
beneath  with  silk.  My  gale  avicularia  Linn.,  the  Bird  spider, 
seizes  small  birds  and  sucks  their  blood.  M.  Hentzii  (Fig. 
627,  natural  size)  ranges  from  Missouri  southward. 

DIPNETJMONES  Latreille.     In  the  remaining  genera  of  spiders 
there  are  two  lung-sacs,  two  or  four  stigmata,  and  three  pairs 


Fig.  627. 

of  spinnerets.  They  are  divided  into  two  groups,  the  "Sed- 
entary" and  "Wandering"  spiders.  The  sedentary  species 
have  the  ocelli  usually  arranged  in  two  transverse  rows  ;  they 
spin  webs  in  which  they  remain  and  seize  their  prey.  In  the 


DIPNEUMONES.  649 

genus  Dysdera  there  are  six  ocelli,  of  which  four  lie  in  the  front 
row ;  the  cephalothorax  is  small,  long,  oval,  and  the  first  pair 
of  legs  are  the  longest.  The  species  dwell  in  silken  tubes, 
under  stones  or  in  crevices.  D.  interrita  Hentz  is  a  New 
England  species.  In  Drassus  there  are  eight  ocelli,  and  the 
hindermost  pair  of  feet  are  the  longest. 

Clubione  includes  those  species  which  have  eight  ocelli,  the 
four  hinder  ones,  with  the  two  outer  ones  on  the  front  row, 
forming  almost  a  ^semicircle ;  the  fore  legs  are  the  longest. 
They  construct  under  the  bark  of  trees,  under  leaves  or  be- 
neath stones,  tubes  of  very  white  silk,  from  which  they  make 
nocturnal  expeditions  for  food.  C.  tranquilla  Hentz  is  com- 
mon in  the  United  States.  C.  medicinalis  Walkenaer  has  been 
used  as  a  vesicant.  The 
Water  spider  of  Europe, 
Argyroneta  aquatica  Linn., 
lives  beneath  the  water, 
where  it  makes  its  nest  and 
cocoon,  which  is  filled  with 
air. 

The  genus  Tegenaria  has 
the  ocelli  arranged  in  two 
slightly  curved  rows,  the 
third  pair  of  feet  are  shorter 
than  the  others,  and  the  ab- 
domen is  oval.  The  species 
are  "  sedentary,  making  in  Mg.  628. 

obscure  corners  a  horizontal  web,  at  the  upper  part  of  which 
is  a  tubular  habitation,  where  the  spider  remains  motionless 
till  some  insect  be  entangled  in  the  threads."  (Hentz.) 
T.  medicinalis  Hentz  is  "pale  brown,  turning  to  bluish  black ; 
cephalothorax  with  a  blackish  band  on  each  side ;  abdomen 
varied  with  black,  or  plumbeous  and  brown ;  feet  varied  with 
blackish."  It  "is  found  in  every  cellar  or  dark  place  in  the 
country.  For  some  time  the  use  of  its  web  as  a  narcotic,  in 
cases  of  fever,  was  recommended  by  many  physicians." 
(Hentz.)  Fig.  628  (enlarged)  represents  T.  atrica,  a  European 
species. 

Filistata   is   a  closely   allied  genus.     F.   hibernalis   Hentz 


650  ARANEINA. 

"makes  a  tubular  habitation  of  silk  in  crevices  on  old  walls  or 
rocks,  throwing  out  an  irregular  web  which  is  spread  on  the 
wall  or  stone  around  the  aperture.  ...  In  walking  it  uses 
the  palpi  like  feet,  and  these  organs  are  very  long,  particularly 
in  the  male."  According  to  Hentz  it  is  found  in  South  Caro- 
lina and  Alabama. 

The  two  genera  Pholcus  and  Theridion  belong  to  Latreille's 
group,  "  Inaequitelae,"  comprising  those  forms  in  which  the 
first  pair  of  limbs  are  usually  the  longest.  %  In  Pholcus  the  legs 
are  very  long  and  slender.  According  to  Hentz  the  species 
are  "  sedentary,  making  in  dark  corners  a  very  loose  web  of 
slender  threads,  crossed  in  all  directions.  The  eggs  are  col- 
lected together  without  a  silk  covering,  which  the  mother  car- 
ries with  her  cheliceres"  (maxillary  palpi).  This  genus  "by 
the  extreme  length  of  its  legs  resembles  Phalangium.  The 
species  belonging  to  it  may  be  found  in  apartments  seldom 
visited,  particularly  churches  and  caves.  They  shake  their 
body  when  threatened  by  an  enemy,  but  seem  to  have  very 
weak  means  of  offence,  and  to  feed  on  the  very  smallest  prey." 
P.  Ailanticus  Hentz  inhabits  the  Southern  States. 

In  Theridion  the  four  inner  ocelli  are  larger  than  the  four 
outer  ones,  and  the  first  and  last  pair  of  limbs  are  the  longest. 
Hentz  states  that  the  species  are  sedentary,  forming  a  web 
made  of  threads  crossed  in  all  directions,  while  the  cocoons 
are  of  various  shapes.  A  majority  of  the  species  are  very 
small,  and  their  webs  made  on  the  tops  of  weeds,  in  bushes, 
or  in  retired  corners,  are  familiar  to  every  one.  T.  vulgar e 
Hentz  varies  "from  a  cream  white  to  a  livid  brown,  or  plum- 
beous color.  The  cephalothorax  is  dull  rufous,  the  abdomen 
with  various  undulating  lines,  and  the  feet  have  more  or  less 
distinct,  dark  or  plumbeous  rings."  Hentz  says  that  "there 
is  probably  no  spider  so  abundant  in  the  United  States.  It 
makes  an  irregular  web  in  somewhat  retired  corners,  and  usu- 
ally in  dark  situations,  but  occasionally  also  in  the  open  air." 
It  catches  large  insects  and  hangs  them  up  to  its  nest.  Hentz 
says  of  the  T.  studiosum  which  he  has  described,  that  ".when 
its  web  is  destroyed  it  does  not  abandon  its  cocoon,  which  is 
orbicular  and  whitish,  and  is  placed  in  the  central  part  of  the 
web.  The  mother  then  grasps  it  with  her  cheliceres,  and  de- 


DIPNEUMONES. 


651 


fends  her  progeny  while  life  endures.  She  also  takes  care  of 
her  young,  making  a  tent  like  that  of  social  caterpillars  for 
their  shelter,  and  remaining  near  them  till  they  can  protect 
themselves."  It  occurs  in  South  Carolina  and  Alabama. 
Hentz  says  of  T.  verecundum  Hentz,  a  jet  black  species  found 
in  the  Southern  States,  that  "it  is  very  common  under  stones, 
logs,  or  clods  of  earth,  where  it  makes  a  web,  the  threads  of 
which  are  so  powerful  as  to  arrest  the  largest  Hymenopterous 
insects,  such  as  humble  bees.  Its  bite,  if  I  can  rely  on  the 
vague  description  of 
physicians  unac- 
quainted with  ento- 
mology, is  somewhat 
dangerous,  producing 
alarming  nervous  dis- 
orders. "Fig.  629  rep- 
resents TJieridion  ri- 
parium  (lower  figure, 
male ;  upper,  female, 
enlarged),  of  Europe. 
JEpeira  is  readily 
known  by  the  large 
globular  abdomen. 
The  species  are  "sed- 
entary, forming  a  web 
composed  of  spiral 
threads  crossed  by 
other  threads  depart- 
ing from  the  centre  ;  they  often  dwell  in  a  tent  constructed 
above  the  web ;  the  cocoons  are  of  various  forms.  E.  vulgaris 
Hentz  (Plate  12,  fig.  .,.12)  is  pale  gray,  with  a  pitchy  black  ab- 
domen, with  various  winding  white  marks,  and  a  middle  one  in 
the  form  of  a  cross.  It  spins  a  regular  geometrical  web,  and 
is  almost  domesticated,  being  found  about  the  outside  of 
houses  and  in  gardens..  E.  domiciliorum  Hentz  is  a  gray  or 
brownish  species,  and  is  found  in  dark  rooms. 

The  genus  Nepliila  comprises  large  spiders,  with  long  cylin- 
drical abdomens.  N.plumipes  (Fig.  630,  natural  size)  is  found 
in  the  Southern  States.  Dr.  B.  G.  Wilder  has  given  an  ac- 


652  ARANEINA. 

count  of  its  habits,  and  considers  its  silk,  if  the  spider  could  be 
reared  in  sufficient  quantities,  as  of  commercial  value.  The 
males  (upper  figure)  are  minute  in  size,  compared  with  the 
females. 

The  genus  Thomisus  is  characterized  by  the  small  size  of  the 
cheliceres,  and  the  first  and  second  pair  of  feet  are  either  the 
longest,  or  the  second  alone  are  longest.  The  species  "  wander 


Fig.  630. 

after  their  prey,  making  no  web,  but  casting  irregular  threads, 
with  a  flattened  cocoon,  usually  placed  under  leaves,  and 
watched  by  the  mother  till  the  young  are  hatched."  (Hentz.) 
T.  vulgaris  Hentz  is  upale  gray,  with  four  impressed  dots  on 
the  abdomen ;  the  body  is  flat,  and  the  legs  are  covered  with 
indistinct  darker  rings.  This  spider,  commonly  seen  on  fenc- 


DIPNEUMONES.  653 

ing  or  prostrate  timber,  like  those  of  the  same  genus,  moves 
side  wise  and  backwards,  but  it  is  much  more  active  than  T. 
celer.  When  pursued  by  an  enemy,  like  Attus  and  Epei'ra,  it 
leaps  and  hangs  by  a  thread,  which  supports  it  in  the  air." 
It  is  a  widely  diffused  species.  T.  celer  Hentz  is  also  a  widely 
distributed  species,  and  is  "found  usually  on  blossoms,  where 
it  remains  patiently  waiting  for  Diptera,  other  small  insects, 
and  even  butterflies,  which  it  secures  with  amazing  muscular 
power." 

The  three  remaining  genera  belong  to  Latreille's  group  of 
"Wanderers,"  as  they  spin  no  web.     The  species  of  Dolomedes 


Fig.  631. 

(Fig.  631,  from  Harris'  Correspondence)  wander  after  their 
prey,  making  no  web,  except  while  rearing  their  young,  and 
hiding  under  stones,  sometimes  diving  under  water  ;  the  cocoon 
is  usually  orbicular,  and  is  carried  by  the  mother.  D.  lanceo- 
latus  Hentz  "is  always  found  near  or  on  water,  running  on  it 
with  surprising  agility,  preying  often  on  large  aquatic  insects. 
A  female  of  Dolomedes  was  twice  found  on  high  bushes  by  my 
friend,  T.  W.  Harris,  in  Milton,  Mass.,  'on  a  large,  irregular 


654  AKANEINA. 

loose,  horizontal  web,  at  one  extremity  of  which  was  situated 
her  follicle,  or  egg-bag,  covered  with  young.  The  parent  ap- 
peared watching  them  at  some  distance.'  This  spider  can 
dive  and  stay  a  considerable  time  under  water,  to  avoid  its 
enemies.  It  was  found  in  March,  in  Alabama,  under  stones 
near  a  stream  of  water."  It  ranges  northwards  to  Massachu- 
setts. 

The  Tarantula  belongs  to  the  genus  Lycosa ,  which  comprises 
large  stout  hairy  spiders,  with  large  cheliceres  and  moderately 
sized  fangs,  with  the  fourth  pair  6f  feet  the  longest  and  the 
third  pair  shortest.  The  species  make  no  web,  wandering  for 
their  prey,  and  hiding  under  stones.  They  frequently  make 
holes  in  the  ground  in  which  they  dwell,  spinning  at  the  orifice 
a  ring  of  silk  which  forms  a  consolidated  entrance  like  a  trap 
door.  The  cocoon  is  usually  orbicular,  and  is  often  carried 
about  by  the  mother,  while  the  young  are  borne  about  on  the 
back  of  her  abdomen.  (Hentz.)  L. :  tarantula  Linn,  is  the  cele- 
brated Tarantula  of  Italy  and  Spain.  Its  bite  is  commonly 
supposed  to  produce  the  effects  termed  "tarantism,"  but  Dr. 
Bergsoe  has  proved  that  tarantism  is  rarely  due  to  the  bite  of 
the  tarantula,  which  is  comparatively  harmless. 

The  Lycosa  fatifera  of  Hentz  is  said  by  him  to  be  bluish 
black,  with  the  cephalothorax  deeper  in  color  at  the  sides ;  the 
cheliceres  are  covered  with  rufous  hairs,  and  have  a  red  eleva- 
tion on  their  outer  side  near  their  base.  It  is  one  of  the  largest 
species  of  the  genus.  "This  formidable  species  dwells  in 
holes,  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  depth,  in  light  soil,  which  it  digs 
itself;  for  the  cavity  is  always  proportionate  to  the  size  of  the 
spider.  The  orifice  of  the  hole  has  a  ring  made  chiefly  of  silk, 
which  prevents  the  soil  from  falling  in  when  it  rains.  This 
Lycosa,  probably  as  large  as  the  Tarantula  of  the  south  of 
Europe,  is  common  in  Massachusetts,  but  we  have  not  heard 
of  serious  accidents  produced  by  its  bite.  Its  poison,  how- 
ever, must  be  of  the  same  nature  and  as  virulent."  (Hentz.) 

In  the  leaping  spiders,  Salticus,  the  cephalothorax  is  usually 
large,  square,  and  the  abdomen  is  oval  cylindrical.  Hentz 
says  that  they  wander  after  their  prey,  making  no  web,  but 
concealing  themselves  in  a  silken  valve,  for  the  purpose  of 
casting  their  skin,  or  for  hibernation.  The  Salticus  (Attus) 


PEDIPALPI.  655 

familiaris  of  Hentz  is  a  common  species  throughout  the  United 
States.  It  is  pale  gray,  hairy,  and  the  abdomen  is  blackish, 
with  a  grayish  angular  band  edged  with  whitish.  Hentz  says 
that  it  is  almost  domesticated  in  our  houses,  and  dwells  in 
cracks  around  sashes,  between  clapboards,  etc.,  and  may  be 
seen  on  the  sunny  side  of  the  house,  and  in  the  hottest  places, 
wandering  in  search  of  prey.  It  moves  with  agility  and  ease, 
but  usually  with  a  certain  leaping  gait.  .  .  .  Before  leaping 
this  Attus  always  fixes  a  thread  on  the  point  from  which  it 
departs ;  by  this  it  is  suspended  in  the  air,  if  it  miss  its  aim, 
and  it  is  secure  against  falling  far  from  its  hunting  grounds. 
These  spiders,  and  probably  all  other  species,  a  day  or  two 
before  they  change  their  skin,  make  a  tube  of  white  silk,  open 
at  both  ends ;  there  they  remain  motionless  till  the  moulting 
time  arrives,  and  even  some  days  after  are  seen  there  still, 
probably  remaining  in  a  secure  place,  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
gaining strength  and  activity." 


PEDIPALPI. 

UNDER  the  term  Pedipalpi  we  would  embrace  besides  the 
Pedipalps  of  Latreille,  the  Solpugids  and  Phalangids.  They 
all  agree  in  having  the  maxillary  palpi  greatly  enlarged  and 
usually  ending  in  a  forceps,  and  the  abdomen  distinctly 
jointed,  with  the  end,  sometimes,  as  in  the  scorpions,  pro- 
longed into  a  tail.  In  the  retention  of  the  tail  in  some  of  the 
forms,  the  abnormally  enlarged  maxillae,  the  jointed  cephalo- 
thorax  and  abdomen,  which  in  the  scorpions  reminds  us  of  the 
Myriopods,  we  have  characters  which  place  the  Pedipalps  be- 
low the  true  spiders. 

SOLPUGIDS  Gervais.  In  this  group,  the  species  of  which 
are  large,  hairy,  spider-like  animals,  the  cephalothorax  is 
clearly  jointed,  and  the  abdomen  is  elongated ;  respiration 
is  carried  on  by  tracheae.  Solpuga  may  at  once  be  known  by 
the  enormous,  though  not  very  long,  maxillary  palpi.  S. 
araneoides  Pallas  inhabits  Southern  Russia.  $.  (Galeodes) 
Americana  Say  inhabits  the  Southern  States. 


656 


PEDIPALPI. 


PHALANGID^E  Gervais.  In  the  group  of  Harvest-men  the 
cephalothorax  is  not  jointed  ;  the  abdomen  is  short  and  thick, 
and  the  maxillary  palpi  end  in  a  simple  claw ;  the  mandibles 
are  well  developed  and  end  in  a  forceps.  The  legs  are 
extremely  long.  They  breathe  through  tracheae.  They  occur 
about  houses,  especially  in  shady  places  and  in  woods  and 


Fig.  632. 

fields.  "They  are  carnivorous,  feeding  on  small  insects,  and 
are  said  to  be  especially  addicted  to  Aphis-eating."  (Wood.) 
The  genus  Phalangium  has  no  spines  on  the  palpi,  and  has 
two  simple  eyes.  The  species  have  been  well  described  by 
Dr.  H.  C.  Wood,  jr.  (Proceedings  of  the  Essex  Institute,  vol. 
vi),  some  of  whose  illustrations  appear  here,  so  that  the  spe- 
cies here  mentioned  can  be  easily  identified.  P.  dorsatum  Say 


PHRYNID^. 


657 


(Fig.  632,  a,  female,  natural  size ;  6,  male,  natural  size ;  c, 
penis,  anterior  and  lateral  view,  enlarged)  has  been  found  from 
northern  New  York  to  Washington. 
When  handled  it  emits  a  drop  of 
an  odorous  clear  fluid.  We  have 
found  it  frequently  in  Salem. 

P.  ventricosum  Wood  (Fig.  633, 
a,  trochanter  ;  6,  femora ;  c,  mandi- 
bles ;  d,  maxillary  palpus,  male? 
natural  size)  is  widely  distributed 
in  the  United  States.  Acanthocheir 
is  an  eyeless  genus  with  spiny  palpi. 
A.  armata  Tellkampf  is  found  in 
Mammoth  Cave.  In  Gonyleptes  the 
cephalothorax  is  much  enlarged, 
and  overhangs  the  abdomen.  #. 
ornatum  Say  (Fig.  634,  male,  a, 
under  surface ;  6,  upper  surface, 
natural  size ;  c,  penis)  is  found  in 

the  Southern  States  ;  the  species  are  quite  numerous  in  South 
America. 

Under  the  name  of  Archetarbus  rotundatus  (Fig.  635)  Mr. 

Scudder  describes  a  fossil  Pedipalp,  which  seems  to  be  "allied 
a  to  the  Phalangidce  and  to  the 
Phrynidce.  In  its  fragmentary 
state  one  can  scarcely  judge  with 
certainty  of  its  exact  relationship. 
The  arrangement  of  the  legs  ac- 
cords well  with  both  families.  The 
broad  attachment  of  the  thorax  to 
the  abdomen  is  a  Phalangidan  char- 
acteristic, while  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  abdomen,  the  number  of  the 
abdominal  segments  and  the  crowd- 
ed state  of  the  central  portions  of 

the  basal  ones,  indicate  closer  affinities  to  the  Phrynidce." 

PHKTNID^E  Sundeval.    Whip- scorpions.    In  this  group  the 
42 


Fig.  634. 


658 


PEDIPALPI. 


anterior  pair  of  legs  are  very  long  and  slender,  being  much 
smaller  than  the  others,  while  the  maxillary  palpi  are  very 
large ;  there  are  eight  simple  eyes,  and  the  abdomen  is  eleven 
to  twelve-jointed,  while  there  are  two  pairs  of 
stigmata,  and  they  also  breathe  by  lungs.  PJiry- 
nus  is  at  once  known  by  the  excessively  long, 
whip-like,  multiarticulate  fore  legs,  which  ap- 
parently perform  the  office  of  antennae ;  the  body 
is  short  and  broad,  and  has  no  appendage  to  the 
abdomen.  P.  reniformis  Fabr.  is  fourteen  lines 
long,  and  is  found  in  Brazil.  P.  asperatipes  Wood 
Fig.  635.  occurs  in  Lower  California.  No  species  occur 
in  the  United  States.  The  genus  Thetyphonus  is  known  by 
the  oblong  body,  ending  usually  in  a  slender  many-jointed 
filament.  T.  caudatus  Fabr.  is  fifteen  lines  long,  and  inhabits 
Java.  T.  giganteus  Lucas  occurs  in  the  South-western  States 
and  in  Mexico. 

CHERNETID.E  Menge.     (Pseudo-scorpiones  Latreille.)     The 
False-scorpions  are  at  once  known  by  their  large  maxillary 
palpi  like  the  scorpion's  claw.     The  abdomen  is  eleven-jointed, 
flattened,  without  any  appendage,  and 
the   living    forms    are    minute ;     they 
breathe  by  tracheae.     They  are  found 
running  about  dusty  books  and  in  dark 
places  and  feed  on  mites   and   Psoci. 
They  are  often  found  attached  to  the 
leg  of  some  fly  or  other  insect  by  which 
they  are  transported  about.     "The  fe- 
male chelifer  bears  the  eggs,  seventeen 
in  number,  in  a  little  bunch  under  her 
Fig.  636.  abdomen  near  the  opening  of  her  sex- 

ual organs.  Menge  has  observed  the  Pseudo-scorpions  cast 
their  skin  in  a  light  web  made  for  that  purpose.  The  little 
animal  remained  five  days  in  the  web  after  its  metamorphosis, 
and  did  not  assume  its  dark  colors  for  four  weeks.  Three 
months  after  it  returned  to  the  same  web  for  hibernation. 
Menge  describes  eight  species  from  the  Prussian  Amber,  be- 
longing to  genera  still  living,  and  Corda  one  (Microlabris 


SCORPIONID.E. 


659 


Sternbergi)  from  the  coal  formation  in  Bohemia,  one  inch  long. 
Schioclte  has  found  a  curious  blind  species  in  the  caves  of 
Adelsburg,  and  it  is  very  probable  that  a  closer  examination 
of  the  Kentucky  caves  will  give  a  similar  American  species." 
(Hagen.)  In  Chernes  there  are  no  eyes.  C.  Sanborni  Hagen 
is  found  in  Massachusetts. 

In  Chelifer  there  are  two  eyes.  C.  cancroides  Linn.  (Fig. 
636,  enlarged)  is  dark  brown,  with  many  short  spines  on  the 
thorax.  It  occurs  in  Massachusetts  and  Illinois. 

SCORPIONID.E  Latreille.  The  Scorpions  are  well  known  by 
the  immense  forceps-like  maxillae,  and  the  long  tail  continu- 
ous with  the  thorax,  and  end- 
ing in  a  powerful  sting,  in  which 
is  lodged  a  poison  sac.  The  body 
is  more  distinctly  divided  into  seg- 
ments than  any  other  Arachnids, 
and  hence  the  scorpions  bear,  as 
Gerstaecker  suggests,  a  strong 
analogy  to  the  Myriapods.  The 
genus  Scorpio  is  restricted  to  those 
species  which  have  six  ocelli.  JS. 
Allenii  Wood  is  our  only  North 
American  species  and  is  found  in 
Lower  California.  Our  other  spe- 
cies are  mostly  comprised  in  the 
genus  Butlius,  which  has  eight 
ocelli.  B.  Carolinianus  Beauvois 
(Fig.  637)  ranges  from  the  South- 
ern Atlantic  States  through  Texas  Fis-  637- 
northward  into  Southern  Kansas.  "  Scorpions  are  dangerous 
in  proportion  to  their  size,  their  age,  the  state  of  irritation  they 
may  be  in,  and  the  temperature  of  the  climate  in  which  they 
reside.  The  wounds,  however,  even  of  the  largest  species  are 
rarely  fatal."  (Moquin  Tandon.) 

Messrs.  Meek  and  Worthen  have  described  (Palaeontology 
of  the  Illinois  Geological  Survey,  iii,  p.  560)  two  fossil  scor- 
pions from  the  lower  part  of  the  coal  measures  of  Illinois, 
which  are  as  highly  developed,  and  bear  a  very  close  resem- 


660  ACARINA. 

blance  to  the  living  species.  The  Eoscorpion  carbonarius  of 
Meek  and  "Worthen  is  said  by  them  to  resemble  closely  Buthus 
-  hirsutus  from  California.  The  other  fossil  scorpion  is  the  Ma- 
zonia  Wbodiana  M.  and  W.,  which  differs  from  any  known 
living  forms  in  not  having  any  lateral  eyes.  Very  different 
and  belonging  to  a  much  more  degraded  and  embryonic  type 
is  the  Cydophthalmus  Bucklandi  from  the  Coal  Measures  of 
Bohemia,  in  which  the  tail  is  continuous  with  the  body,  being 
unusually  thick. 


ACARINA. 

THE  Mites  differ  from  other  Arachnids  by  their  oval  or 
rounded  bodies,  which  are  not  articulated,  the  cephalothorax 
being  merged  with  the  abdomen  ;  the  mouth-parts  are  adapted 
either  for  biting  or  sucking,  and  they  breathe  by  tracheae. 
They  are  usually  minute  in  size ;  the  ticks,  which  are  some- 
times half  an  inch  in  length,  comprising  the  largest  forms. 
They  appear  first  in  geological  history  in  the  Prussian  Amber, 
where  species  of  Trombidium  and  Hydrachna  occur. 

BDELLID^E  Duges.  This  inconsiderable  family  is  represented 
by  small  mites  with  long,  five-jointed  maxillary  palpi,  and  from 
two  to  six  ocelli,  which  are  sometimes  wanting.  The  limbs 
are  long  and  thick.  The  young  closely  resemble  the  adults. 
The  genus  Bdella  has  legs  of  nearly  equal  length.  B.  longi- 
cornis  Linn.,  an  European  species,  is  scarlet  red,  and  half  a 
line  in  length.  B.  marina  Pack,  lives  between  tide  marks. 

TROMBIDID.E  Leach.  The  species  of  this  family  are  red 
mites,  with  either  claw-like  or  style-like  maxillary  palpi,  and 
short  mandibles,  with  the  terminal  joints  scissor-like  and  op- 
posed to  each  other.  The  genus  Tetranychus  has  slender  style- 
like  maxillae,  and  two  ocelli.  The  two  fore  pair  of  legs  arise 
at  a  long  distance  from  the  hind  ones,  the  first  pair  being  the 
longest.  T.  telarius  Linn,  the  little  red  mites  of  our  hot- 
houses spin  webs  on  rose  leaves.  It  is  yellowish,  with  two  red- 
dish yellow  spots  on  the  sides,  and  is  one-half  a  line  long. 


IXODIDJE.  661 

It  may  be  killed  by  showering  sulphur  over  the  leaves.  In 
Europe  it  is  found  on  the  linden  tree.  The  young  of  this  spe- 
cies, according  to  Claparede,  passes  through  an  Ixodes-like 
stage,  as  regards  the  niouth-parts,  for  this  reason  we  place  the 
Ixodidce  below  them. 

HYDRACHNID/E  Sundeval.  The  Water-mites  are  known  by 
!  laving  the  maxillary  palpi  five-jointed,  with  terminal  hooks,  or 
bristles,  at  the  end.  The  legs  gradually  increase  in  length,  the 
hindermost  pair  being  longest  ;  they  are  ciliated,  with  two 
claws.  There  are  two  ocelli.  These  mites  swim  in  fresh  and 
sometimes  salt  water,  and  are  seen  running  over  water-plants. 
The  young  differ  so  much  from  the  adults  that  they  were  de- 
scribed by  Audouin  under  the  name  of  Achlysia.  In  Hy- 
drachna  the  mandibles  are  needle-shaped,  and  the  third  joint 
of  the  maxillae  is  the  longest.  The  body  is  oval,  with  the 
limbs  adapted  for  swimming,  and  there  are  two  eyes.  Hy- 
drachna  concharum  is  parasitic  throughout  life  on  the  gills  of 
fresh  water  mussels.  Others  are  parasitic  during  early  life  on 
fresh  water  Hemiptera  and  Coleoptera. 

In  Atax  the  body  is  oval,  sqlid  and  corneous.  The  mandi- 
bles end  in  a  stout  curved  claw,  and  the  five-jointed  maxillary 
palpi  end  in  an  acute  point.  The  species  are  red  in  color  and 
live  in  flowing  streams  ;  when  in  their  early,  and  in  some  cases 
their  adult  stages,  they  are  parasitic  in  the  gills  of  mussels. 


Leach.  The  Ticks  are  mites  of  gigantic  size,  with 
bodies  of  a  leathery  consistence.  The  three  to  four-jointed 
maxillae  are  small,  not  reaching  beyond  the  beak.  The  man- 
dibles are  saw-like,  being  covered  towards  the  end  with  teeth, 
with  from  two  to  four  terminal  hooks,  and,  with  the  large 
spatulate,  dentate  "glossoide"  of  the  maxillae,  form  a  beak 
which  the  tick  pushes  into  the  skin  of  its  host.  The  ocelli  are 
often  wanting,  and  the  legs  are  slender,  with  two  claws, 
and  in  the  young  a  distinct  membranous  foot-pad.  The 
recently  hatched  young  (Fig.  638,  a,  glossoide  ;  6,  mandibles  ; 
c,  maxillary  palpi  ;  e,  adult  gorged  with  blood)  is  six-footed, 
the  legs  being  very  long,  and  the  head  and  mouth  -parts  are 
much  larger  in  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  body  than  in  the 


662 


ACARINA, 


adult,  while  the  tripartite  division  of  the  body  is  very  distinct, 
the  thorax  being  distinct  from  the  head  and  abdomen. 

The  genus  Argas  closely  resembles  Ixodes.  Gerstaecker 
states  that  the  Argas  Persicus  Fisher  is  very  annoying  to  trav- 
ellers in  Persia.  Travellers  in  the  tropics  speak  of  the  in- 
tolerable torment  occasioned  by  wood  ticks,  Ixodes,  which, 
occurring  ordinarily  on  shrubs  and  trees,  attach  themselves  to 
all  sorts  of  reptiles,  beasts  and  cattle,  and  even  man  himself 
as  he  passes  by  within  their  reach.  Sometimes  cases  fall 
within  the  practice  of  the  physician  who  is  called  to  remove 
the  tick,  which  is  found  sometimes  literally  buried  under  the 
skin.  Mr.  J.  Stauffer  writes  me,  that  "on  June  23d  the  daugh- 
ter of  Abraham  Jackson  (colored) ,  pla37ing  among  the  leaves 

in  a  wood,  near  Springville, 
Lancaster  County,  Penn.,  on 
her  return  home  complained 
of  pain  in  the  arm.  No  at- 
tention was  paid  to  it  till  the 
next  day,  when  a  raised  tu- 
mor was  noticed,  a  small 
portion  protruding  through 
the  skin,  apparently  like  a 
splinter  of  wood.  The  child 
was  taken  to  a  physician 
who  applied  the  forceps,  and 
after  considerable  pain  to  the 
child,  and  labor  to  himself,  extracted  a  species  of  Ixodes, 
nearly  one-quarter  of  an  inch  long,  of  an  oval  form,  and  brown 
mahogany  color,  with  a  metallic  spot,  like  silver  bronze,  cen- 
trally situated  on  the  dorsal  region."  This  tick  proved,  from 
Mr.  Stauffer's  figures,  to  be  without  doubt,  Ixodes  unipunctata 
Pack.  (Plate  13,  fig.  11,  enlarged).  It  has  also  been  found  in 
Massachusetts  by  Mr.  F.  G.  Sanborn.  The  Ixodes  albipictus 
Pack.  (Fig.  638,  adult  gorged  with  blood,  and  the  six-footed 
young,  with  the  mouth-parts  of  the  young  enlarged,  and  5,  a 
foot  showing  the  claws  and  sucking  disc),  was  discovered  by 
Mr.  W.  J.  Hays  in  great  numbers  on  a  moose  which  had  been 
partially  domesticated.  The  females  lay  their  eggs  from  the 
first  of  May  until  the  25th  of  June,  the  "eggs  being  forced  6ut 


Fig.  638. 


ORIBATID^E.  663 

in  large  masses."  "On  the  3d  of  July  the  entire  mass  of  eggs 
seemed  to  hatch  out  at  once,  the  shell  opening  like  a  clam  and 
releasing  a  six-legged  insect."  (Hays.)  The  opening  of  the 
oviduct  is  just  behind  the  head,  between  the  anterior  pair  of 
feet,  so  that  the  eggs  appear  as  if  ejected  from  the  mouth. 

Another  species  is  the  Ixodes  bovis  (Plate  13,  fig.  10),  the 
common  cattle  tick  of  the  Western  States  and  Central  America, 
which  is  allied  to  the  European  /.  ricinus.  It  is  very  annoying 
to  horned  cattle,  gorging  itself  with  their  blood,  though  by  no 
means  confined  to  them  alone,  as  it  lives  indifferently  upon  the 
rattlesnake,  the  iguana,  small  mammals,  and  undoubtedly  any 
sort  of  animal  that  brushes  by  its  lurking-place  in  the  forest. 
It  is  a  reddish,  coriaceous,  flattened,  seed-like  creature,  with 
the  body  oblong  oval,  and  contracted  just  behind  the  middle. 
When  fully  grown  it  measures  from  a  quarter  to  half  an  inch 
in  length.  We  have  received  it  from  Missouri,  at  the  hands 
of  Mr.  Riley ;  and  Mr.  J.  A.  McNiel  has  found  it  very  abun- 
dantly on  horned  cattle,  on  the  western  coast  of  Nicaragua. 

GAMASID^E  Leach.  These  mites  have  scissor-like  mandibles, 
free  maxillae,  with  joints  of  equal  length,  and  hairy  legs  of 
similar  size  and  form,  while  the  ocelli  are  obsolete.  They  live 
parasitically  on  the  bodies  of  other  animals.  The  genus  Gam- 
asus  has  long  mandibles,  with  curved,  five-jointed,  acutely 
pointed  maxillary  palpi ;  the  body  is  oval,  flattened,  the  skin 
dense,  and  the  first  and  last  pair  of  legs  are  somewhat  longer 
than  the  middle  ones.  G.  coleoptratorum  Linn,  is  clear,  red- 
dish yellow,  and  about  a  third  of  a  line  long.  It  occurs  in 
Europe  on  beetles,  especially  species  of  Geotrupes  and  Necro- 
phorus.  The  same,  or  a  closely  allied  species,  is  found  in  this 
country.  Uropoda  vegetans  DeGeer,  a  similar  form,  also  lives 
on  beetles.  The  genus  Dermanyssus  has  shorter  jointed  max- 
illary palpi  than  in  Gamasus.  D.  avium  Duges  lives  on  birds, 
and  D.  pipistrellce  Qervais  on  bats.  In  Pteroptus  the  terminal 
joint  of  the  maxillae  is  very  long.  Pt.  vespertilionis  Dufour  is 
a  parasite  of  the  bat. 

ORIBATID^E  Nicolet.  In  these  mites  the  body  is  very  hard 
and  horny.  The  four-jointed  maxillary  palpi  are  short,  with 


664 


ACAKINA. 


the  first  joint  very  large,  forming  a  toothed  eating  surface. 
The  ocelli  are  nearly  obsolete,  and  the  legs  have  from  one  to 
three  claws.     The  cephalothorax  has  generally  two  wing-like 
projections,  and  two  or  three  cup-shaped 
pedicellated  stigmata  on  the  edge.     They 
generally  live  on  vegetable   matter.     In 
Oribates  the  side  of  the  cephalothorax  is 
produced  often  into  wing-like   processes, 
with  the    abdomen    orbicular,   flattened, 
sometimes    emarginate.      The    European 
O.  alatus  Hermann  is   smooth,  blackish 
Fig.  639.  brown,  and  lives  under  moss.     In  Notlirus 

the  body  is  elongated,  somewhat  quadrangular,  and  has  no 
lateral  expansions,  while  the  legs  are  stout,  with  tripartite 
claws.  We  have  observed  an  undescribed  species  of  this  genus 
sucking  the  eggs  of  the  canker-worm  in  Salem.  It  may  be 
called  Notlirus  ovivorus  (Fig.  639).  It  is  reddish  brown,  with 
a  dense  hard  body,  with  the  edge  of  the  abdomen  expanded 

evenly,  and  with  three 
slender  capitate  processes 
on  the  cephalothorax. 


This  family 

comprises  the  true  mites, 
which  have  soft,  thin- 
skinned  bodies,  with 
either  scissor  or  style-like 
mandibles,  the  latter  form- 
ing a  retractile  horny 
tube.  The  maxillae  are 
obsolete,  as  well  as  the 
ocelli.  The  claws  are 
sometimes  provided  with 

a  sucker.  The  members  of  this,  and  the.  following  groups, 
are  among  the  most  lowly  organized  of  articulates,  and  are 
found  living  parasitically  on  the  skin  of  other  animals,  or 
buried  within  their  integuments,  while  certain  acari  have 
been  detected  within  the  lungs  and  air  passages,  the  bloodves- 
sels and  the  intestinal  canals  of  vertebrate  animals.  The 


ACARIDJB.  665 

genus  Cheyletus  is  remarkable  for  having  the  maxillae  very  large, 
and  like  a  pair  of  legs,  with  the  ends  tripartite,  the  outer 
division  being  curved  and  clawlike,  while  the  two  innermost 
are  slender  lobes  pectinated  on  the  inner  side ;  the  mandibles 
are  style-like.  A  European  species  (Fig.  640)  feeds  on  Cheese- 
mites.  It  is  thought  by  Mr.  R.  Beck  that  another  species  of 
Cheyletus  is  parthenogenous,  as  "he  obtained  several  genera- 
tions from  the  first  individual,  without  the  intervention  of  a 
male."  (Science-Gossip,  1869,  p.  7.)  Mr.  J.  H.  Gregory,  of 
Marblehead,  Mass.,  has  found  a  species  of  this  genus,  which  we 
may  call  Cheyletus  seminivorus  (Plate  13,  fig.  6).  It  injured  the 
seeds  of  the  cabbage  stored  up  during  the  winter  by  sucking 
them  dry.  The  genus  Tyroglyplms  is  known  l>y  the  body  being 
elongated  oval,  with  scissor-like  mandibles,  and  outstretched 
four-jointed  feet,  with  a  long  stalked  sucking  disc  at  the  end. 
T.  domesticus  DeGeer  is  in  Europe  common  in  houses. 

Many  people  have  been  startled  by  statements  in  newspapers 
and  more  authoritative  sources,  as  to  the  immense  numbers  of 
sugar  mites,  T.  sacchari  (Fig.  641),  found 
in  unrefined  or  raw  sugar.  According  to 
Professor  Cameron,  of  Dublin,  as  quoted 
in  the  "Journal  of  the  Franklin  Insti- 
tute," for  November,  1868,  "Dr.  Hassel 
(who  was  the  first  to  notice  their  general 
occurrence  in  the  raw  sugar  sold  in  Lon- 
don) found  them  in  a  living  state  in  no 
fewer  than  sixty-nine  out  of  seventy-two 
samples.  He  did  not  detect  them  in  a 
single  specimen  of  refined  sugar.  In  an  Flg>  641> 

inferior  sample  of  raw  sugar,  examined  in  Dublin  by  Mr. 
Cameron,  he  reports  finding  five  hundred  mites  in  ten  grains 
of  sugar,  so  that  in  a  pound's  weight  occurred  one  hundred 
thousand.  They  appear  as  white  specks  in  the  sugar.  The 
disease  known  as  grocer's  itch  is,  undoubtedly,  due  to  the 
presence  of  this  mite,  which,  like  its  ally  the  Sarcoptes,  works 
its  way  under  the  skin  of  the  hand,  in  this  case,  however,  of 
cleanly  persons. 

Closely  allied  to  the  preceding  is  the  Cheese-mite,  T.  siro 
Linn.,  which  often  abounds  in  newly  made  cheese.     Lyonnet 


666  ACARINA. 

states  that  during  summer  this  mite  is  viviparous.  T.  farince 
DeGeer,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  found  in  flour.  Other  species 
have  been  known  to  occur  in  ulcers. 

We  figure  the  larva  of  the  European  Typhlodromus  pyri 
(Plate  13,  fig.  4)  the  adult  of  which,  according  to  A.  Scheuten, 
is  allied  to  Tyroglyphus,  and  lives  under  the  epidermis  of  the 
leaves  of  the  pear.  There  are  but  two  pairs  of  legs  present, 
and  the  body  is  long,  cylindrical  and  worm-like.  Fig.  5,  plate 
13,  represents  the  four -legged  larva  of  another  species  of 
Typhloclromus. 

The  Itch  mite  belongs  to  the  genus  Sarcoptes,  in  which  the 
body  is  rounded  ovate,  with  needle-like  mandibles,  and  with 
short  three-jointed  legs.  The  female  differs  from  the  male  in 
having  the  two  hinder  pairs  of  legs  only  partially  developed, 
and  ending  in  a  long  bristle.  S.  scabiei  Linn.  (Plate  13,  fig. 
7,  female)  was  first  recognized  by  an  Arabian  author  of  the 
twelfth  century  as  the  cause  of  the  disease  which  results  from 
its  attacks.  It  buries  itself  in  the  skin  on  the  more  protected 
parts  of  the  body,  forming  minute  galleries,  by  which  its  pres- 
ence is  detected,  and  by  its  punctures  maintains  a  constant 
irritation. 

Other  species  are  known  to  infest  the  cat,  dog  and  swine. 
They  are  best  destroyed  b}^  the  faithful  use  of  sulphur  oint- 
ment. Various  species  of  an  allied  genus,  Dermatodectes,  live 
in  galleries  on  different  species  of  domestic  animals  ;  thus  D. 
equi  lives  in  the  skin  of  the  horse,  D.  bovis  in  cattle,  and  D. 
ovis  in  sheep.  Various  Sarcoptids  occur  on  birds ;  among 
them  are  species  of  Dermaleichus.  On  March  6th,  Mr.  G. 
Cooke  called  my  attention  to  certain  female  mites  (Plate  13, 
fig.  1)  which  were  situated  on  the  narrow  groove  between  the 
main  stem  of  the  barb  and  the  outer  edge  of  the  barbules  of 
the  feathers  of  the  Downy  Woodpecker,  and  subsequently  we 
found  the  other  forms  indicated  in  Plate  13,  figs.  2  and  3,  in 
the  down  under  the  feathers.  These  long  worm-like  mites  are 
probably  the  females  of  the  singular  male  Sarcoptes-like  mite, 
represented  by  Figs.  2  and  3  of  the  plate,  as  they  were  found 
on  the  same  specimen  of  woodpecker  at  about  the  same  date. 

The  female  (though  there  is  probably  a  still  earlier  hexapo- 
dous  stage)  of  this  Sarcoptid,  which  we  may  call  Dermaleichus 


ACAEID^.  667 

pici-pubescentis,  has  an  elongated,  oblong,  flattened  body,  with 
four  short  legs,  provided  with  a  few  bristle-like  hairs,  and  end- 
ing in  a  stalked  sucker,  by  aid  of  which  the  mite  is  enabled  to 
walk  over  smooth,  hard  surfaces.  The  body  is  square  at  the 
end,  with  a  slight  median  indentation,  and  four  long  bristles  of 
equal  length.  They  remained  motionless  in  the  groove  on  the 
barb  of  the  feather,  and  when  removed  seemed  very  inert  and 
sluggish.  The  male  (Plate  13,  fig.  3)  is  a  most  singular  form, 
its  body  being  rudely  ovate,  with  the  head  sunken  between  the 
fore  legs,  which  are  considerably  smaller  than  the  second  pair, 
while  the  third  pair  are  twice  as  large  as  the  second  pair,  and 
directed  backwards,  and  the  fourth  pair  are  very  small,  not 
reaching  the  extremity  of  the  body,  which  is  deeply  cleft,  and 
supports  four  long  bristles  on  each  side  of  the  cleft,  while  other 
bristles  are  attached  to  the  legs  and  body,  giving  the  creature 
a  haggard,  unkempt  appearance.  The  genital  armature  is 
situated  between  the  largest  or  third  pair  of  legs.  A  preced- 
ing stage  of  this  mite,  which  may  be  called  the  pupa,  is  repre- 
sented on  Plate  13,  fig.  2.  It  (all  the  figures  of  this  sarcoptid 
being  drawn  to  one  scale  by  Prof.  A.  M.  Edwards, 
and  magnified  one  hundred  and  fifteen  diameters) 
looks  somewhat  like  the  adult,  the  body  being  shorter 
and  broader,  but  without  any  genital  armature. 

We  figure  on  Plate  13,  figs.  8  and  9,  greatly  en- 
larged, a  most  remarkable  mite,  discovered  by  New- 
port on  the  body  of  a  larva  of  a  wild  bee,  and 
described  by  him  under  the  name  of  Heteropus  ven- 
tricosus.  Fig.  8,  in  the  plate,  represents  the  body 
of  the  fully  formed  female.  In  this  stage  it  reminds  us  Fte-  642. 
of  Demodex  and  the  Tardigrades.  After  attaining  this  form 
its  small  abdomen  begins  to  enlarge  until  it  assumes  a  globu- 
lar form  (Plate  13,  fig.  9)  and  the  mass  of  mites  look  like  little 
beads.  Mr.  Newport  was  unable  to  discover  the  male,  and 
thought  that  this  mite  was  parthenogenous.  Another  singular 
mite  is  the  Demodex  folliculorum  (Fig.  642),  which  was  dis- 
covered by  Dr.  Simon,  of  Berlin,  buried  in  the  diseased  folli- 
cles of  the  wings  of  the  nose  in  man.  It  is  a  long,  slender, 
worm-like  form,  with  eight  short  legs,  and  in  the  larval  state 
has  six  legs.  This  singular  form  is  among  the  lowest  and 


668 


ACARINA. 


most  degraded  of  the  order  of  Arachnids.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  adult  Demodex  retains  the  elongated,  worm-like  appear- 
ance of  the  larvae  of  the  higher  mites,  such  as  Typhlodromus. 
This  is  an  indication  of  its  low  rank,  and  hints  of  a  close  rela- 
tionship to  the  Tardigrades. 

TARDIGRADA  Doyere.  (Arctisca).  The  Tardigrades,  or 
Bear  animalcules,  referred  by  some  to  the  worms,  were  consid- 
ered as  mites  by  O.  F.  Muller  in  1785,  and  a  species  was  de- 
scribed by  him  under  the  name  of 
Acarus  ursellus.  They  have  also  been 
referred  to  the  Rotatoria  by  Dujardin, 
and  were,  by  Schultze,  considered  as 
parasitic  Entomostraca  allied  to  Ler- 
nsea.  With  Muller  we  would  consider 
them  as  insects  belonging  to  the  Aca- 

r*na'  an(*  venture'  after  studying  Clapa- 
rede's  admirable  work,  "Studien  an 
Acariden,"  containing  an  account  of 
the  genus  Myobia,  to  consider  the  Tar- 
digrades as  a  family  of  mites.  In 
form,  as  indicated  by  the  accompanying 
figures,  copied  from  Doyere's  valuable 
memoir,  they  are  essentially  mites,  and 
allied  in  form  to  Demodex  and  He- 
teropus,  though  in  their  internal  organi- 
zation differing  from  all  other  insects 
in  being  true  hermaphrodites.  Muller  observed  that  they 
moulted  their  skins.  The  mouth  is  adapted  for  sucking, 
with  style-like  mandibles  like  those  of  Myobia.  There  are  two 
ocelli,  and  the  worm-like  body  is  cylindrical,  consisting  of  four 
thoracic  segments  behind  the  head,  bearing  four  pairs  of  short, 
thick  legs,  ending  in  three  or  four  claws  (in  these  characters 
reminding  us  of  the  Peripatus,  a  worni  with  a  large,  fleshy 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  13.— FIG.  1,  Z>ermaZeic7ms  pici-pubescentis  Pack.,  fe- 
male. FIG.  2,  young  male.  FIG.  3,  adult  male.  FIG.  4,  larva  of  Typhlodromus 
pyri  Scheuten  (after  Scheuten).  FIG.  5,  larva  of  another  species  of  Typhlodromus 
(after  Scheuten).  FIG.  6,  Cheyletus  seminivorus  Pack.  FIG.  7,  Sarcoptes  scabiei 
DeGeer  (after  Gervais).  FIG.  8,  Hetqropus  ventricosus  Ne\vport,  tally  formed  fe- 
male. FIG.  9,  gravid  female  of  the  same  (after  Newport).  FIG.  10,  Ixodes  bovis 
Kiley.  FIG.  11,  Ixodes  unipunctata  Pack.  All  the  figures  are  enlarged. 


Fig.  643. 


MITES  AND  TICKS. 


LINGUATULINA. 


Fig.  644 


leg- like  process  attached  to  the  sides  of  each  ring  of  the  body 
and  ending  in  a  pair  of  claws) .  In  size  they  are  microscopic 
and  live  in  standing  water  among 
plants  and  like  the  Rotatoria  revive 
after  being  apparently  dead  and  dried 
up.  They  were  called  Tardigrades 
from  their  excessively  slow  motions. 
The  eggs  are  very  large  and  are  laid 
by  the  parent  after  the  last  moult ;  the 
young  is  born  with  its  full  comple- 
ment of  legs,  and  moults  several 
times  before  arriving  at  maturity. 
The  eggs  of  some  genera  are  smooth, 
while  those  of  Macrobiotus  are  spher- 
ical and  covered  with  little  knob-like 
projections. 

Milnesium    tardigradum     Schrank 
(Fig.  643,  7,  mouth-parts ;   6,  alimen- 
tary canal ;  ov,  ovary)  is  a  fifth  of  a 
line  long  ;  while  Emydium  testudo  Doyere  (Fig.  644,  magnified 
one  hundred  and  twenty  times)  is  another  European  species. 

None  have  yet  been  noticed  as  occurring  in  this 

country. 

LINGUATULINA.  V.  Ben.  These  remarkably  worm- 
like  mites  in  the  adult  state  inhabit  the  nostrils  and 
frontal  sinuses  of  dogs  and  wolves,  and  more  rarely 
of  horses  and  sheep.  The  larvae,  which  are  like 
low  mites  in  form,  are  provided  with  boring  horny 
jaws  and  two  pairs  of  small  feet  armed  with  sharp, 
retractile  claws.  They  live  in  the  liver  of  various 
animals,  where  they  become  encysted,  passing 
through  a  sort  of  pupa  state.  The  most  common 
species  is  here  represented  (Fig.  644a,  Pentastoma 
tcenioides  Rudolphi,  from  Verrill).  The  male  is 
.08  inch,  and  the  female,  which  is  oviparous,  three 
or  four  inches  long.  It  sometimes  infests  man, 
living  in  the  early  stages  encysted  in  the  liver  and  lungs.  In 
Egypt  P.  constrictum  Siebold  is  occasionally  fatal. 


670  MYRIOPODA. 


ORDER  III.    MYRIOPODA. 

THE  Myriopods  are  readily  known  by  their  long,  cylindrical 
or  somewhat  flattened  bodies,  which  are  composed  of  from  ten 
(counting  the  head  as  one)  to  over  two  hundred  rings.  The 
head  is  free  from  the  rest  of  the  body,  and  is  much  like  that 
of  insects,  while  the  thoracic  rings  are  scarcely  distinguishable, 
either  in  form  or  the  character  of  their  appendages,  from  the 
numerous  abdominal  rings,  so  that  the  head,  instead  of  being 
soldered  to  the  thorax  as  in  the  spiders,  is  here  free,  while 
the  thorax  is  merged  in  the  abdomen. 

The  head  of  Cermatia  shows  how  closely  the  highest  Myrio- 
pod  agrees  with  the  insects.  The  few  (sixteen)  segments 
composing  the  body  (counting  the  head  as  one)  ;  the  large 
compound  eyes,  the  long  filiform  antennae,  and  well  developed 
palpi,  farther  show  the  close  relationship  of  this  form  to  the 
insects.  The  habits  of  this  genus  also  remind  us  of  the  spi- 
ders, as  they  are  predaceous  and  are  said  to  leap  after  their 
prey. 

In  the  Myriopods  generally  the  mouth-parts  are  of  the  same 
number,  and  follow  each  other  in  the  same  order  as  in  the 
insects.  Thus  in  advance  of  the  mouth  there  are  first  the 
ocelli,  and  immediately  behind  them  the  antennae ;  behind 
the  mouth  are  the  mandibles,  the  maxillae  with  their  palpi,  and 
the  labial  palpi.  As  each  of  these  jointed  organs  is  repre- 
sented by  an  elemental  ring  we  have  four  segments  in  the  head. 

In  the  embryo  of  Julus  the  rudiments  of  the  first  pair  of 
legs  are  soon  aborted,  and  thus  the  first  thoracic  ring  bears 
no  legs  in  adult  life.  The  legs  are  composed  of  a  coxa,  a 
femur,  a  tibia  and  a  tarsus,  as  in  the  higher  insects. 

As  shown  by  Newport  the  nervous,  digestive,  respiratory 
and  reproductive  systems  very  closely  resemble  those  of  the 
larvae  of  insects,  as  does  the  external  form  of  these  animals. 

Newport  states  that  the  nervous  system  of  Myriopods  ap- 
proaches nearer,  in  the  simplicity  of  its  formation,  to  that  of 
the  Annelids  than  that  of  the  larvae  of  insects.  "In  the 
Chilopoda  it  has  the  form  of  a  double  cord  connected  by  large 


MYRIAPODA.  671 

ganglia  in  each  segment,  as  in  most  of  the  Annelida,  Crusta- 
cea and  Insecta;  but  in  the  vermiform  Chilognatha,  which 
former  researches  have  proved  to  me  are  most  nearly  con- 
nected to  the  Annelida,  the  two  parts  of  this  double  cord,  are 
so  closely  united  laterally  as  to  appear  like  a  single  cord  that 
gives  off  a  multitude  of  small  nervous  trunks  at  its  sides 
throughout  its  whole  length,  but  without  distinct  ganglionic 
enlargements  at  their  origin."  The  brain  is  "  composed  of  at 
least  four  pairs  of  ganglia." 

The  digestive  system  comprises  the  long,  tubular  salivary 
glands,  of  which  two  are  found  on  each  side  of  the  oesophagus 
and  stomach,  opening  by  a  long  excretory  duct  into  the  mouth  ; 
and  Professor  Leidy  has  described  two  others  which  are 
placed  on  each  side  of  the  oesophagus,  and  are  pyriform,  con- 
glomerate, and  cellular  in  structure.  Also  the  long  intestinal 
canal  which  is  much  as  described  in  the  higher  insects  ;  while, 
as  in  Julus,  according  to  Leidy,  "at  the  termination  of  the 
proventriculus,  there  open  two  biliary  tubes,  and  from  it,  sur- 
rounding the  commencement  of  the  ventriculus,  is  suspended 
a  broad,  white,  opaque,  reticulated  band,  apparently  composed 
like  the  reta  adiposa  of  insects." 

The  circulatory  system  is  of  a  much  lower  type  than  in 
insects,  and  in  Julus  it  approaches,  according  to  Newport,  by 
its  rudimentary  development  that  of  the  worms.  The  vascular 
system  consists  of  a  dorsal  vessel,  or  heart,  with  very  numerous 
separate  chambers,  almost  equal  to  the  segments  of  the  body, 
which  connects  with  another  system  of  vessels  lying  on  the 
under  side  of  the  body  between  the  alimentary  canal  and  the 
nervous  cord.  This  plexus  of  vessels  thus  forms  "  a  vascular 
collar  around  the  anterior  part  of  the  alimentary  canal."  "At 
each  constriction  of  the  heart  in  the  Julidce,  between  two 
chambers,  there  are  two  transverse  lateral  orifices,  as  in  In- 
sects," which  Newport  supposes  to  be  either  the  terminations 
of  delicate  veins,  or  simple  apertures  admitting  the  blood  from 
the  venous  sinuses  in  the  body. 

The  tracheary  system  is  much  as  in  the  six-footed  insects, 
and  the  stigmata  have  the  same  relative  position,  but  are 
placed  on  the  alternate  segments  of  the  body. 

In  the  Chilopoda  the  sexual  system  is  much  as  in  the  six- 


672  CHILOPODA. 

footed  insects,  and  the  orifices  are  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
body.  The  ovary  is  a  long  single  tube,  which  opens  in  the  last 
ring  of  the  body ;  while  in  the  lower  suborder,  Chilognatha, 
there  is  only  a  single  long  ovarian  tube,  provided  with  two 
short  oviducts  which  open  on  the  third  segment  of  the  body 
from  the  head.  The  male  organs  in  the  Chilopods  are  much 
more  complicated  than  in  the  other  Myriopods,  and  the  two  or 
three,  or  even  the  single  testicular  tube,  open  on  the  end  of 
the  body,  while  in  the  Chilognaths,  such  as  Julus,  there  are 
two  testes  which  lead  out  by  a  vas  deferens  to  the  orifice  situ- 
ated on  the  third  thoracic  ring.  The  order  is  divided  into  two 
suborders,  i.  e. ,  the  Chilopoda  and  Chilognatha  of  Latreille. 


CHILOPODA. 

THIS  group  is  characterized  by  each  ring  being  simple  and 
not  divided  into  subsegments,  and  bearing  but  a  single  pair  of 
feet,  while  the  head  is  divided  into  two  regions,  one  placed 
before  the  mouth,  the  other  behind  the  mouth.  The  sexual 
outlet  is  situated  at  the  end  of  the  body. 

This  suborder  is  the  highest,  as  it  contains  those  Myriopods 
which  have  the  fewest  segments  to  the  body*,  thus  approaching 
•the  six-footed  insects  and  spiders.  They  are  active,  rapacious 
in  their  habits,  and  by  the  division  of  the  head  into  the  two 
regions,  movable  on  each  other,  they  can  almost  emulate  the 
insects  in  their  powers  of  seizing  their  prejT.  As  stated  by 
Professor  Wood ,  their  highly  organized  muscular  and  nervous 
system,  the  compactness  of  their  intestinal  apparatus,  and  the 
length  and  power  of  their  legs,  all  betoken  habits  of  great 
activity ;  whilst  the  formidable  nature  of  their  mandibles,  and 
the  sharp  spines,  both  lateral  and  terminal,  with  which  their 
feet  are  armed,  fit  them  for  predatory  warfare.  Thus  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  Chilopods  are  the  more  animal,  while  the 
Chilognaths  are  the  more  vegetative ;  this  is  due  to  the  greater 
concentration  of  the  body  head  wards,  and  the  more  compact 
build  of  the  body  behind  the  head. 

*  The  larvae  of  this  group  may  have  as  many  as  six  or  eight  pairs  of  legs  when 
they  leave  the  egg,  while  the  young  Chilognaths  have  only  three.  (Rolleston.) 


LITHOBIID^E.  673 

It  is  probable  that  the  Centipedes  and  their  allies  appeared 
at  a  much  later  period  in  the  earth's  history  than  the  Chilog- 
naths,  as  the  earliest  form  of  the  present  suborder  known  to  us 
is  the  Geophilus  proavus  *  of  Germar,  from  the  Jurassic  rocks, 
whilst  the  oldest  Myriopod,  one  of  the  Julidce,  is,  according 
to  Dawson,  found  in  the  lower  Carboniferous  rocks  of  Nova 
Scotia,  and  Dr.  Anton  Dohrn  has  recently  described  a  Julus 
from  the  coal  formation  of  Germany. 

CERMATID^E  Leach.  This  group  is  characterized  by  having 
only  sixteen  rings  to  the  body,  while  the  legs  and  antennae  have 
more  numerous  joints  than  usual.  The  head  is  large,  very  free 
from  the  body,  with  compound  eyes,  as  in  the  six-footed  in- 
sects, and  long  spiny  palpi,  while  the  tergites,  or  scuta,  are 
but  eight  in  number,  and  there  are  nine  pairs  of  spiracles. 
The  female  ovipositor  is  forceps-like,  while  the  corresponding 
male  appendages  are  style-like.  The  species  are  the 
most  gaily  colored  of  the  order,  being  striped  along 
the  body  and  banded  on  the  legs.  Cermatia  for- 
ceps Rafinesque  is  greenish-brown,  with  three  longi- 
tudinal stripes  of  deep  green. 


LITHOBIID^E  Newport.  In  this  and  the  remain- 
ing families  of  this  suborder  the  antennae  are  short, 
and  the  eyes  simple  and  sometimes  wanting.  In 
the  present  family  there  are  fifteen  tergites,  and  the 
antennae  are  longer  than  in  the  succeeding  group. 
In  Lithobius  the  antennae  are  forty- jointed,  and  Fig.  645. 
the  head  is  broad  and  flat.  The  species  of  this  genus  attack 
earth-worms,  grappling  with  them  for  several  hours,  and  after 
killing  them,  suck  their  blood.  They  will,  in  confinement,  de- 
stroy each  other.  Their  bite  is  poisonous  to  small  articulates. 
The  European  L.  forficatus,  according  to  Newman  ("Ento- 
mologist" 1866,  iii,  p.  342)  is  preyed  upon  by  Proctotrupes 
calcar  of  Haliday.  Lithobius  Americanus  Newport  (Fig.  645) 
is  a  widely  diffused  species,  and  erroneously  passes  by  the 
name  of  Ear-wig.  It  is  found  everywhere,  under  sticks  and 
about  manure-heaps,  where  it  feeds  upon  insects  and  worms. 

*  Since  shown  by  Prof.  Marsh  to  be  an  Annelid  (Ischyracanthus). 
43 


674 


CHTLOPODA. 


The  genus  Bothropotys  of  Wood,  differs  in  having  small, 
almost  round  punctiform  excoriations  arranged  in  three  or 
four  series  on  the  coxa.  The  B.  multidentatus  of  Newport  is 
found  in  the  Eastern  United  States,  and  is  recognized  by 
having  from  thirty-two  to  thirty-seven  ocelli  on  each  side  of 
the  head. 

SCOLOPENDRID^E  Leach.  The  Centipede  is  the  type  of  this 
family.  There  are  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-three  feet-bear- 
ing segments,  with  few  or  no  ocelli,  while  the  last  pair  of  feet 
are  thickened  and  generally  spinous.  This  genus  comprises 
the  most  gigantic  of  all  Myriapods,  Scolopendra 
giga.ntea  Linn,  from  the  East  Indies,  being  nine 
inches  long.  S.  heros  Girard  is  our  largest 
species,  and  is  found  in  the  Southern  States. 
The  bite  of  the  Centipede  is  dangerous  ;  the 
poison  is  conveyed  from  two  glands  in  the 
throat,  along  a  canal  in  the  jaws. 

The  genus  Scolopocryptops  differs  in  having 
.no  ocelli,  and  twenty- three  feet-bearing  seg- 
ments, while  the  antennae  are  seventeen-jointed. 
S.  sexspinosa  Say  (Fig.  646)  is  common  about 
Philadelphia,  and  is  found  in  Iowa ;  it  is  deep 
orange,  with  yellow,  somewhat  compressed  feet, 
with  three  spines  on  each  of  the  last  pair  of 
feet.  Wood  describes  the  manner  of  moulting 
in  this  species.  The  skin  had  been  crowded  back 
so  as  to  cover  only  the  last  two  or  three  rings.  The  cast  skin 
contains  the  skin  of  the  head  and  all  its  appendages,  even  to 
the  maxillae  and  maxillary  palpi.  The  anterior  portion  of  the 
skin  was  so  torn  as  to  show  that  the  process  of  shedding  proba- 
bly began  by  the  creature's  withdrawing  its  head  from  its  case, 
and  then  thrusting  it  out  between  some  of  the  anterior  sterna, 
completing  the  process  by  pushing  the  skin  back  with  its  legs, 
jj; and  aiding  them  by  a  peculiar  wriggling  motion.  The  exuvia 
had  most  of  the  posterior  segments  entire,  showing  that  the 
occupant  had  been  withdrawn  from  it  like  a  hand  from  a  glove." 
Wood  also  states  that  the  female  guards  her  young  by  laying 
on  her  side,  and  then  coiling  her  body  passes  them  along  by  a 


Fig.  646. 


PAUROPODIDJE. 


675 


"  rapid  cilia- like  action  of  her  feet ; "  thus  arranging  them  sat- 
isfactorily to  herself. 

GEOPHILID^E  Leach.  These  Myriapods  are  very  long  and 
slender,  with  from  thirty  to  two  hundred  segments,  each 
formed  of  two  complete,  but  unequal  subsegments,  and  bearing 
but  a  single  pair  of  feet.  There  are  no  ocelli ;  the  antennae 
are  fourteen-jointed,  and  the  anal  feet  are  short  and  style-like. 

In  Mecistocephalus  the  "cephalic  segment,"  or  anterior  part 
of  the  head  is  more  than  twice  as  long  as  broad,  while  in 
GeopJiilus  the  same  region  of  the  head  is  square. 
M.  fulvus  Wood  is  fulvous,  polished,  with  a  light 
orange  head ;  according  to  Wood  it  is  most  often 
found  under  the  inner  bark  of  decaying  logs  of 
the  locust  tree.  *  GeopJiilus  cepJialicus  is  an  unu- 
sually broad  species  found  near  Philadelphia.  G. 
bipuncticeps  Wood  (Fig.  647)  is  found  in  the 
Western  States  and  Sonora. 

In  Strigamia  the  cephalic  segment  is  small, 
short,  and  generally  somewhat  triangular.  S. 
botJiriopus  Wood  is  a  bright  red  robust  species,  and 
inhabits  Philadelphia.  S.  cJiionopJiila  Wood  is  a 
diminutive  species,  being  only  three-fourths  of  an 
inch'  long ;  it  is  found  far  north,  at  Fort  Simpson, 
on  the  Red  River  of  the  North.  The  largest  spe- 
cies known  is  S.  epileptica  Wood  from  Oregon, 
which  is  five  and  a  half  inches  long.  The  last  pair  of  male 
feet  are  represented  by  Wood  to  be  antenniform,  those  of  the 
female  being  small,  short,  and  preserving  the  usual  shape  of 
the  leg.  This  is  an  interesting  instance  of  the  antero- 
posterior  symmetry  of  these  animals,  here  more  strongly 
marked  than  usual. 

PAUROPODID^E  Lubbock.  The  sole  member  of  this  family  is 
the  Pauropus,  which  Sir  John  Lubbock  discovered  in  England 
living  among  decaying  leaves.  "The  body  is  composed  often 
segments,  including  the  head,  and  is  convex,  with  scattered 
hairs ;  there  are  nine  pairs  of  legs,  and  the  antennae  are  five- 
jointed,  bifid  at  the  extremity  and  bearing  three  long  jointed 


Fig.  647. 


676  CHILOGNATHA. 

appendages."  The  two  species,  P.  Huxleyi  and  P.  peduncula- 
tus  of  Lubbock  are  white,  and  about  one-twentieth  of  an  inch 
in  length.  Lubbock  regards  this  remarkable  form  as  a  "con- 
necting link  between  the  Chilopods  and  Chilog- 
naths,  and  also  as  bridging  over  to  a  certain 
extent  the  great  chasm  which  separates  them 
from  other  articulata."  No  tracheae  could  be 
detected.  The  six-footed  young  (Fig.  648)  had 
the  first  pair  of  legs  attached  to  the  first  seg- 
ment behind  the  head,  the  two  other  pairs  to 
the  following  one.  The  resemblance  of  Pain-o- 
pus to  those  Podurae,  such  as  Achorutes,  in 
which  the  "spring"  is  very  short,  is  certainly 
Fig.  648.  remarkable.  We  may,  therefore,  consider  the 
Pauropus  as  a  connecting  link  between  the  Myriopods  and 
the  Neuroptera.  P.  LMbbockii  Pack.,  was  found  at  Salem,  Mass. 


CHILOGNATHA. 

IN  this  division  of  the  Myriopods  the  body  is  divided  into 
numerous  segments,  each  furnished  with  two  pairs  of  short 
legs,  and  the  antennae  are  short,  with  but  few  joints. 

They  are  the  lowest  insects,  and  in  Julus,  with  its  large 
number  of  rings  of  the  same  form,  we  have  a  good  illustration 
of  the  vegetative  repetition  of  the  zoological  elements,  or 
segments,  composing  the  body,  which  is  the  reverse  of  what 
obtains  in  the  cephalized  honey  bee,  for  instance,  and  reminds 
us  strikingly  of  the  Worms.  In  the  genus  Brachycybe,  a  remote 
ally  of  Polydesmus,  we  are  strongly  reminded  of  some  crus- 
taceans, such  as  the  Isopods,  and  the  posterior  end  of  the 
body  of  this  Myriopod,  in  the  broad  lateral  expansions  of 
the  segments,  even  recalls  the  tail  of  a  trilobite. 

Wood  states  that  the  eyes  are  frequently  absent,  and  when 
present  they  are  generally  numerous  and  collected  in  patches 
near  the  base  of  the  antennae.  The  long,  cylindrical-bodied 
Julus  is  the  typical  form  of  the  suborder,  while  the  flattened 
dilated  Polydesmus  is  a  more  aberrant  form. 

The  mouth-parts  are  either,  as  in  Julus,  formed  for  feeding 


POLYDESMID^E.  677 

on  decaying  vegetable  matter,  or  tube-like,  as  in  Brachycybe 
and  allies,  the  parts  being  converted  into  a  tube  or  beak. 


Leach.  *In  this  group  the  eyes  are  arranged  in 
a  linear  series,  and  the  antennae  are  placed  on  the  front  of  the 
head.  The  body  is  half-cylindrical,  short  and  plump,  with  from 
twelve  to  thirteen  segments.  The  head  is  large  and  free,  with 
the  first  thoracic  ring  small,  while  the  last  abdominal  ring  is 
large  and  shield-shaped.  The  genital  openings  in  both  sexes 
are  situated  just  behind  the  insertion  of  the  second  pair  of 
limbs.  In  Glomeris  the  body  consists  of  twelve  rings  and 
seventeen  pairs  of  limbs,  while  in  /Sphcerotherium  the  body  is 
made  up  of  thirteen  rings  and  twenty-one  pairs  of  feet.  The 
species  are  exotic,  Glomeris  marginata  Latreille  being  found 
in  Europe,  and  the  Sphaerotheria  in  the  tropics. 

POLYDESMID^;  Leach.     In  this  group  the  body  is  much  flat- 
tened, the  sterna  overarching   the  scuta,  to  which  they  are 
closely  cemented,   and  the  scuta  are   furnished  with   lateral 
laminae.     "The  head  is  large  and  massive,  the  absence  of  eyes 
and  the  small  antennae  point  to  a  state  of  low  development  of 
the  special  senses.     The  female  genitalia  are  placed  in  the 
third  segment,  just  posterior  to  the  second  pair  of  legs.     They 
are  generally  more  or  less  hidden  within  the  body  ; 
the  male  organs  are  situated  in  the  seventh  segment, 
replacing   the   eighth   pair   of  legs.     They  generally 
project  very  prominently  from  the  body/'     Tne  young 
have  three  pairs  of  legs,  on  the  2d,  4th  and  5th  rings. 

In  Polydesmus  the  body  is  much  flattened,  with  broad 
lateral  expansions   to   the   rings.     Polydesmus  Cana- 
densis  Newport  is  deep  brown,  with  pubescent  scarcely 
clavate  antennae  ;  each  of  the  scuta  has  eight  scales, 
arranged  in  a  double  series.     The  male  appendages  Fig.  649. 
are  hairy,  with  a  curved  terminal  spine  of  moderate  length. 
The  female  appendages  "consist  of  a  pair  of  bodies  shaped 
somewhat  like  the  crest  of  a  helmet.     Along  their  free  margin 
is  an  opening  surmounted  by  a  double  series  of  teeth-like  pro- 
cesses.    It  is  found  in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States.     P. 
erythropygus    Brandt    (Fig.    649)    inhabits    the    Middle    and 


678  CHILOGNATHA. 

Western  States.  In  Polyxenus  the  body  is  short,  clothed  with 
short  penicillate  scales,  and  there  are  thirteen  pairs  of  feet. 
(These  scales,  or  hairs,  as  has  been  remarked  to  us  by  Mr. 
Sanborn,  are  remarkably  like  the  hairs  "of  Dermestes,  and  this 
homology  is  another  proof  that  the  Myriapods  are  an  order  of 
the  class  Insecta.)  P.  fasciculatus  Say  is  about  a  tenth  of  an 
inch  in  length.  It  has  been  detected  by  Mr.  Sanborn  under 
the  bark  of  trees  near  Boston,  and  I  have  found  it  in  Salem  in 
the  same  situations,  and  also  at  Nantucket. 

JULIDJS  Leach.  Thousand  Legs.  Millepedes.  This  group 
embraces  the  typical  species  of  this  suborder.  The  body  is 
almost  perfectly  cylindrical,  with  the  sternum  greatly  reduced 
in  size,  those  of  the  posterior  subsegments  being  almost 
absent,  while  the  tergurn  is  greatly  in  excess.  The  head  is 
large,  with  often  rather  long  and  filiform  antennae,  and  simple 
eyes  arranged  in  variously  shaped  patches  near  the  base  of 
the  antennae.  •  , 

In  Julus  the  bod}^  is  slender  and  seldom  more  than  three 
inches  long ;  the  sides  of  the  first  scutum  are  produced  in 
the  female,  while  the  antennas  are  long  and  filiform.  Wood 
says  the  males  are  "farther  distinguished  by  a  peculiar  altera- 
tion of  the  first  pair  of  feet,  which  are  transformed  into  a  pair 
of  very  large,  thick  organs,"  which  probably  serve  as  clasping 
appendages.  Julus  is  found  commonty  under  sticks,  etc.  It 
is  long,  cjdindrical,  hard,  with  numerous  feet,  short  and  weak, 
attached  to  the  under  surface  of  the  body  nearly  in  the  middle 
of  the  abdomen.  The  antennas  are  short  and  filiform.  They 
crawl  rather  slowly,  and  at  rest  curve  the  body  into  a  ring. 
They  live  on  vegetable  substances,  or  eat  dead  earth-worms  or 
snails.  "In  the  spring  the  female  deposits  her  eggs  in  masses 
of  sixty  or  seventy,  in  a  hole  excavated  for  the  purpose  under 
the  ground ;  after  three  weeks  or  more  the  young  make  their 
appearance."  (Van  der  Hoeven.)  Newport  states  that  when 
hatched  the  young  Julus  consists  of  eight  rings,  including  the 
head.  The  body  of  the  embryo,  seen  from  above,  is  com- 
pressed and  wedge-shaped,  being  broadest  at  the  second  and 
third  segments.  For  many  days  (seventeen)  after  hatching, 
the  embryo  is  surrounded  by  a  membrane  which  Newport  re- 


JULID^E. 


679 


gards  as  the  analogue  of  the  amnion,  or  vitelline  membrane, 
of  the  vertebrates.     This  membrane  is  at  the  end  of  the  body 
connected  with  another,  which  in  the  unburst  shell  is  external 
to  the  "amnion,"  and  lines  the  interior  of  the  shell.     New- 
port compares  this  with  the  chorion  of  vertebrates.     Before  the 
amnion    is    thrown   off  the   embryo   moults, 
and  six  new  segments  appear  (Fig.  650,  6), 
and  minute  tubercles  bud  put  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  six  and  seventh  rings,  as  at  a. 
The  new  segments  are  always  developed  be- 
tween the  last  and  penultimate  ones,*  as  has 
been  observed  in  the  worms,  the  Crustacea, 
the  spiders,  and  as  I  have  observed  in  the  em- 
bryo of  the  Dragon-fly.     In  the  young  Julus 
no  legs  grow  out  on  the  third  segment  from 
the   head,  but  the  outlet  of  the  oviduct  of 
the  female  is  placed  on  this  segment.     The          Fig-  65°- 
male  organs  find  their  outlet  on  the  sixth  ring  from  the  head. 

Julus  Canadensis  Newp.  is  brownish  chestnut,  ornamented 
with  a  black  dorsal  line,  and  a  lateral  row  of  black  dots.  The 
body  consists  of  fifty-three  segments.  It  is  found 
in  the  Northern  States  and  Canada. 

J.  multistriatus  Walsh  (Fig.  651)  inhabits  the 
Western  States.  The  genus  Spirobolus  has  a  much 
larger,  thicker  body,  and  a  rather  small  head,  with 
short  antennae,  often  lying  partially  hidden  in  a 
groove  in  the  side  of  the  head.  Spirobolus  margi- 
natus  Say  is  deep  brown,  annulated  with  red,  and 
consists  of  from  fifty-three  to  fifty-seven  segments. 
The  male  appendages  are  described  by  Wood  as 
formed  of  two  outer  parts,  and  a  connecting  yoke-like 
piece. 

To  this  family  without  much  doubt,  as  Dr.  Dawson 
states,  belongs   the    Xylobius   sigillarice  of  Dawson 
(Plate  1,  fig.  4)  from  the  Lower  Carboniferous  rocks    Fi-  G5L 
of  Nova  Scotia.     This,  in  'its  short,  thick  antennae,  and  small 
head,   rather   approaches   Spirobolus   than  Julus,   though  the 
antennae  are  shorter,  while  the  twelve  ocelli  represented  in  Dr. 
Dawson's  figure  (Air-Breathers  of  the  Coal  Period.     Montreal, 

*In  the  Chilopoda  the  new  segments  are  intercalated  between  the  old  ones. 


680  CHILOGNATHA. 

1863.  Plate  vi,  fig.  58-61)  are  arranged  much  as  in  S.  margi- 
natus.  It  differs  remarkably,  however,  in  the  raised  posterior 
margin  of  the  segments,  giving  a  serrate  outline  to  the  body, 
while  the  body  tapers  more  rapidly  towards  each  end  than 
any  recent  form  known  to  us.  In  this  respect  it  seems  to 
combine  the  characters  of  the  present  family  and  that  of 
Spirosbrephon,  a  genus  in  many  respects  intermediate  between 
the  Polydesmidce  and  the  Siphonantia,  or  sucking  Myri- 
opods.  Four  spiracles  are  represented  on  the  tenth  to  the 
thirteenth  segments  from  the  head. 

The  genus  Spirostreplion  is  in  many  respects  intermediate 
between  this  and  the  succeeding  family.  The  head  is  free,  as 
in  Polydesmus,  but  the  sterna  are  soft,  as  in  the  Siplionantia. 
S.  Gopei  Pack.,  was  found  by  Mr.  C.  Cooke  in  Mammoth  Cave. 

SIPHONANTIA  Brandt.  In  the  sucking  Myriopods  (Sugantia 
of  Brandt)  we  meet  with  the  lowest,  most  vegetative,  worm- 
like  forms  of  the  order.  According  to  Wood  the  head  is  very 
«mall  and  concealed  beneath  the  prothoracic  ring.  The  parts 
of  the  mouth  are  fused  and  united  into  a  sucking  tube  for  the 
imbibition  of  fluids.  The  eyes  are  either  present  or  absent, 
and  the  scuta,  or  tergites,  may  be  prolonged  laterally  into 
laminae  which  afford  protection  only  to  the  back  and  flanks, 
the  central  part  of  the  abdomen  being  soft.  The  feet  are 
small  and  hidden  beneath  the  broad  body,  while  the  male  ap- 
pendages are  placed  on  the  seventh  segment. 

In  the  genus  Octoglena  the  eyes  are  eight  in  number, 
arranged  in  two  converging  rows.  0.  bivirgata  Wood  is 
brown,  with  a  reddish  stripe  on  each  side,  with  about  forty- 
five  segments  to  the  body. 

In  Brachycybe  the  rostrum  is  acute,  much  shorter  than  the 
antennae,  while  the  body  is  broad  and  flattened.  The  male 
appendages,  or  clasping  organs,  are,  as  sho\vn  in  Dr.  Wood's 
figures,  simply  modified  feet  adapted  for  clasping  purposes, 
as  they  are  in  Polydesmus,  and  are,  therefore,  not  homologous 
with  the  male  appendages  of  insects,  which  are  differently  de- 
veloped and  grow  out  from  a  different  portion  of  the  segment. 
The  Brachycybe  Lecontei  of  Wood  is  from  Georgia,  and  has 
long  lateral  expansions  to  the  tergites. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL   CALENDAR. 


THIS  calendar  applies  mostly  to  the  New  England  states,  where  the  appearances 
of  the  insects  here  enumerated  have  been  recorded.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  season  of  New  York  city  is  about  two  weeks  in  advance  of  that  of  Boston, 
and  that  of  Virginia  and  Illinois  about  a  month  or  six  weeks  earlier.  It  is  designed 
to  be  of  special  use  to  farmers  and  gardeners  as  indicating  the  times  of  appear- 
ance of  injurious  insects.  When  only  the  generic  name  is  given  several  species 
appear  simultaneously.  The  reader  in  noticing  an  insect  mentioned  here  can  turn 
to  the  index  and  find  in  the  body  of  the  work  an  account  of  its  habits. 


Bombtis,  queens;  a  few  Ichneumons  and  Chalcids;  Vanessa;  Grapta;  a  few 
specimens  of  Noctuidse,  Tortricidse  and  Tineidae;  Ephippophora  caryana;  Canker 
worm,  females  and  males;  Anthomyia;  Tachina;  Chironomus;  Anophiles;  Bibio; 
Chionea;  Valga,  on  the  snow;  Trichocera  hiemalis;  Cicindelsa  and  Carabidae; 
Dytiscidae,  and  other  water  beetles;  Aquatic  Hemiptera;  Capnia  and  Taeniopteryx ; 
Boreus. 


lst-15th.— Formica;  Brephos;  Adela,  on  willows;  Aphodius;  Ptinus  fur;  Der- 
mestes;  Anthrenus;  Attagenus;  Epuraea;  Ips;  Ellychnia;  Larva  and  female  of 
Meloe  on  bodies  of  wild  bees  and  wasps ;  Ceuthophilus. 

16th-30th.— Polyommatus;  Lycaena;  Thecla;  Coddling  moth  (Carpocapsa) ;  mos- 
quitoes and  larvae ;  Bombylius;  Burying  beetles;  Euryomia  Inda;  Buprestids; 
Chalcophora  Virginica;  Castings  of  Saperda  Candida;  Cylindrical  bark  borers 
(Tomicus,  Xylographa);  Hylurgus;  Pissodes  strobi;  Hylobius  pales;  Phytocoris. 


lst-15th.— •  Xylocopa,  Ceratina,  Osmia,  Andrena  and  Halictus  nesting;  Colias; 
Argynnis  Bellone;  Melitaea  Myrina;  Chrysophanus  Phlseas;  Clisiocampa  larva 
hatching  out;  Scolioptery x ;  Drasteria;  Coremia;  Gooseberry  Pempelia ;  Tipulidae; 
Hessian-fly  and  Wheat-midge;  Cecidomyia;  Syrphus;  Eristalis;  Squash  beetle; 
Plum  weevil;  Hister;  Clerus;  Elater;  Limonius;  Cratonychus;  Meloe;  Calli- 
grapha;  CEdipoda  corallina;  Tragocephala  infuscata,  viridifasciata ;  Libellula; 
Hemerobius. 

18th-31st.— Cynips;  Selandria  rosse  and  cerasi,  laying  eggs;  Strawberry  Emphy- 
tus  larva;  Papilio  Tumus;  Pontia  oleracea;  Melitaea  Phaeton,  larva;  Argynnis; 
Thanaos;  Hesperia;  Alypia  octomaculata;  Sphinx;  Ceratomia  4-cornis;  Sesia; 
Hyphantria  textor;  Arctia;  Leucarctia;  Agrotis  and  cut- worms;  Hypena  humuli, 
hop-vine  worm ;  Grapholitha  and  other  leaf- rolling  larvse  on  apple  and  pear;  Vine 
Penthina  larva;  Carpet  moth;  Chrysops;  Geotrupes;  Haltica  on  turnip,  toma^ 
cucumbers,  etc ;  Apion ;  Asemum  moestum ;  Gastrophysa  coeruleipennls ;  Galleruca 

(681) 


682  ENTOMOLOGICAL  CALENDAR. 

JUNE. 

lst-15th.— Pristophora  identidem,  cranberry  fly  larva;  Nematus  ventricosus, 
larva;  Cynips;  Eurytoma  hordei  in  straw;  Pteromalus;  Abia,  larva;  Papilio  As- 
terias;  Eudamus  Tityrus;  Smerinthus;  Abraxas  ribearia;  Scotosia  undulata; 
Antithesia  pruniana,  larva;  larvae  of  LithocoUetis  salieifoliella,  juglandiella;  Nep- 
ticula  villosella;  Cranberry  Anchylopera  larva;  Strawberry  Anchylopera  larva; 
Grape  Pterophorus  larva;  Anisota  pellucida;  Icthyura;  Tabanus;  Tephritis; 
Oscinis;  Laphria;  Asilus;  Bot-flies;  June  beetle,  Lachno sterna;  Areodes  lani- 
gera;  Pelidnota  punctata;  Serica  sericea;  Apion  Sayi;  Macrodactylus  subspin- 
osus,  Rose  chafer;  Dicerca  divaricata;  Chrysobothris  fulvoguttata  and  Harrisii; 
Alaus  oculatus;  Attelabus  analis  and  bipunctulatus ;  Rhynchites  bicolor;  Arrhen- 
odes  septentrionis;  Telephorus;  Corymbites;  various  fireflies,  Photinus  and 
Photuris;  Colorado  potato  beetle;  CoccineUa;  Pemphigus  vitifolire;  Apple  bark 
louse,  Aspidiotus  conchiformis;  Cicada  rimosa;  (Edipoda  Carolina;  Panorpa. 

18th-30th.— Megachile  nesting;  Pristiphora  grossulariae,  larva;  Neonympha  Eury- 
tris;  Grapta  Progne,  larva;  Cynthia  cardui,  larva,  Atalanta  larva;  Limeiiitis 
Missippus;  Nymphalis  Ephestion;  Melitaea  Phaeton,  Pharos,  Harrisii;  Satyrus 
Nephele ;  Actias  Luna;  Eudryas  grata,  larva;  Trochilium  tipuliforme;  ^Egeria  exit- 
iosa ;  Platysamia  Cecropia ;  Telea  Polyphemus ;  Hypena  humuli ;  Desmia  maculalis ; 
Crainbus;  Asopia  costalis;  Gooseberry  Pempelia  larva;  Philampelus;  Chaero- 
campa;  Halesidota;  Datana  ministra;  Eacles  impei'ialis;  Citheronia  regalis; 
Hyperchiria  lo;  Loxotaenia  rosaceana;  Carpocapsa  pomonella,  larva;  Limacodes; 
Locust Depressaria  larva;  Strobisia  levipedella;  Coleophora;  Tinea,  clothes-rnoth ; 
Cerura  borealis;  Bryophila;  Pterophorus  larvae;  Sarcophaga;  Anthomyia  raphani, 
radish  fly;  Scolytus  pyri ;  Cerasphorus  cinctus ;  Monoham.mus  titillator;  Anomala 
varians;  Fidia  viticida;  Desmocerus  palliatus;  Hispa  siituralis;  Lytta  cinerea; 
Grape  Coeliodes  larva;  Squash  bug,  Coreus  tristis;  Lecanium  quercifex;  Chinch 
bug  ;Thrips;  Cicada  17-decim;  Tettigoaia  rosae;  Chrysopa,  Phryganea;  Neuronia. 


lst-15th.— Wasps  nesting;  Pine  Lophyrus  larvae;  Melitaea  Harrisii;  Hesperia 
Hobomoc;  Satyrus  Alope;  Deilephila;  Darapsa;  Harrisina  Americana;  Alypia 
octomaculata ;  Phragmatobia  rubricosa;  Pyrrharctia  Isabella;  Euphanessa;  Ha- 
dena  arctica;  Catocala;  Dahlia  Gortyna  larva,  boring  the  stems;  Phlox  worm; 
Ennomos  subsignaria,  Angerona  crotataria  and  many  other  Phalaenidse:  Phycita 
nebulo,  and  many  other  Pyralidae  and  Tortricidae;  Simulium;  (Estrus;  Ortalis 
flexa;  Acinia;  Limnobia;  Monohammus  scutellatus ;  Trichodes  humeralis;  Lep- 
tura  Canadensis ;  Buprestis  fasciatus ;  Grape  Baridius ;  Reduvius ;  many  Libel- 

Iul33. 

16th-31st.— Pristiphora  grossulariae;  Tremex  Columba;  Heteropterus  margin- 
atus;  Polyommatus  Comyntas;  Thecla  falacer;  Danais,  larva;  Argynnis  Idalia 
and  Aphrodite;  ^Egeria  cucurbitae;  Sphinx  larvae;  Utetheisa  bella;  Lithosia  casta; 
Ichthyura  albosigma;  Clisiocampa;  Lagoa  crispata;  Xyleutes  robiniae;  Apatela 
Americana;  Agrotis  telifera,  devastator;  Hypena  humuli,  2d  brood  of  larvae;  Bra- 
chytaenia  malana;  Antithesia  pruniana;  Pterophorus;  Coleophora;  Nepticula; 
Gracilaria;  Elachista;  Lema  trilineata;  Anthonomus  prunicida ;  Eumolpus  aura- 
tus;  Prionus  laticollis;  Orthosoma  unicolor;  Leptostylus;  Monohammus  marmo- 
ratus;  Lucanus  capreolus,  dama;  Clytus;  Saperda;  Osmoderma  scabra;  Cran- 
beny  Anthonomus ;  Tettigonia  fabae ;  Clastoptera. 

AUGUST. 

lst-15th.— Many  bees  and  wasps;  Crabronidae;  Nyssonidae;  Bembecidae;  Lar- 
ridae;  Sphex,  Pompilus  and  other  fossorial  wasps;  Cimbex  larva;  Pelecinus  and 
various  Chalcids  and  Proctotrypidae ;  CEceticus  makes  its  cocoon;  Gortyna  zeae; 
Agrotis  subgothica;  Plusia;  Heliothis;  Northern  Army  worm  (Leucania);  Nepti- 


ENTOMOLOGICAL  CALENDAR.  683 

cula;  Gelechia;  Lyonetia;  Phalaenidae  and  Noctuidas;  Cranberry  Antithesia; 
Saperda  calcarata;  Clytus;  Tettigoniaa  and  many  other  Hemiptera,  Grain  Aphis 
and  other  Aphides;  Coccidae;  Phymata  erosa;  CEcanthus  niveus;  Chloiialtis; 
Acheta;  Neraobius,  and  other  grasshoppers. 

16th-3 1st.  — Orgy ia;  larvae  of  many  moths  and  butterflies;  Lycomorpha  pholus; 
Apple  Lithocolletis  larva;  Sac-bearing  Lyonetia  larva;  Tomicus  and  other  bark 
boring  beetles ;  Girdler  Oncideres;  Psocidae;  second  brood  of  Chrysopa. 

SEPTEMBER. 

Ants  swarm;  Males  and  females  of  Bombus ;  Nymphalis  Disippe;  Gastropacha 
Americana,  larva;  Limacodes,  larva;  Boll  worm  (larva);  Zerene  catenaria;  Larvae 
of  various  Lithocolletis,  Bucculatrix  and  other  Tineids ;  Sciara  larva;  Carabidae; 
Clytus  pictus  oviposits  on  locust;  Meloe;  Membracis  bimaculata;  Pemphigus  rais- 
ing galls ;  Lachnus  strobi. 

OCTOBER. 

CEceticus,  and  larvae  of  various  Tineids;  ^Egeria  pyri;  Canker  worm  moth; 
Anisopteryx;  Hibernia  tiliaria ;  Bdellia  somnulentella ;  Rhagium  lineatum  matures, 
but  hibernates  in  its  cell;  Hemerobius,  and  larva. 


The  Driver  Ant,  see  p.  181. 


GLOSSAKY. 


Acuminate.  Ending  in  a  prolonged  point. 

Anastomosing.  Inosculating  or  running 
into  each  other  like  veins. 

Annulate.  When  a  leg,  antenna,  etc.,  is 
surrounded  by  narrow  rings  of  a  dif- 
ferent color. 

Apodous.    Footless. 

Areolate.  Furnished  with  small  areas; 
like  a  net  work. 

Aristate.    Furnished  with  a  hair. 

Aurelia.    Ancient  term  for  pupa. 

Blastoderm.    The  primitive  skin  of  the 

embryo. 
Blastodermic   cells.    The   cells    forming 

the  blastoderm. 
Bullate.    Blistered. 

Calcarated.    Armed  with  spurs. 

Cancellate.  Crossed  by  lines  going  at 
right  angles  to  each  other. 

Capitate.    Ending  in  a  knob. 

Carina.    An  elevated  keel-like  ridge. 

Carpus.    The  pter  >stigma. , 

Cellule.  A  little  space  surrounded  by 
veins  on  the  wing. 

Chela.  Terminal  portion  of  a  foot,  with 
a  movable  lateral  toe,  like  the  claw  of 
a  crab  or  mandibles  of  arachnids. 

Chrysalis.    The  pupa  of  Lepidoptera. 

Concolorous.  Of  the  same  color  with 
another  part. 

Ciliate.    Fringed.  [ashes. 

Cinereous.    Ash  color;   color   of  wood 

Cine/ilia.    A  colored  band. 

Clavate.    Club-shaped. 

Coarctate.    Contracted;  compact. 

Confluent.    Running  into  each  other. 

Connate.    United. 

Cordate.    Heart  shaped. 

Coriaceous.  Leather-like,  thick,  tough, 
and  somewhat  rigid. 

Corneous.  Of  a  horny  substance;  re- 
sembling horn. 

Crenate.    Scalloped,  with  rounded  teeth. 

Cupreous.    Coppery  in  color. 

Dentated.    Furnished  with  teeth. 
Depressed.    Flattened  down. 
Dilated.    Widened,  expanded. 
Dimidiate.    Half  round. 
Discal.    Relating  to  the  disk;  discoidal. 

Edentulous.    Destitute  of  teeth. 

Emarginate.  Notched;  terminating  in  an 
acute  notch  at  tip.  • 

Entire.  (Wings)  with  a  simple,  not  in- 
dented, edge. 

Epistoma.  That  part  of  the  face  between 
the  front  and  labrum. 

Eruca.    The  larva. 


Excurved.    Curved  outwards. 
Exserted.     Protruded;   opposed  to  in- 
closed. 
Exuvia.    Cast-off  skin. 

Fades.    Appearance,  aspect. 
Falcate.    Sickle-shaped. 
Fascia.    A  stripe  broader  than  a  line. 
Fauna.    An  assemblage  of  animals  peo- 

Fenestrated.  Marked  with  transparent 
spots  surrounded  by  a  darker  color, 
like  window  panes. 

Ferruginous.    Rust-colored. 

Filiform.    Thread-like. 

Flavescent.    Somewhat  yellow. 

•Flexuous.       Almost  zigzag. 

Foliaceous.    Leaf-like. 

Forcipated.    Forceps-like. 

Fovea.  A  more  or  less  rounded  depres- 
sion. 

Free.  Unrestrained  in  articulated  move- 
ment; not  soldered  at  the  points  of 
contact. 

Front.  The  fore-face,  bounded  by  the 
eyes,  the  vertex,  and  often  beneath  by 
the  epistoma,  or  clypeus. 

Fuliginous.    Of  the  color  of  dark  smoke. 

Fulvo-ceneous.  Brazen,  with  a  tinge  of 
brownish  yellow.  [deer. 

Fulvous.    Tawny ;  color  of  the  common 

Furcated.    Forked. 

Fusco-testaceous.   Dull  reddish  brown. 

Fuscous.  Dark  brown;  approaching 
black. 

Fusiform.  Spindle-shaped;  gradually 
tapering  at  each  end. 

Ganglion.  A  centre  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, containing  nerve  cells,  and  re- 
ceiving and  giving  out  impressions. 

Geminate.    Arranged  in  pairs ;  twin. 

Gemmiparous.  Asexual  generation  by 
new  individuals  arising  as  buds  from 
the  body  of  the  parent. 

Glabrous.  Smooth;  opposed  to  hairy, 
downy,  villous. 

Glaucous.    Gray;  bluish  green. 

Hamule.    A  little  hook. 

Hastate.    Halberd  shaped. 

Haustellate.   Furnished  with  a  proboscis 

or  tongue-like  mouth.  \ 

Hexapodous.  Provided  with  six  feet. 
Hirsute.  Clothed  with  shaggy  hairs. 
Hyaline.  Transparent;  of  the  color  of 

water. 
Hypostoma.    The  clypeus  in  diptera. 

Incrassated.  Thickened;  swelled  out  on 
some  particular  part. 

(685) 


686 


GLOSSARY. 


Infamated.    Clouded. 

Infuscated.    Darkened  with  a  blackish 

tinge. 

Interrupted.    Suddenly  stopped. 
Involuted.    Rolled  inwards  spirally. 
Irrorated.      Freckled;     sprinkled    with 

atoms. 

Lamelliform.    Sheet  or  leaf-like. 
Limbate.    When  a  disk  is  surrounded  by 

a  margin  of  a  different  color. 
Lamina.    A  plate  or  sheet-like  piece. 
Linear.    Like  a  line. 
Lineated.  Provided  with  line-like  marks. 

Mandibulate.  Furnished  with  mandi- 
bles ;  opposed  to  haustellate. 

Marginated.  Surrounded  by  an  elevated 
or  attenuated  margin. 

Membranaceous.  Thin;  skinny,  and 
semi-transparent  like  parchment. 

Mucronate.    Ending  in  a  sharp  point. 

Mutic.    Unarmed. 

Nymph.    Old  name  for  pupa. 

Obcordate.    Inversely  heart-shaped. 

Obovate.  Inversely  ovate;  the  smaller 
end  turned  towards  the  base. 

Obsolete.  Not  distinct;  or  almost  lost  to 
view. 

Obtected.    Covered. 

Ochreous.  Of  a  more  or  less  deep  ochre 
color. 

Olivaceous.    Olive  colored. 

Operculum.  A  lid;  a  small  valvular  ap- 
pendage. 

Oval.    Egg-shaped. 

Ovate.    More  or  less  oval. 

Oviposition.   The  act  of  depositing  eggs. 

P 'etiolated.    Supported  on  a  stem. 
Piceous.    Pitchy,  color  of  pitch;  shining 

reddish  black. 
Pilose.      Clothed  with   pile,   or    dense 

down. 

Process.    A  projection. 
Produced.    Drawn  out;  prolonged. 
Pruinose.    Frosty. 
Pseudova.    Unimpregnated  eggs,  which 

produce  young,  as  in  those  laid   by 

virgin  Aphides. 
Pubescent.    Coated  with  very  fine  hairs, 

or  down. 

Pulverulent.    Dusty. 
Punctured.     Marked    with    numerous 

small  impressed  dots. 

Raptorial.    Adapted  for  seizing  prey. 
Recurved.    Curved  backwards. 
Reniform.    Kidney  shaped. 


Reticulated.    Marked  like  net  work. 
Revolute.    Rolled  backwards. 
Rostrum.    The  beak  or  sucking  moiith- 

parts  in  Hemiptera. 
Rufescent.    Somewhat  reddish. 
Rufous.    Reddish. 
Rugose.    Wrinkled. 

Sanguineous.    Blood-red. 

Scabrous.  Rough  like  a  file ;  with  small 
raised  dots. 

Scalloped.  Edge  marked  by  rounded 
hollows,  without  intervening  angles. 

Sericeous.  Having  the  surface  with  a 
silk-like  gloss,  usually  from  the  pres- 
ence of  minute,  dense  hairs. 

Serrated.    Like  saw-teeth. 

Setaceous.    Bristle-like. 

Sessile.    Not  stalked. 

Sinuated.    Scooped  out. 

Spinous.    Armed  with  spines. 

Spurs.  Stiff  bristles,  or  spines,  on  the 
tibise. 

Stria.  Aline  usually  depressed;  some- 
times composed  of  punctures. 

Subaduncate.  Somewhat  hooked  or 
curved. 

Subulate,    Shaped  like  an  awl. 

Sulcate.    With  groove-like  excavations. 

Suture.  A  seam,  or  impressed  line; 
usually  between  segments. 

Tawny.    Fulvous;  a  pale  dirty  yellow. 
Teneral.    A  state  of  the  imago "(Nenrop- 

tera)  after  exclusion  from  the  pupa,  in 

which  it  has  not  fully  completed  its 

coloring,  clothing,  etc. 
Tessellate.    Spotted  like  a  checker-board. 
Testaceous.  »Dull  red ;  brick  color. 
Tomentose.    Covered  with   fine   matted 

hairs. 

Truncated.    Cut  squarely  off. 
Tuberculose.    Covered  with  tubercle-like 

prominences. 

Uncinate.    Hooked  at  the  end. 
Unequal.    Differing  in  size,  or  length. 
Unguiculate.  Armed  with  a  hook  or  nail. 

Valrule.    A  small  valve-like  process. 

Ventral.  Relating  to  the  under  surface 
of  the  abdomen. 

Verticillate,    Placed  in  whirls. 

Verriculate.  With  thickset  tufts  of  par- 
allel hairs. 

Verrucose.  Covered  with  wart-like 
prominences. 

Vulose.  Clothed  with  soft,  rather  long 
hairs. 

Vulva.    Orifice  of  the  oviduct. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 

Beauv.,  Beauvois.  Boisd.,  Boisduval.  Burm.,  Burmeister.  Clem.,  Clemens. 
Dahlb.,  Dahlbom.  Deu.,  Dennis.  Dej.,  Dejean.  Erich.,  Erichson.  Esch.,  Esch- 
oltz.  Fabr.,  Fabricius.  Frohl.,  Frohling.  Grav.,  Gravenhorst.  G.  and  R.,  Grote 
and  Robinson.  Guen.,  Guene"e.  Gyll.,  Gyllenhal.  Hald.,  Haldeman.  H.  Sch., 
Herrich-Schaeffer.  Hiibn.,  HUbner.  Latr.,  Latreille.  Lee.,  Leconte.  Linn.,  Lin- 
nams.  Mann.,  Mannerheim.  Mels.,Melsheimer.  Oliv.,  Olivier.  Pack.,  Packard. 
Sauss.,  Saussure.  Schief.,  Schiefermuller.  Schonh.,  Schonherr.  St.  Farg.,  St, 
Fargeau.  Tellk  ,  Tellkampf.  Walk.,  Walker.  <^,male;  ?,  female;  ?,  worker. 


Abdomen,  14. 

Abdominal  legs,  21. 

Abia  caprifolium,  216.   A.  cerasi,  217. 

Abraxas  ribearia,  321. 

Acanthocheir  armata,  657. 

Acanthosoma  grisea,  546. 

Acaridae,  664. 

Acarina,  628,  631,  638,  639,  642,  644,  660,  6G8. 

Acavus  ursellus,  368. 

Achlysia,  631. 

Achorutes,  676. 

Achatodes  zeae,  311. 

Acidalia  enucleata,  323.  A.  nivosaria,  323. 

Acilius  mediatus,  436. 

Acoloithtis  Americana,  282. 

Acraea  violae,  251. 

Acratus  flavipennis,  454. 

Ac  ro  sera,  395. 

Acrocinus  longimanus,  497. 

Acronycta  aceris,  305.   A.  oblinita,  304. 

Acrophylla,  573. 

Acrydii,  559,  567. 

Acrydiura  aleutaceum,  571. 

Aftias  Azteca,  298.  A.  Luna,  234,  298. 

Adela  Ridingsella,  348. 

Adelges  coccineus,  523. 

Adelocera  obtecta,  460. 

Adelops  hirtus,  439. 

Adranes  csecus,  422,  440. 

uEgeriadae,277.  JSgeria  caudata,  278.  JE. 

exitiosa,  277.      M.   polistiformis,  278. 

M.  pyri,  278.  M.  quinque-caudata,  279. 

JE.  tipuliforme,  279. 
./Egialites  debilis,  475. 
./Egialitidaa,  475. 


schna,  ovipositor  of,  16.    ^Eschna,  579, 

581.  JE.  clepsydra,  602.  M.  constricta, 

602.    M.  heros,  604.    M.  juncea,  598. 
Agabus,  436. 

Agamic  reproduction,  49. 
Agathidium  seminulum,  439. 
Agenia  acceptus,  173.      A.  brevis,  173. 

A.  congruus,  173. 
Aglossa  cuprealis,  329.    A.  pinguinalis, 

329. 
Agrion,  599,  601,  602.    Ovipositor  of.  16. 

A.  civile,  603.    A.  saucium,  603. 
Agrionina,  598,  603. 
Agriotes,  461.    A.  mancus,  461. 
Agriotypus  armatus,  616. 
Agrotis,  243.    A.  Cochrani,  306,  308.    A. 

devastator,  306.     A.  subgothica,  306. 

A.  suffusa,  306.     A.  telifera,  306.     A. 

tessellata,  306. 
Air-breathers,  679. 
Air  vesicles,  42. 
Alans  octilatus,  460. 
Aleochara,  423,  440,  441. 
Aleurodes,  526. 
Aleuronia  Westwoodii,  609. 


Alimentary  canal,  34. 

Allantus  basilaris,  224. 

Allecula,  475. 

Allotria,  213. 

Alucita,  202.    A.  polydactyla,  357. 

Alydus  eurinus,  546. 

Alypia  octo-maculata,  281. 

Alyson  oppositus,  162. 

Amara,  433. 

Amblychila,  429. 

Amblynotus,  212. 

American  Silk-worm,  195. 

American  Tent  Caterpillar,  343. 

Ammophila  arenaria,  171.    A.  cementa- 

ria,  171.    A.  hirsuta,  171.    A.  luctuosa, 

171.   A.  sabulosa,  170, 171.   A.  urnaria, 

171. 

Amnion,  678,  679. 
Amphicerus  bicaudatus,  471. 
Amphidasys  cognataria,  322. 
Amphizoa  insolens,  435. 
Amphizoidae,  434. 
Ampulex  Sibirica,  166. 
Anagrus,  202. 
Anal  cerci,  22. 
Anal  forceps,  21. 
Anal  plate,  30. 
Anaphes,  202. 
Anarete,  378. 
Anarta  algida,  316. 
Anaspis,  476. 
Anax  Junius,  603. 
Anchylopera  fragariae,  340.     A.  medlo- 

fasciana,  338.     A.  nubeculana,  338.   A. 

ocellana,  338.     A.  spireaefoliana,  338. 

A.  vacciniana,  338. 
Andrena,  141,  142,  143,  145,  146,  408.    A. 

vicina,  144. 
Andrenetae,  142. 
Andrenus  marginicollis,  443. 
Angerona  crocataria,  319. 
Angoumois  Grain-moth,  350. 
Anisopteryx,  231.      A.  pometaria,  324. 

A.  vernata,  200,  324,  325. 
Anisota  rubicunda,  300.     A.  senatoria, 

300. 

Anisotoma,  439. 

Anobium  notatum,  47.  A.  paniceum,  131. 
Anomala  varians,  455. 
Anomalon  vesparnm,  127, 150, 195. 
Anomis  xylina,  313. 
Anomma  arcens,  181.     A.  Burmeisteri, 

181,  683. 

Anopheles  quadrimaculatus,  370. 
Anophthalmus  Tellkampfli,  434. 
Anotia  Bonnetii,  533. 
Antennae,  26. 

Antennary  segments,  20,  58. 
Antheraea  Yama-ma'i,  296.  [447. 

Antherophagus,  446.    A.  ochraceus,  131, 

(687) 


688 


INDEX. 


Anthicidas,  476. 

Anthicus,  476. 

Anthidium,  135. 

Anthocharis  cardamines,  hermaphro- 
dite, 46. 

Anthocoris  insidiosus,  544. 

Anthomyia,  131.  A.  brassicae,  411.  A. 
ceparum,  411.  A.  cunicularis,  411.  A 
raphani,  411.  A.  urcana,  150.  A.  zeae 
411,  419. 

Anthonomus  crataegi,  487.  A.  prunicida, 
487.  A.  quadrigibbus,  487.  A.  scutel- 
latus,  487.  A.  suturalis,  487.  A.  syco 
phanta,  487.  A.  tessellatus,  487. 

Anthophagus  caesus  ?  442. 

Anthophora,  29, 141  206,  397.  A.  abrupta, 
136.  A.  megachilis,  206.  A.  taurea, 
136. 

Anthophorabia,  114, 135, 136,  202,  206.  A. 
megachilis,  131,  137. 

Anthrax,  131.  A.  morio,  397.  A.  sinu- 
osa,  132,  140,  397. 

Anthrenus  varius,  448. 

Anthribidae,  53. 

Anthrobia  Mammothia,  645. 

Antispila,  342.  [333. 

Antithesia  bipartitana,  333.  A.  pruniana, 

Ant  lion,  611. 

Apatela  Americana,  304. 

Apathus,  131,  142.   A.  Ashtonii,  131. 

Aphidaa,  112,  517,  519. 

Aphides,  48,  50,  54,  161,  202,  378. 

Aphidius,  198, 203, 521.  A.  avenaphis,  198. 
A.  triticaphis,  198. 

Aphis,  69, 198, 203, 213,  372, 379.  A.  aceris, 

521.  A.  avenae,  522.     A.  brassicse,  522. 
A.  cerasi,  522.  A.  dianthi,  520.  A.  mali, 

522.  A.  malifoliae,  522.    A.  persicae,  522. 
Aphis  lion,  609,  611. 

Aphodius  fimetarius,  453.  A.  fossor,  453. 

Aphomia  colonella,  329. 

Aphrophora  quadrmotata,  532. 

Aphrosylus,  403. 

Apiariae,  115,  147. 

Apion  Sayi,  485. 

Apis  melliflca,  117. 

Apochrysa.  79. 

Apoica  pallida,  154, 156. 

Apophyllus,  50,  211. 

Aporus  fasciatus,  174. 

Apple  fly,  380, 414. 

Apple  leaf  crumpler,  331. 

Apple  tree  borer,  500. 

Arachnida,  104,  625,  632. 

Arachnids,  629,  630,  640,  643,  660. 

Aradus  crenatus,  553. 

Aranea  diadema,  193. 

Araneae,  633. 

Araneina,  639,  644. 

ArchegogryUus  priscus,  564. 

Archetarbus  rotundatus,  657. 

Archimulacris  Acadica,  78. 

Archyptera,  24. 

Arctia,  239.    A.  Anna,  286.    A.  caja,  63. 

A.  pudica,  284.    A.  virgo,  286. 
Arctians,  280. 
Arctisca,  667. 
Argas  Persicus,  6(?2. 
Argynnis  Aphrodite,  253.    A.  Atlantis, 

252.    A.  Bellona,  253.     A.  Diana,  253. 

A.  Idalia,  252.    A.  Montinus,  253.    A. 

Myrina,  253. 

Argyromiges  quercifoliella,  353. 
Argyroneta,  633.    A.  aquatica,  649. 
Arma  spinosa,  547. 


Army  worm,  77,  196,  197,  203, 305,  383,  407. 

Arthromacra,  475. 

Arthromere,  9,  16. 

Articulata,  1,  3,  6. 

Ascalaphus,  54,  612.     A.  hyalinus,  613. 

A.  macaronius,  613. 
Asclera,  476. 
Asemum  moestum,  496. 
Asexual  forms,  49. 
Ash,  mountain,  slug,  222. 
Asilidaa.  395. 

Asilus  362.    A.  sericeus,  396. 
Asopia  costalis,  328. 
Asparagus  beetle,  76,  502. 
Aspatherium,  617. 
Aspidiotus,  50.   A.  conchiformis,  528.   A. 

Harrisii,  530. 
Astata  unicolor,  165. 
Asynapta,  378. 

Atax,  642,661.    A.  Bonzi,  640. 
Athalia  centifoliae,  44. 
Athous,  461. 
Atopa,  464. 
Atropos  divinatorius,  589.     A.  pulsato- 

rius,  589. 
Attaci,  234. 
Atta  clypeata,  186. 
Attagenus  pellio,  448. 
Attacus,  235.    A.  Atlas,  296.    A.  Aurota, 

297.    A.  Mylitta,  296.     A.  Pernyi,  296. 

A.  Yfima-mai,296. 
Attelabus  analis,  485. 
Attus,  194,  655. 
Augochlora  purus,  143, 156. 
Aulacizes  mollipes,  532. 
Aulacodes  nigriventris,  195. 
Aulax,  212. 

Baetisca,  595. 

Baetis  interpunctata,  595. 

Balanmus  nasicus,  485. 

Baridius  trinotatus,  491.     B.  sesostris, 

491.    B.  vestitus,  491. 
Bark  lice,  11. 

Batrachedra  salicipomonella,  352. 
Batrachidea  cristata,  572. 
Batrachomyia,  406. 
Bat-ticks,  416,  418. 
Bdella  longicornis,  660. 
Bdellidae,  660. 
Bear"  animalcules,  668. 
Bed  bug,  551. 
Bee  killer,  396. 
Bee  louse,  418. 
Bee  moth,  332. 
Bee,  venation  of,  23. 
Belostoma,  80,  518.    B.  grisea,  537.    B. ' 

Haldimanum,  537. 
Bembecidae,  164. 
Bembex  fasciata,  164.    B.  rostrata,  164. 

B. tarsata,  164. 
Bembidium,  422,  434. 
Beris,  392. 

Berna»fly,  412. 
Berosus,  438. 
Bethylus  fuscicornis,  201. 
Bibio  albipennis,  392. 
Bibionidae,  391. 
Bicho.  390. 
Biorhiza  nigra,  211. 
Bird  lice,  554. 
Bird  earcoptids,  642. 
Bird  ticks,  416,  417. 
Bite  of  insects,  43. 
Bittacomorpha,  54.    B.  clavipes,  884. 


INDEX. 


689 


Bittacus,  54.   B.  pilicornis,  614. 

Black  fly,  390. 

Blaps  mortisaga,  473. 

Blastoderm,  55. 

Blast ophaga  grossorum,  207. 

Blatta,  194.    B.  Germanica,  481.     B.  ori- 

entalis,  576. 
Blattariae,  575. 
Blattina,  576,  577. 
Blood,  37. 

Blue-bottle  fly,  407,  408. 
Boarmia  gnopharia,  322. 
Bolbocerus,  453. 
Bolbomyia,  392. 
Boletophagus  cornutus,  474. 
Bolitobius,  441. 
Bolitophila,  385. 
Bombardier  beetle,  432. 
Bombus,  53,  54,  65,  130,  132,  135,  146, 400. 
B.  fervidus,  401. 
Bombus,  head  of,  30. 
Bombycidae,  200,  234,  238,  283. 
Bombyliidae,  395. 
Bombylius,  54,  164,  397. 
Bombyx  Huttoni,  295.     B.  mori,  293,  294, 

295.    B.  neustria,  300.  B.phoedima,384. 
Bonvouloiria,  447. 
Boreus,  493,  583,  586,  614.     B.  brumalis, 

615.     B.  nivoriundus,  615. 
Bostrichus,  471. 
Bot  fly,  25,  403. 

Bothropolys  multidentatus,  674. 
Botys  citrma,  330.    B.  verticalis,  330. 
Brachinus  fumans,  432. 
Brachyara,  392. 

Brachycybe,  676.    B.  Lecontei,  680. 
Brachyrleres,  408. 
Brachys,  459. 
Bracon,  197, 198. 
Braconidae,  197. 
Branchiae,  41. 
Brathinus  nitidus,  439.     B.  varicornis, 

439. 

Braula,  46,  360,  388. 
Braula  caeca,  127,  419. 
Braulina,  418. 
Breeze-flies,  403. 
Brent hus  septentrionalis,  485. 
Brephos  infans,  316. 
Bristle  tails,  622. 
Bruchidas,  484. 

Bruchus  fabi,  484.    B.  pisi,  484,  513. 
Buprestidae,  159,  457. 
Buthus  Carolinianus,  659.    B.  hirsutus, 

660. 

Butterflies,  hermaphroditism  in,  238. 
Butterfly,  venation  of,  23. 
Butternut  saw-fly,  224. 
Button-wood  Tremex,  228. 
Byrrhidae,  449. 

Byrrhus  Americanus,  449.  B.  pillula,  449. 
Byrsocrypta,  523. 
Byturus  unicolor,  448. 

Cabbage  butterfly,  249. 
Cabbage  maggot,  411. 
Caberodes  metrocamparia,  320. 
Caddis  or  case-worm,  6,  615. 
Caddis-flies,  236. 
Caenis,  593.    C.  hilaris,  596. 
Calandra,  489. 
Callalucia  vermiculata,  283. 
Callidium  antennatum,  496. 
Calligrapha  Philadelphica,  509.    C.  scal- 
aris,  509. 

44 


Callimome,  212. 

Callimorpha  Lecontei,  286.     C.  interrup- 

to-marginata,  286. 
Callimosema  scintillana,  337. 
Callochlora  chloris,  290. 
Callosamia  Promethea,  237,  298. 
Calosoma  calidum,  431.     C.   scrutator, 

431. 
Caloptenus    bivittatus,  570.     C.  femur- 

ruber,  569.    C.  spretus,570. 
Calopterygina,  598. 

Calopteryx,  599, 601,  602.    C.  apicalis,  603. 
Calotermes  castaneus,  587. 
Campodea  fragilis,  623. 
Campodeae,  623. 
Campylomyza,  378. 
Canker  worm,  70,  324. 
Canker-worm  moth,  200. 
Capnia  pygmsea,  591. 
Capsini,  550.  [550. 

Capsus  Danicus,  550.    C.  quadrivittatus, 
Carabidae,  421,  423,  424,  427,  430,  435,  437, 

446. 

Carabus  auronitens,  432.  C.  serratus,  432. 
Cardo,  28. 

Carnus  hemapterus,  418. 
Carpenter-bee,  132. 
Carpet  moth,  347. 
Carpocapsa  pomonella,  341. 
Carpophilus  antiquus,  444. 
Carrion  or  Sexton  Beetle,  438. 
Caryborus,  79,  80. 
Case-fly,  6. 

Casnonia  Pensylvanica,  433. 
Cassida,  408.    C.  aurichalcea,  504. 
Cassidomyia,  408. 
Castnia,  280. 
Cataclysta  fulicalis,  330. 
Catocala,  302.    C.  piatrix,  317.    C.  ultro- 

nia,  317. 
Catocha,  378. 
Catops,  439. 
Cebrio  bicolor,  463. 
Cebrionidae,  462. 
Cecidomyiae,  202,  205. 
Cecidomyia  acrophila,  372.  C.  aTtemisias, 

199.    C.  destructor,  373,  374.    C.  fusci- 

collis,  372.    C.  glutinosa,  372.    C.  gros- 

sulariae,  376.    C.  pavida,  372.    C.  pini- 

inopis,  376.   C.  rigid*,  376.   C.robmiae, 

499.     C.  salicis,  364,  373,  376.     C.  salici- 

brassicoides,  377.    C.  strobiloides,  377. 

C.  tritici,  375,  376.    C  ?  vitis-coryloides, 

377. 

Cecidomyidae,  371. 
Cecropia  moth,  27,  234,  298. 
Cells  of  the  Honey  bee,  120. 
Cemonus  inornatus,  161. 
Centipedes,  10,  673,  674. 
Cephalization,  9. 
Cephaloidae,  476. 
Cephaloon  lepturides,  476. 
Cephalothorax,  8. 
Cephus,  215.   C.  abbreviatus,  227.   C.  trl- 

maculatus,  227. 
Cerambycidae,  425,  426,  493. 
Ceraphron,  199.    C.  armatum,  200. 
Cerasphorus  cinctus,  495. 
Ceratma,  143,  219.     C.  dupla,  134, 140. 
Ceratocampadae,  299. 
Ceratomia  Amyntor,  274. 
Ceratopogon,  371. 
Cerceris,  146.    C.  bupresticida,  159.    C. 

deserta,  159.  C.  tricmcta,  159.  C.  tuber- 

culata,  159. 


690 


INDEX. 


Cercopidae,  588. 

Cercopis,  532. 

Cercyon,  438. 

Cermatia,  070.    C.  forceps,  673. 

CermatidcB,  673. 

Ceropalus   bipunctata,  174.     C.  Robin- 

souii,  175. 
Cetouia,  453,  457. 
Ceuthophilus  maculatus,  565.    C.  stygius, 

565. 

Ceutorhynchus,  189. 
Chalcididse,  202. 
Chalcids,  161,  207,  410. 
Chalcis  albifrons,  203.    C.  bracata,  203. 
Chalcophora  Virginiensis,  458. 
Chalicodoma  micraria,  192. 
Chartergus  chartarius,  154. 
Chartophila  floralis,  408. 
Chauliodes  pectinicornis,  607.     C.  rastri- 

cornis,  60:>.     C.  serricornis,  607. 
Chauliognathus  Pensylvanicus,  467. 
Cheese  maggot,  413. 
Chelil'er,  631J.    C.  cancroides,  659. 
Chelymorpha  cribaria,  504. 
Chermes,  50, 523.    C.  abietis,  525. 
Chernes.    C.  Sanborui,  659. 
Chernetidae,  658. 
Cherry  slug,  222. 

Cheyletus,  665.    C.  semenivorus,  668. 
Chigoe,  390. 

Chilocorus  bivulneruhis,  513. 
Chilognatha,  671,  676. 
Chilopoda,  670,  672. 
Chilopods,  672,  676. 
Chinch  bug,  543. 
Chion  cinctus,  495. 
Chionea,  358,  55J.    C.  araneoides,  383.   C. 

valga,  383. 
Chionobas,  75,  262.     C.  Bore,  263.     C. 

Calais,  263.    C.  Chrixus,  263.    C.  Jutta, 

283.    C.  (Eno,  263.    C.  semidea,  263. 
Chigue,  390. 
Chironomtdae,  370. 
Chironomus  oceanicus,  370. 
Chironomus  larva,  21. 
Chitine,  1,  9. 
Chlamius,  434. 
Chlamys  plicata,  510. 
Chloealtis  conspersa,  568. 
Chloeon,  594. 
Chlorion  cyaneum,  167. 
Chlorops  Herpinii,  415.    C.  lineata,  415. 
Choerodes  transversata,  319. 
Chrestotes  lapidea,  593. 
Chrysididoe,  190,  199. 
Chrysis,  157, 191, 192.    C.  hilaris,  192. 
Chrysobothris  lemorata,  458.  C.  Harrisii, 

459. 

Chrysomelidae,  501. 
Chrysopa,  47,  79.    C.  perla,  611.    C.  ocu- 

lata,  611.  , 

Chrysophanus  Americanus,264.  C.Thoe, 

264,  357. 

Chrysops  niger,  393.    C.  vittatus,  393. 
Cicada  canicularis,  163.    C.  Cassinii,  535. 

C.  pruinosa,  534.    C.  rimosa,  534.    C. 

septendecim,  535. 
Cicadellina,  531. 
Cicadidae,  516. 
Cicindela  generosa,  430.    C.  hirticollis, 

430.     C.  punctata,  430.     C.  purpurea, 

430.    C.  sexguttata,  430.    C.  vulgaris, 

430. 

Cicindelidae,  423,  428. 
Cidaria  diversilineata,  325. 


Cillenum,  434. 

Cimbex  Americana,  215. 

Cimex,  516.     C.  columbarius,   551.     C. 

hirundinis,  551.  C.  lectularius,  551.    C. 

pipistrelli,  551. 
Cioidse,  472. 
Circulatory  system,  37. 
Cis,  472. 
Cistela,  475. 
Cistelidse,  425,  475. 
Citheronia  Mexicana,  299.     'C.  regalis, 

299.    C.  sepulcralis,  299. 
Cladius  isomera,  226. 
Cladomacra  macropus,  114. 
Cladura  indivisa,  360. 
Clambus,  439. 

Classification  of  insects,  104. 
Clastoptera  proteus,  532. 
Claviger,  440. 
Clavola,  26. 

Cleptes  semiaurata,  192. 
Cleridae,  4G8; 

).  alvearius,  469. 


156,  196,  343.      C.    Ameri- 
8,  301.    C.  disstria,  301. 


Clerus,  468. 
Clinidmm,  44 
Clisiocampa, 

cana,  207,  2 
Clivina,  432. 
Cloaca,  35. 
Cloe,  593.    C.  pygmaea,  596. 
Clothes  moth,  346. 
Clothilla  picea,  589O 
Clover  worm,  328. 
Clubione  holosericea,  193.     C.  medicin- 

ahs,  649.    C.  tranquilla,  649. 
Clypeiis,  29. 
Clytus,  159.    C.  araneiformis,  497.  C.  pic- 

tus,  497.    C.  robiniae,  497.  C.  speciosus, 

496. 
Coccus  cacti,  527.  C.  citri,  527.    C.  lacca, 

527.  C.  manniparus,  527.  C.  Gloverii,  5^7. 
Coccidae,  112,  525. 
Coccinella  bipunctata,  511.     C.  novem- 

notata,  512.    C.  trifasciata,  512. 
Coccinellidae,  511. 
Coccophagus,  527. 
Coccus  cacti,  526. 
Cochlidiae,  288. 
Cockchafer,  71. 
Cockroach,  194,  575. 
Cocoons  of  Silk  Worms,  240. 
Coddling  moth,  341. 
Coeliodes  inaequalis,  490. 
Coelioxys  octodentata,  141. 
Coelodasys  (Notodonta)  unicornis,  292. 
Coleophora     coruscipennella,    351.     C. 

rosacella,  351.    C.  rosaefoliella,  351. 
Coleoptera,  420,  421.     Antennae  of,  422. 

Number  of  species  of,  427. 
Colias,  244.    C.  interior,  251.    C.  Labra- 

dorensis,  250.    C.  occidentalis,  251.    C. 

Philodice,  250. 
Collecting  insects,  84.\ 
Colletes,  141, 143, 147. 
Colon,  36. 

Colorado  potato  beetle,  408,  508. 
Colpodia,  378. 
Colydidae,  445. 
Colydium  elongatum,  446. 
Colymbetes,  436. 
Common  fly,  361. 
Comprehensive  types,  54. 
Compsidea  tridentata,  499. 
Condylodera  tricondyloides,  567. 
Coniopteryx,  625.    C.tineiformis,609.    C. 

vicina,  609. 


INDEX. 


691 


Conocephalus  ensiger,  563. 

Conopidse,  400,  418. 

Conops,  131,  3tJ3.    C.  flavipes,  401. 

Conorhinus  sanguisuga,  542. 

Conotrachelus  nenuphar,  488. 

Copris,  47.    C.  Carolina,  451. 

Coptera,  201.     C.  polita,  201. 

Coranus  subapterus,  541. 

Covdulia  tenebrosa,  G04. 

Cordulina,  584. 

Coreidse,  542. 

Corethra,  65,  370. 

Coreus  marginatus,  544.    C.  scapha,  545. 

C.  tristis,  515. 
Corimelaena  pulicaria,  547. 
Corisiae,  512. 
Corixa  iuterrupta,  536. 
Cora,  insects  injurious  to,  306,  311,  350. 
Cornea,  25. 

Corydalus,  79.    C.  cornutus,  33,  579,  607. 
Corymbites  aeripennis,  462.    C.  viridis, 

462.    C.  cylindi-iformis,  462.    C.  triun- 

dulatus,  462.    C.  hieroglyphicus,  4[>2. 
Corynetes,  468. 
Costa,  23. 

Cotalpa  lanigera,  455. 
Cotton  Anomis,  313. 
Cotton  Boarmia,  322. 
Cotton  Heliothis,  315. 
Cotton  Leaf  roller,  335. 
Cotton  Plusia,  312. 
Coxa,  20. 
Crabro,  146, 197.    C.  sex-maculatus,  159. 

C.  singulars,  158,  160.     C.  stirpicola, 

158. 

Crabronidae,  149, 155,  157,  195. 
Crambidia  pallida,  285. 
Crambus,  23S.  C.  mutabilis,  332. 
Cranberry  Anchylopera,  338. 
Cranberry  Cidaria,  325. 
Cranberry  Pristiphora,  217. 
Cranberry  Tortrix,  334. 
Cranberry  weevil,  487. 
Crane-flies,  380. 
Crepidodera  cucumeris,  506. 
Cressonia  juglandis,  274. 
Crickets,  562. 
Crioceridaj,  426. 
Crioceris  asparagi,  502. 
Crocota  ferruginosa,  285. 
Crossidius  pulchrior,  495. 
Croton  bug,  576. 
Crustacea,  636. 
Crustaceans,  typical,  5,  7,  8. 
Cryphalus  materarius,  493. 
Cryptocephalus,  510. 
Cryptocercus  punctulatus,  576.    C.  mul- 

tispinosus,  190. 
Cryptophagidae,  446. 
Cryptophagus  hirtus,  447. 
Cryptus,  193,  197,  395.    C  ?  ornatipennis, 

197. 

Ctenistes,  422. 
Ctenocerus,  114. 
Ctenophora,  381. 
Ctenostoma,  428. 
Ctenucha,   239,  280.     C.  Virginica,  234, 

Cuckoo  bee,  141, 147.    Cuckoo  flies,  191. 

Cucujidae,  446. 

Cucujus,  446. 

Cucumber  flea  beetle,  506. 

Culex  pipiens,  369. 

Culicidae,  368. 

Cupes  capitata,  470.    C.  cinerea,  470. 


Cupesidae,  469. 

Curculionidae,  159,  378,  425,  426,  484. 

Currant  Abraxas,  321. 

Currant  Borers,  279,  500. 

Currant  Pristiphora,  217. 

Cuterebra  buccata,  406.  C.  cuniculi,  406. 
C.  emasculator,  405.  C.  horripilum, 
406. 

Cut-worms,  Remedies  for,  308. 

Cychrus,  432. 

Cyclonotum,  438. 

Cyclopthalmus,  630.    C.  Bucklandi,  660. 

Cylindrotoma,  384.  C.  distincttssima, 
381.  C.  (Phalacrocera)  replicata,  381. 

Cymatophora  caniplaga,  304. 

Cymindis,  433. 

Cynipidae,  205,  208. 

Cynips,  50,  202.  C.  confluens,  209,  211. 
C.  divisa,  209.  C.  folii,  209.  C.  gallae- 
tinctoriae,  211.  C.  quercus-aciculata, 
208.  C.  quercus-futilis,  210,  211.  C. 
quercus  globulus,  210.  C.  quercus-pa- 
lustris,  211.  C.  quercus-papillata,  210. 

C.  seminator,  210.    C.  tubicola,  210. 
Cynthia,  244. 

Cyphon,  464. 
Cyrtidje,  395. 
Cyrtophyllum  concavnm,  566. 

Daddy-long-legs,  380. 

Daihinia,  565. 

Danais,  245.    D.  archippus,  251. 

Dascyllida?,  464. 

Dasypogon,  361,  395. 

Death's  head  Sphinx,  284. 

Deciduous  legs,  21. 

Deformities  of  Insects,  83. 

Degeeria  nivalis,  625. 

Deilephila  lineata,  275.  D.  chamoeneril, 
276. 

Delphax  arvensis,  533. 

Demodex,  626,  642.  D.  folliculorum,  69, 
667. 

Dendroides  Canadensis,  477.  D.  con- 
color,  477. 

Depressaria  atrodorsella,  34U.  D.  later- 
ella,  349.  D.  robiniella,  349. 

Dermaleichus  pici-pubescentis,  666. 

Dermanyssus  avium,  663.    D.  pipistrel- 

Dermaptera,  577. 

Dermatobia  moyocuil,  406.    D.  noxialis, 

406. 
Dermatodectes  bovis,  666.    D.  equi,  666. 

D.  ovis,  666. 

Dermestes  lardarius,  448. 
Dermestidaa,  448. 
Derodontidae,  447. 
Desmia  maculalis,  330. 
Desmocerus  cyaneus,  506. 
Desoria,  625. 

Development  of  Insects,  54. 
Devil's  darning  needles,  597. 
Dexia,  408. 

Diabrotica  duodecim-punctata,  506.    D. 

yittata,  505. 
Dianous,  442. 

Diapheromera  femorata,  573. 
Diapria  cecidomyiarum,  199. 
Diaetrophus,  212. 

Dicerca  divaricata,  458.    D.  lurida,  458. 
Dichelonycha  elongatula,  454. 
Dictyoneura,  582. 
Dimorphism,  52. 
Dineutea,  79,  80.    D.  Americanus,  437. 


692 


INDEX. 


Diplax,  55,  60,  600.    D.  Berenice,  605.    D. 

Elisa,  005.    D.  rubicundula,  605. 
Diplolepariae,  208. 
Diplolepis  confluens,  155.    D.  confluen- 

tus,  140. 

Diplonychus,  80. 
Diplosis,  378.    D.  socialis,  372. 
Dipnemnones,  648. 
Diptera,  358.    Number  of  species  of,  267. 

Venation  of,  360. 
Diseases  of  insects,  81,  344. 
Diving  Beetles,  435. 
Dolerus  arvensis,  222. 
Dolichopodidoe,  402. 
Dolomedes  lanceolatus,  653. 
Dolopius  stabilis,  461.    D.  pauper,  461. 
Donacia  lurbyi,  502.    D.  proxima,  502. 
Dor  bug,  455. 
Dorcas  brevis,  451. 
Dorcatomma,  422. 
Dorsal  vessel,  37. 
Dorthesia,  526. 
Dorylus,  181. 
Doryphora  decem-lineata,  508.  D.  juncta, 

509. 

Dragon-flies,  584,  597,  630,  679. 
Drassus,  649. 
Drasteria  erechtea,  317. 
Drilus,  466. 
Drop-worms,  318. 
Drosophila,  377,  414. 
Dryopteris  rosea,  293. 
Ductus  ejaculatorius,  44. 
Dynastes,  455.     D.  Hercules,  456.     D. 

Tityus,  456. 

Dysdera,  633.    D.  interrita,  649. 
Dytiscidje,  424,  435,  436,  487. 
Dytiscus,  53.    D.  fasciventris,  436. 

Eacles  imperialis,  300. 

Earwigs,  577. 

Eburia  ?  Ulkei,  495. 

Echiniscus,  642. 

Echinomyia,  408. 

Eciton  Mexicana,  186.    E.  Sumichrasti, 

183. 

Ectatomma  femiginea,  184. 
Ectobia  Germanica,  576.    E.  lithophila, 

576. 

Edema  albifrons,  292. 
Eggs,  46. 

Egg-parasites,  198. 
Eiphosoma  annulatum,  195. 
Elachista  ?  orichalcella,  352. 
Elaphrus,  431. 

Elasmocerus  terminates,  468. 
Elater,  460.    E.  obliquus,  461. 
Elateridae,  421,  425,  459. 
Elephantomyia  Westwoodii.  383. 
Elis  costaUs,  177. 
Ellema  HaiTisii,  271. 
Ellopia,318.    E.  fasciaria,  320.    E.flagit- 

iaria,  320. 
Elm  butterfly,  260. 
Elm  Ennomos,  321. 
Elm  Tremex,  228. 
Elmis,  450. 
Elodes,  473. 
Embia  Savigni,  588. 
Embidae,  583,  588. 
Emesa  longipes,  541. 
Emmenadia,  481. 
Emphytus  maculatus,  220. 
Empidse,  402. 
Empis,  361. 


Empretia  stimulea,  289. 

Empusa,  575. 

Emydium  testudo,  669. 

Encyrtus,  223.    E.  Botus,  207.    E.  Eeate, 

207.    E.  varicornis,  207. 
Endomychidae,  510. 
Endropia  tigrinaria,  320. 
Ennomos  magnaria,  321.  E.  subsignaria, 

321. 

Enoicyla  pusilla,  616. 
Entomological  journal,  103. 
Entomological  systems,  106. 
Entomological  works,  97. 
Entomostraca,  616. 
Eoscorpion  carbonarius,  660. 
Epe'ira  domiciliorum,  (551.     E.  vulgaris. 

631,  651. 

Epeolus,  141.    E.  variegatus,  147. 
Ephemera  decora,  594. 
Ephemerida?.  578,  580,  581,  583,  593. 
Ephemerkls,  583,  593. 
Ephemerina,  583. 
Ephemerites,  594. 
Ephydra  halophila,  414. 
Epicranium,  29. 
Epidosis,  372,  378. 
Epilachna  borealis,  513. 
Epimera,  9. 
Epipharyx,  20,  29. 
Epipone  nitidulans,  203. 
Epirus,  401. 
Episternum,  9. 
Epurzea,   445,446. 
Erastria  carneola,  316. 
Erebus  Agrippina,  318.    E.  odora,  318. 
Eremophila  Ehrenbergi,  575. 
Erioptera  venusta,  383. 
Eriosoma  lanigera,  522.    E.  pyri,  525. 
Eristalis,  398. 
Ernobius  mollis,  471. 
Erotylida3,  510. 
Erythroneura  vitis,532. 
Eucera,  141.    E.  maculata,  136. 
Eucerceris  zonatus,  159. 
Eucheira  socialis,  244. 
Euchroma  Columbica,  459. 
Euclea  Monitor,  289. 
Euchronia  Maia,  299. 
Eucnemis,  460. 

Eudamus  BathylJus,  269.  E.  Tityrus,  269. 
Eudryas,  280.   E.  grata,  281.  E.  unio,  282. 
Eugereon  Boeckingi,  54,  78,  582. 
Eulophus  ba sails,  207. 
Eumenes,  147,  155, 156.    E.  coarctata,  207. 

E.  fraterna,  156.    E.  tinctor,  192. 
Eumolpus  auratus,  509. 
Euphanessa  mendica,  285. 
Eupithecia  miserulata,  325. 
Euplexoptera,  577. 
Eupyrrhoglossum  Sagra,  277. 
Euremia,  280. 
Euryomia  In  da,  457. 
Euryptychia  saligneana,  337. 
Eurytoma,  203,  205,  212.    E.  flavipes,  205. 

E.  hordei,  203,  205.    E.  secalis,  205. 
Euscirrhopterus  Poeyi,  282. 
Euura  orbitalis,  218.    E.  perturbans,  218. 

E.  salicis-ovum,  218. 
Evagoras  viridis,  542. 
Evagorus,  80. 

Evania,  194, 195.    E.  laevigata,  194. 
Evaniidae,  194. 
Eyes,  25. 

Facets  of  eye,  25. 


INDEX. 


693 


False  legs,  17. 

False  Scorpions,  632. 

Fatty  body,  37. 

Fauna,  71. 

Femur,  21r 

Fidia  viticida,  502.  * 

Fidonia  piniaria,  hermaphrodite,  43. 

Figites,  212.    F.  (Diplolepis)    5-lineatus 

208. 

Figitidae,  212. 
Filaria,  83. 

Filistata  hibernalis,  649. 
Fire  fly,  462,  465. 
Fire-worms,  339. 
Fir  saw  fly,  224. 
Flagellum,  26. 
Flata,  112.    F.  limbata,  533. 
Flea,  11,  360,  388. 
Flesh  fly,  407,  408. 
Flight  of  Insects,  32. 
FCBIIUS,  194, 195.    F.  jaculator,  195. 
Forest-flies,  416. 
Forlicula,  5i,  577. 
Forficularite,  577. 
Formica  flava,  183.    F.  fulvacea,  183.    F. 

fusca,  180.    F.  herculanea,  183.    F.  Pen- 

sylvanica,  183.    F.  rubra,  183.    F.  san- 

guinea,  180, 182, 183. 
FormiiianjB,  179. 
Formicomus,  476. 
Fornax,  4  >0. 
Fossil  Diptera,  368. 
Front  of  the  head,  31. 
Fruit-worm,  (Cranberry)  340. 
Fulgora  candelaria,  533.    F.  lanternaria, 

Fulgoridae,  532. 
Fungus  eating-flies,  199. 

Galea,  28V 

Galerita  Lfecontei,  433. 

Galeruca  gelatinariaa,  504.      G.  margiii- 

ella,  505. 
Gales  us,  201. 
Galgudini,  539. 
Galgulus  oculatus,  539. 
Galleria  cereana,  332. 
Gall-flies,  109,208,371. 
Gall-midges,  199. 
Gamasidae,  683. 
Gamasus  coleoptratorum,  663. 
Gastropacha  Americana,  300. 
Gastrophilus  equi,  404. 
Gelechia  cerealella,  350.   G.  fungivorella, 

350.    G.  roseosuffusella,  350. 
Gena,  28. 

Generation,  organs  of,  43. 
Genital  organs,  16. 
Geographical  Distribution,  71. 
Geological  Distribution,  77. 
Geometra  iridaria,  323. 
Geometridae,  303. 
Geophilidae,  675. 
Geophilus  bipuncticeps,  675.    G.  cephal- 

icus,  675.    G.  proavus,  673. 
Georyssidaa,  449. 
Georyssus  pusillus,  450 
Geotrupes,  663.    G.  splendidus,  453.    G. 

stercorarius,  32. 

Gerris,  516,  539.    G.  paludum,  540. 
G.  rufoscutellatus,  540. 
Gills,  41. 
Girdler,  498. 
Gizzard,  35. 
Glaucopis,  280,  283. 


GlomeridJB,  677. 

Glomeris  marginata,  677. 

Glossina  morsitans,  407. 

Glow-worm,  424. 

Glyphe,  203. 

Golden-eyed  fly,  393. 

Goldsmith  beetle,  455. 

Goliathus  cacicus,  456.  G.  Drurii,  456.  G. 

Goliathus,  456. 
Gomphina,  584. 

Gomphus,  597.    G.  fraternus,  603. 
Gonatopus  lunatus,  199. 
Gonia,  408. 
Gonocerus,  545. 
Gonyleptes  ornatum,  657. 
Gooseberry  Midge,  376. 
Gooseberry  Pempelia,  331. 
Gooseberry  Pristiphora,  217. 
Gooseberry  saw-fly,  217,  219. 
Gooseberry  worm,  331. 
Gordius,  82. 
Gortyna  flavago,  310.    G.  nitela,310.    G. 

leucostigma,  310. 
Gorytes  flavicornis,  163. 
Gracilaria,  342.     ^ 
Grain  moth,  347,  350. 
Grain  weevil,  490. 
Gramatophora  trisignata,  304. 
Grape  Acoloithus,  282. 
Grape  Alypia,  281. 
Grape  Anomala,  455. 
Grape  Baridius,  491. 
Grape  Borer,  278. 
Grape  Cidaria,  325. 
Grape  Desmia,  330. 
Grape  Eudryas,  281. 
Grape  Fidia,  502. 
Grape-leaf  Flea  beetle,  507. 
Grape-leaf  folder,  330. 
Grape  Penthina,  336. 
Grape  Philampelus,  275. 
Grape  Pterophorus,  356. 
Grapte  Thyreus,  276. 
Grape  weevil,  490. 
Grapholitha,  337. 
Grapta  c-argenteum,  260.  G.  comma,  260. 

G.  Faunus,  260.    G.  interrogationis,  259. 
Graptodera  chalybea,  507.  G.  exapta,  507. 
Grasshoppers,  556. 
Grease  moth,  329. 
Green-head  fly,  393. 
Grotea  anguina,  197. 
Gryllidae,  558,  562. 
Gryllotalpa  borealis,  563.  G.  longipennis, 

563. 
Gryllus  abbreviatus,  564.    G.  campestris, 

60.    G.  domesticus,  533.    G.  luctuosus 

564.    G.  neglectus,  564.    G.  niger,  564. 
Guest  gall-flies,  212. 
Gyrinidae,  424,  436,  437. 
Gyrinus,  422.,   G.  borealis,  437. 
Gyropiis  porcelli,  555. 

Hadena  chenopodii,  309. 
Hadenoecus  snbterraneus,  565. 
Hafesidota  caryas, 287.   H.  maculata,  287. 

H.  tessellaris,  287. 
Halictus,  141. 142, 144, 145.    H.  paralellus, 

145. 

Haliplus,  436. 
Halonota  simulana,  337. 
Haltica  chalybea,  507.     H.  cucumeris, 

506.    H.  striolata,  507. 
Hamamelistes  cornu,  523. 
Haplophlebium,  594. 


694 


INDEX. 


Harpactopus,  167. 

Harpactor  cinctus,  542. 

Harpalus,  542.    H.  caliginosus,  420, 434. 

Harpax,  575. 

Harvest-men,  032,  656. 

Hatching  of  the  larva,  61. 

Head,  appendages  of,  24.    Segments  of, 

20.    Structure  of,  18. 
Hearing,  organs  of,  559.    Sense  of,  26. 
Heart,  37.    Development  of,  42. 
Hedychrum  bidentulum,  191.    H.  dimidi- 

aturn,  192.    H.  lucidulum,  191.    H.  re- 

gium,  1'Jl. 
Hegemon,  453. 
Heliciius,  450. 
Heliconia  Melpomone,  251. 
Helicop-syche,  616.   H.  arenifera,  619.   H. 

glabra,  61'.). 

Heliocheilus  paradoxus,  315. 
Heliothis  armigcra,  315. 
Helluomorpha  praeusta,  433. 
Helochara  communis,  532. 
Helophilus,  399. 
Hemeristia  occidentalis,  77,  598. 
Hemeristina,  596. 

Hemerobiidse,  237,  580,  583,  609,  622. 
Hemerobius,  581, 586.    H.  alternatus,  610. 

H.  occidentalis,  610. 
Hemiptera,  514. 
Hemiteles,  193. 
Hepiali,  301. 
Hepialus,  11,  233,  236.    H.  humuli,  302. 

H.  mustelinus,  302. 
Hermaphrodites,  45. 
Herminia  jucchusialis,  328. 
Hersilla,  631. 
Hesperia  Hobomoc,  269.    H.  Mystic,  270. 

H.  Wamsutta,  270. 
Hesperians,  269. 
^Hessian-fly,  200,  202,  207,  372. 
Hetaerms,  443: 
Heteroceridae,  450. 
Heteromera,  424. 
Heterometabolia,  iii. 
Heteropus  ventricosus,  136,  667,  668. 
Hexapoda,  21. 
Hibernation,  42. 
Hickory  girdler,  498. 
Hickory  saw-fly,  224. 
Hickory  tree  borer,  495,  497. 
Hipparchia,  262. 
Hippobosca,  333,  364.    H.  bubonis,  417. 

H.  equinae,  417. 
Hippoboscidae,  416. 
Hippodamia  convergens,  511.    H.  macu- 

lata,  511. 

Hirmoneura,  395. 

Hispa  rosea,  503.    H.  suturalis,  504. 
Histeridae,  442. 
Hister  interruptus,  443.     H.  merdarius, 

443. 

Hockeria,  203. 
Homolota,  441. 
Homoptera  lunata,  318. 
Homothetus  fossilis,  77. 
Honey-ant,  184.  • 

Honey  bees,  45,  50,  52, 116, 141,  361. 
Honevsuckle  saw  fly,  216. 
Hop  butterflies,  259,'  260,  265. 
Hop  Hepialus,  302. 
Hop  Hypena,  327. 
Hop-vine  moth,  327. 
Horia  sansruinipennis,  479. 
Hornet,  150.  • 

Horntails,  227. 


Horse  bot  fly,  404. 

Horse  fly,  393. 

Horse  tick,  417. 

House  fly,  407,  409. 

Humble  bee,  130, 131, 194, 198,  329.    Sting 

of,  15.  » 

Hyalomyia,  404. 
Hybernia  tiliaria,  325. 
Hybos,  402. 

Hybridity,  54.  [CC1. 

Hydrachna,  G31,  632,  660.    H.  concharum, 
Hydrachnidae,  661. 
Hydrobius,  438. 
Hydrocampa,  329,  330. 
Hydrocoris,  518. 
Hydrometra,  539. 

Hydrophilidae,  424,  437.    H.  piceus,  438. 
Hydrophilus,  422.    H.  triangularis,  438. 
Hydrophorus,  403. 
Hydropsyche  scalaris,  621. 
Hylobates,  540. 
Hylobius  pales,  486. 
Hylotoma  McLeayi,  217. 
Hylurgus  dentatus,  492.    H.  piniperda, 

445.    H.  terebrans,  492. 
Hymenoptera,  107. 
Hypena  humuli,  327. 
Hyperchiria  varia,  299. 
Hyperhomala  virescens,  567. 
Hypermetamorphosis,  67. 
Hyphautria  cuuea,  287.     H.  textor,  286. 
Hypoderma  bovis,  405.    H.  tarandi,  405. 
Hypodermis,  63. 

Hyponomeuta  millepunctatella,  348. 
Hypoprepia  fucosa,  284,  285. 
Hyporhagus,  475. 
Hypselonotus,  80. 

Ibalia,  213. 

Icaria  guttatipennis  121, 155, 156. 

Ichneumonidae,  1S2. 

Ichneumon,  135,  146.     I.  oviilorum,  200. 

I.  paratus,  197.    I.  suturalis,  196. 
IdiaBigoti,410. 
Idioptera,  360. 
Imago,  70. 
Inaequitelae,  650, 
Inostemma  inserens,  201. 
Inquilinae,  212. 
Insects  bisexual,  45. 
Insect  Criist,  composition  of,  9. 
Insect  years,  76. 
Intestine,  35. 
Introduced  species,  76. 
loplocama  formosana,  338. 
Ips  fasdatus,  445.    I.  ferrugineus,  445.   1. 

sanguinolentus,  4-45. 
Isopteryx  Cydippe,  591. 
Itch  mite,  666. 
Ithomia,  251. 
Ixodidae,  601. 
Ixodes,   629,  632.    I.  albipictus,  662.    I. 

bovis,  663,  668.   I.  ricinus,  663.    I.  uni- 

punctata,  662,  668. 

Japyx  solifugus,  623. 

Jassus  irroratus,  532. 

Jigger,  390. 

Joint-worm,  203,  204,  205. 

Juglans  squamosa,  224. 

Jnlidae,  671,673,  678. 

Julus,  62,  671,  673,  676,  678.    J.  Canaden- 

sis,  679.    J.  multistriatus,  679. 
June  beetle,  27,  455. 
Junonla  coeuia,  261. 


INDEX. 


I 


695 


Katydid,  586. 

Killing  insects  for  the  Cabinet,  87. 

Labellum,  29. 

Labia  minuta,  577. 

Labidomera  trimaculata,  508. 

Labidus,  186. 

Labium,  28.    - 

Labrum,  29. 

Lace  winged  flies,  609,  611. 

Lachlauia  abnormis,  596. 

Lachneides,  300. 

Lacbnosterna,  27.     L.  fusca,  455. 

Lachnus  carya3,  522.    L.  strobi,  522. 

Lacinia,  28. 

Lady  bird,  511. 

Laemophloms  adustus,  figure  of,  555. 

Lagoa  crispata,  288. 

Lagriidas,  475. 

Lamellicornia,  451. 

Lamellicorns,  425,  426. 

Lamprocolletes,  114. 

Lampyridae,  42i,  425,  465. 

Lampyris,  465. 

Laphvia,  54.    L.  thoracica,  396. 

Large  BlaclrCut-worm,  306. 

Larrada  argentata,  165. 

Larra  unicincta,  164. 

Larridae,  164.  [95. 

Larvae,  preservation  of,  95.    Rearing  of, 

Larva  state,  62. 

Lasioptera,  378.    L.  rubi,  372. 

Lathridiidae,  447. 

Lathridius  minutus,  447. 

Leaf  beetles,  501. 

Leaf  cutter  bee,  135,  136. 

Leaf  rollers,  332. 

Lebia,  433.    L.  (Dromius)  linearis,  149. 

Lecanium,  50,  526.    L.  acericola,  528.    L. 

hesperidum,  528.    L.  McClurae,  528. 
Legs,  false,  17,  21.    Joints  of,  20. 
Leiopus  alpha,  497.    L.  xanthoxyli,  497. 
Lema  trilineata,  503. 
Lepidocyrtus  albinos,  425. 
Lepidoptera,  229.    Digestive  system  of, 

237.    Nervous  system  of,  237. 
Lepisesia  flavofasciata,  277. 
Lepisma,  578,  583,  622.  L.  saccharina, 623. 
Lepismatidae,  622. 
Leptidae,  394. 
Leptis  vermilio,  395. 
Leptocerus  niger,  620.    L.  sepulchralis, 

620. 

Leptoris  breviornatana,  334. 
Leptura?,  494. 

Lestes,  601.    L.  eurina,  603. 
Lestremia,  378. 

Leucania  unipuncta,  196,  203,  305,  313. 
Leucarctia  acraea,  286. 
Leucosomus  ophthalmicus,  159. 
Leucospis  amni»,  203.    L.  Poeyi,  203. 
Leuctra  tennis,  591. 
Libellula,  578,  579,  581,  599,  602.    L.  auri- 

peunis,599.    L.  luctuosa,  84.    L.  quad- 

rimacnlata,  604.    L.  trimaculata,  004. 
Libellulidae,  578,  579,  580,  581,  583  597 
Libellulina,  60t. 
Libythea  Bachmanii,  264. 
Lice,  553. 
Ligula,  28. 
Ligyrtis,  425. 

Limacodes,  228.    L.  scapha,  290. 
Limenitis  Arthemis,  262.    L.  Ephestion, 

262.    L.  Misippus,  261. 
Limnobates,  540. 


Limnobia  annulus,  382. 

Limiiobina,  381. 

Limnophiladispar,  383. 

Limnophilides,  617. 

Limnophilus  flavicornis,  618.  L.  pellu- 
cidus,  618.  L.  perpusillus,  G17.  L. 
rhombicus,  617.  L.  subpunctulatus, 
618. 

Limonius  ectypus,  461.    L.  plebeius,  461. 

Linden  slug,  222. 

Lingua,  29. 

Liotheum  anseris,  555. 

Lipoptena,  417. 

Lithacodes  fasciola,  290. 

Lithentomum  Harttii,  77. 

Lithobiid*,  673. 

Lithobius  Americanus,  673.  L.  forfica- 
tus,  673. 

Lithocolletis,  342.  L.  curvilineatella,  354. 
L.  Fitchella,  353.  L.  geminatella,  353, 
354.  L.  juglandiella,  353.  L.  nidifican- 
sella,  354.  L.  salicifoliella,  353. 

Lithosia  argillacea,  284.    L.  casta,  284. 

Lithosians,  280. 

Livia  vernalis,  531. 

Locustariae,  557,  564. 

Locusta  viridissima,  48,  567. 

Locusts,  564. 

Locust  Depressaria,  349. 

Locust  Eudamus,  269. 

Locust  gall  midge,  499. 

Locust  tree  borer,  497. 

Lonchaea  nigra,  413. 

Lonchoptera,  68. 

Longicornia,  493. 

Lophyrus,  114,  219.  L.  Abbotii,  226.  L. 
abdominalis,  226.  L.  abietis,  224,  226. 
L.  Americana,  226.  L.  compar,  226.  L. 
Fabricii,  226.  L.  insularis,  226.  L.  Le- 
contei,  22(5.  L.  pinetum,  226.  L.  pini- 
rigidae,  225,  226. 

Louse,  11. 

Lozotasnia  fragariana,  335.  L.  gossypi- 
ana,  335.  L.  rosaceana,  335,  336. 

Lubber  grasshopper,  570. 

Lucanidae,  426,  450. 

Lucanus  dama,  451.    L.  cervus,  32,  451. 

Ludius  attenuatus,  461. 

Lycaena  comyntas,  265.    L.  neglecta,  265. 

Lycomorpha  Pholus,  2aS. 

Lycosa,  627,  631.  L.  fatigera,  654.  L.  ta- 
rantula, 654. 

Lyctus  opaculus,  472. 

Lycus,  465. 

Lyda  inanita,  215.    L.  scripta,  226. 

Lydella,  642. 

Lygaeida?,  512. 

Lyga3us,  542.    L.  turcicus,  543. 

Lymexylidae,  469. 

Lymexylon  sericeum,  469. 

Lyonetia  saccatella,  355. 

Lystra  auricoma,  533.    L.  lanata,  533. 

Lytta  vittata,  480.  L.  cinerea,  480.  L. 
mtirina,  480.  L.  marginata,  480. 

Macaria  granitata,  323. 

Machilis,  623. 

Macrobiotus,  669. 

Macrodactylus  subspinosus,  454. 

Macroglossa  stellatarum,  277. 

Macrolepidoptera,  242. 

Macrosiagon,  481. 

Macrosila  Carolina,  274.     M.  cingulata, 

272.     M.  cluentius,  274.     M.  quinque- 

niaculata,  272. 


696 


INDEX. 


Madams  vitis,  491. 
Magdalinus  olyra,  488. 
Malachidae,  467. 
Malachius,  467. 
Male  genital  organs,  16. 
Mallophaga,  554. 

Mamestra  arctica,  311.    M.  picta,  312. 
Mandibles,  27. 

Mandibular  segments,  20,  58. 
Mantidae,  574. 

Mantis,  54.    M.  argentina,  575.    M.  Caro- 
lina, 575. 

Mantispa,  54,  579.    M.  brunnea,  611. 
Mantispids,  592. 

Mantis  tessellata,  ovipositor  of,  17. 
Masaris  vespoides,  157. 
Mason  bee,  138,  207. 
Maxillae,  27. 

Maxillary  segments,  20,  58. 
May  flies,  593. 
Mazonia  Woodiana,  660. 
Meat  fly,  408. 
Mechanitis,  251. 
Mecistocephalus  fulvus,  675. 
Mecynorhina  Savagei,  456. 
Medeterus,  403. 
Megachile,  206,  397.    M.  brevis,  137.    M. 

centuncularis,  136,  138.    M.  integer,  137. 

M.  muraria,  191.    M.  Poeyi,  203. 
Megathentomum  pustulatum,  621. 
Melanactes,  462. 
Melandrya  striata,  476. 
Melandryidae,  475. 
Melanism,  76. 
Melanotus  communis,  461. 
Melecta,  136,  141. 
Melipona,  128.    M.  fulvipes,  129. 
Melitaea  Anicia,  258.    M.  Chalcedon,  258. 

M.  Harrisii,  257.    M.  CEnone,  257.    M. 

Packardii,  256.    M.  Phaeton,  255.    M. 

Texana,  258.     M.  Tharos,  256. 
Melittia  cucurbitas,  279. 
Mellinus  bimaculatus,  162. 
Meloe,  6, 131,  427.    M.  angusticollis,  478. 

M.  violaceus.  478. 
Meloidaa,  477. 

Melolontha,  454.    M.  variolosa,  455. 
Melophagus,  46.    M.  ovinus,  418. 
Membranacei,  550. 
Mentum,  27,  28. 
Mermis  albicans,  127. 
Merodon  bardus,  399.     M.  narcissi,  399. 
Merope  tuber,  615. 
Mesochorus,  193. 
Metabolia,  iii. 
Metapodius  nasalus,  546. 
Methoca  Canadensis,  178. 
Metoecus  paradoxus,  481. 
Metrocanipa,  318.     M.  margaritata,  320. 
,  Miamia  Bronsoni,  77, 591.    M.  Danae,  593. 
Miastor,  25.    M.  metroloas,  51,  380. 
Micoceras,  53. 
Micralymma,  442. 
Microceutrum,  558. 
Microdon  globosns,  398. 
Microgaster,  193, 198,  203.    M.  nephopte- 

ricis,  131,  198. 

Microlabris  Sternbergi,  659. 
Microlepidoptera,  242. 
Microlipus,  468. 
Micropeplns,  442. 
Microphantes,  633. 
Micropya,  47. 
Microtonus  sericans,  476. 
Midas  clavatus,  395.    M.  fulvipes,  395. 


Milesia  excentrica,  398. 

Millepedes,  678. 

Milnesium  tardigradum,  669. 

Miltogramma  punctata,  147. 

Mimesa,  162. 

Mimetic  forms,  53. 

Miris  dorsalis,  550. 

Mischocyttarus  labiatus,  155, 156. 

Mites,  628,  632,  639.    Transformations  of, 

643. 

Mole  cricket,  563. 
Monedula  Carolina,  164.     M.  4-fasciata, 

164. 

Monodontomerus,  136,  205. 
Monohammus  scutellatus.  498.    M.  titil- 

lator,  498. 
Monomma,  475. 
Monommidae,  475. 
Monotomidae,  445. 
Mordella,  207,  476. 
Mordellidae,  476. 
Mordellistena,  476. 
Morpho  Epistrophis,  262.    M.  Menelaus, 

2(52.    M.  Polyphemus,  262. 
Mosquito  hawks,  597. 
Motions  of  Insects,  32. 
Musca,  641.    M.  (Calliphora)  vomitoria, 

408.    M.  domestica,  409,  410.    M.  (Lu- 

cilia)  Caesar,  408, 409.    M.  vomitoria,  64. 
Muscardine,  82. 
MuscidB,  164,  407. 
Muscles,  31. 
Muscular  power,  32. 
Music  of  insects,  362,  561, 563. 
Mutilla,  176,  177.    M.  Europaea,  179.    M. 

ferrugata,  179.    M.  occidentalis,  179. 
Mutillariae,  177, 181. 

Mycetobia  pallipes,  387.    M.  sordida,  388. 
AJycetophagidae,  447. 
Mycetophagus,  447. 
Mycetophila  scatophora,  385. 
Mycetophilidae,  385. 
Mydasidae,  395. 
Mygale  avicularia,  648.    M.  Hentzii,  172, 

648.    M.  nidulans,  648. 
Mygnimia  Mexicana,  175.    M.  ustulata, 

Mylacris  anthracophila,  577. 
Mymar  pulchellus,  201. 
Myobia,  641,  642. 
Myodites,  481. 
Myopa  atra,  401. 
Mynapoda,  10, 104,  625,  670. 
MyriapodS,  626,  627,  636,  670. 
Myrmecocystus  Mexicanus,  184. 
Myrmeleon,  581,  611.     M.  abdominalis, 

612.    M.  obsoletus,  612. 
Myrmica  molefaciens,  185.    M.  molesta, 

Myrmicariae,  181. 

Myrmosa,  177.    M.  unicolor,  178. 

Mysia  15-punctata,  512. 

Mystacides,  6. 

Myzine  sexcincta,  177. 

Nabis  ferus,  541. 

Nannophya  bella,  605. 

Nautocoris,  516. 

Necrobia,  468. 

Necrophilus  Surinamensis,  439. 

Necrophoms,  663.    N.  Americamis,  421, 

439. 

Nectarina,  153.    N.  melliflca,  154. 
Neides,  545. 
Nematocampa  filamentaria,  390. 


INDEX. 


697 


Nematus,  217.     N.  conjugatus,  214.     N. 

grossulariae,  214.  N.trilineatus,220.  N. 

vertebratus,  219.     N.  ventricosus,  50, 

219. 

Nemobius  vittatus,  564. 
Nemoptera,  610. 
Nemoura  albidipennis,  591. 
Neonvmpha,  2(J2.    N.  Eurytris,  264. 
Nepa^  516,  518,  537,  538.    N.  cinerea,  47. 
Nephila  plumipes,  651. 
Nephopteryx  Edmaudsii,  131, 198,  331. 
Nepidas,  537. 
Nepticula,  342.    N.  amelanchierella,  356. 

N.  corylifoliella,  356.  N.  microtheriella, 

355.    N.  platanella,  356. 
Nerice  bidentata,  292. 
Nervous  system,  33. 
Neuronia  semifasciata,  617. 
Neuroptera,  578. 
Neuroterus,  50. 
Neurotherius,  599. 
Nirrnus,  555. 

Nitidula  bipustulata,  445. 
Nitidnlariae,  444. 
Nitidulidae,  446. 
Noctua,  243. 
Noctuaelitae,  302. 
Noctuidae,  238,  303. 
Noctuids,  292. 
Nomada,  131, 141,  212.    N.  imbricata,  142. 

N.  pulchella,  142. 
Nops,  644. 

Nochrna  ovivorus,  664. 
Notocyphus,  173. 
Notodonta,  292. 
Notonecta,  516,  518.    N.  irrorata,  537.    N. 

undulata,  537. 
Notoneetidae,  536. 
Notoxus  anchova,  476. 
Nudavia  mundana,  285. 
Nycteribia,  358,  388,  626.    N.  "Westwoodii, 

418. 

Nycteribidas,  418. 
Nymphes,  79. 

Nyssia,  322.    N.  hispidaria,  54. 
Nysson  lateralis,  163. 
Nyssonidse,  162. 

Oak  Biorhiza,  211. 
O.ik  Cynips,  210. 
Oak  gull  flies,  210. 
Oat-louse  Aphidius,  198. 
Occiput,  29,  30. 
Osellary  segments,  20,  58. 
Ooelli,  19,  25. 
Osinari,  295. 

Octoglena  bivirgata,  680. 
O,;yptera,  408. 
>  O  Joutomachus  clarus,  182. 
Odor  of  buars,  545. 
Odynerus,  147,  154,  162,  203,  211,  401.    O. 

albophaleratus,  155,  156.     O.  leucome- 

las,  153,  218. 

CEcanthus,  24.    CE.  niveus,  564. 
CEceticus,  231,  291. 
CEcodoma,  177.    CE.  cephalotes,  188,  189. 

CE.  Mexicana,  187, 188.    CE.  sexdentata, 

189.    CE.  Texana,  189. 
CEcophylla  smaragdina,  184. 
CEdemeridse,  425,  476. 
CEdipoda  Carolina,  571.     CE.  corallina, 

571.    CE.  xanthoptera,  571. 
CEsophagus,  35. 
CEstridae,  403. 
CEstromyia,  405. 


CEstrus,  363.    CE.  hominis,  406.    CE.  ovis, 

405. 

Oil  beetle,  478. 
Oligarces  paradoxus,  51. 
Oligoneuria,  596. 
Olyntha  ?  588. 
Omaliurn,  442. 
Omophron,  431. 
Omosita  colon,  445. 
Omus,  429. 

Oncideres  cingulatus,  498. 
Oncodes,  395. 
Onion  fly,  411. 
Oniscus,  2. 

Ophion,  195.    O.  macrurum,  195. 
Opomalea  brachyptera,  568. 
Ophthalmic  ring,  19,  58. 
Orange  belted  horse-fly,  394. 
Orchehmum  gracile,  168.    O.  vulgare.  24, 

168,  567. 
Orgyia,  70,  231.    O.  antiqua,  288.    O.  leu- 

costigma,  288. 
Oribates  alatus,  664. 
Oribatidse,  632,  663. 
Ormyrus,  212. 
Ornithomyia,  417. 
Ornithoptera  Priamus,  245. 
Ortalis,  360.    O.  flexa,  411. 
Orthoptera,  556. 
Orthosia,  243. 
Orthosoma  unicolor,  495. 
Oryctes  nasicornis,  176.    O.  simia,  176. 
Oscinis  frit,  416.    O.  granarius,  415.    O. 

vastator,  415. 
Osmia,  155, 206,  401.    O.  leucomelana,  138. 

O.  lignaria,  139.    O.  lignivora,  139.    O. 

paciflca,  141, 156.    O.  paretina,  138.    O. 

simillima,  140. 
Osmoderma  scabra,  457. 
Othniidse,  447. 
Othnius  umbrosus,  447. 
Otiocerus  Coquebertii,  533. 
Otiorhynchus  sulcatus,  487. 
Ovary,  35,  44. 
Oviduct,  35,  44. 
Ovipositor,  15. 
Ox  Bot  fly,  405. 
Oxybelus  emarginatus,  163. 
Oxyporus,  442. 
Oxytelus,  442. 

Paederus,  442. 

Palaeopterina,  591,  593,  596. 

Pale  cut-worm,  310. 

Palingenia  bilineata,  593,  594. 

Palpares,  583,  612. 

Palpifer,  28. 

Pangonia,  393. 

Panorpa,  54,  581,  583. 

Panorpa  Germanica,  613.  P.  communis, 

613.  P.  rufescens,  614. 
Panopea  carnea,  164. 
Panorpid,  622. 
Panorpidse,  580,  583,  613. 
Pam»pina,  615. 
Panurgus,  141. 
Paper  Avasp,  148. 
Papilio,  54,  236,  237,  245.  P.  Asterias,  196, 

239,  245,  247.     P.  brevicauda,  245,  246, 

247.    P.  Daunus,  247.    P.  Glancns,  53, 

247.    P.  Memnon,  53.    P.  Ormenus,  53. 

P.  Pammon,  53.    P.  Philenor,  248.    P. 

Romulus,  53.    P.  Troilus,  247.    P.  Tor- 

nns,  53,  240,  247. 
Papilionidae,  75,  244. 


698 


INDEX. 


Papirius,  625,  626.    P.  Saundersii,  624. 

Paraglossa,  29. 

Parandra  brunnea,  494. 

Paraponyx,  330. 

Parnassius  Smintheus,  248. 

Parnidse,  450. 

Parnopes,  192. 

Parthenogenesis,  48. 

Pasimachus  elongatus,  432. 

Passalaecus  mandibnlaris,  161. 

Passalus  cornutus,  451. 

Patagia,  13. 

Pauropodidae,  675. 

Pauropus  Huxleyi,  675.     P.  peduncula- 

tua,  675. 

Pea  weevil,  484;  figure  of,  513. 
Peach  tree  borer,  277. 
Pear  slug,  222. 
'Pear  Tremex,  228. 
Pebrine,  82. 
Pedicia  albivitta,  384. 
Pedicil,  2(5. 
Pediculina,  553. 
Pediculus  corporis,  553.      P.  humanus 

capitis,  553.    P.  vestimenti,  553. 
Pedipalpi,  6-28,  (544,  655. 
Pedipalps,  655,  657. 
Pelecinus  polycerator,  195. 
Pelidnota  punctate,  455. 
Pelopaeus,  174.      P.  caeruleus,  169.     P. 

flavipes,  156,  169,  170,  408. 
Pempelia  grossulariae,  331.    P.  semiru- 

bella,  331. 
Pemphigus  formicarius,  524.    P.  formi- 

cetorum,  524.    P.  rhois,  524.    P.  ulmi- 

cola,  524.    P.  vagabundus,  524. 
Pentamera,  424. 
Pentatoma,  408.     P.  tristigma,  546.    P. 

ligata,  546. 

Pentatomidae,  516,  542. 
Penthina  vitivorana,  336. 
Pepsis  cyanea,  175.    P.  elegans,  175.    P. 

formosa,  175.    P.  heros,  175. 
Perga  Lewisii,  215. 
Perilampus  platygaster,  206.    P.  triarigu- 

laris,  20f>. 

Periplaneta,  194.    P.  Americana,  195,  576. 
Periphyllus  testudo,  521. 
Peritracheal  circulation,  39. 
Peritreme,  13. 
Perla  abnormis,  590, 
Perlida?,  580,  581,  586,  590. 
Postabdornen,  56. 
Perophora  Melsheimerii,  21&. 
Pezomachus,  70,  193,  194,  197,  203. 
Pezzotettix  alpinus,  569.     P.  borealis, 

539. 

Phalacrocera  replicata,  384. 
Phalacridae,  444. 
Phalacrus,  444. 
Phalsenidse,  23t,  318. 
Phalangidae,  (!27,  632,  656,  657. 
Phalangids,  655. 
Phalangium  dorsatum,  656.     P.  ventri- 

cosum,  657. 

Phanaeus,  424.    P.  carnifex,  453. 
Phaneroptera  curvicauda,  560. 
Pharynx,  35. 
Phasma  4-guttatum,  573. 
Phasmida,  572. 
Pheidole  notabilis,  185.     P.  providens, 

185. 

Phenax  variegata,  533. 
Phengodes  plumosa,  467. 
Phigalia  pilosaria,  54. 


Philampelus  vitis,  275. 

Philanthinae,  157,  158. 

Philanthus,  146,  442.    P.  apivorus,  158. 

P.  ventilabris,  8,  158. 
Philopotamus,  621. 
Philopterus,  555. 
Phloea  corticata,  547. 
Phloeothrips  caryae,  549.    P.  mali,  549. 
Phlox  worm,  315. 

Phobetrum,  289.    P.  pithecium,  290. 
Phodaga  alticeps,  480. 
Pholcus,  636,  639.    P.  Atlanticus,  650. 
Phoi-a  incrassata,  127,  416. 
Photinus  pyralis,  466. 
Photuris  Pensylvanica,  466. 
Phryganea  grandis,  616,  617. 
Phryganeidae,  236,  580,  581,  582,  583,  615. 
Phryganeids,  290,  586. 
Phryganidae,  193, 
Phryganidia,  290. 
Phrynidae,  (529,  657. 
Phrynus,  639.    P.  asperatipes,  658.    P. 

reniformis,  655. 
Phthirius  pubis,  554. 
Phycita  nebulo,  331. 
Phyllium  siccifolium,  574. 
Phyllophorus  tettudinatus,  521. 
Phylloptera  oblongifolium,  566. 
Phyllotreta  striolata,  507. 
Phymaphora  pulchella,  511. 
Phymata,  552. 

Phytocoris,  516.    P.  linearis,  550. 
Piens,  54,  237,  361.    P.  oleracea,  249.    P. 

Protodice,  249.    P.  rapse,  76,  249. 
Pill  beetles,  449. 
Pimpla,  193,  196.    P.  Fairmairii,  193.    P. 

ovivora,  193.     P.  pedalis,  196.    P.  ru- 

fata,  193. 

Pine  Lophyrus,  226. 
Pine  saw-fly,  224. 
Pinning  ins'ects,  88. 
Piophila  casei,  413. 
Pipunculus,  401. 
Pique,  390. 

Pirates  biguttatus,  541.    P.  picipes,  541. 
Pissodes  strobi,  486.  . 
Planiceps  niger,  174. 
Plant-lice,  198,  397,  400,  519. 
Platephemera  antiqua,  77,  594. 
Platoeceticus  Gloverii,  291. 
Platygaster,  200,  325,  375.    P.  error,  201, 

37(5.    P.  tipulae,  201,  376. 
Platymodes  Pensylvanica,  576. 
Platynus  cupripenne,  433. 
Platypeza,  402. 
Platypteryx  geniculata,  293. 
Platypus,  440. 
Platyroptilon  Miersii,  385. 
Platysamia,  29J5.    P.  Cecropia,  234,  298. 

P/Euryale,  298. 
Plecia,  80. 

Plectrodes  pubescens,  454. 
Pleurite,  9. 
Ploa,  516,  537. 
Ploiaria  brevipennis,  540. 
Ploteres,  539. 
Plume  moths,  353. 
Plum  gouger,  487. 
Plum  slug,  222. 
Plum  weevil,  488. 
Plusia  alticola,  313.    P.  divergens,  313. 

P.  ignea,  313.     P.  montana,  313.     P. 

precationis,  312. 
Podura,  11.  615,  624. 
Podurae,  623,  625. 


INDEX. 


699 


Podurida?,  623.  624. 

Poecilocerus,  560. 

Poison  glands,  43. 

Poison  of  insects,  43. 

Polistes,  121, 147, 149.     P.  annularis,  151, 

156.     P.  Cauadensis,  151,  152,  153.    P. 

lanio, 153. 

Polybia,  153,  154,  155. 
Polydesmidae,  677. 
Polydesmus,  676.  P.  Canadensis,  677.   P. 

erythropygus,  677. 
Polyergus  rufescens,  182. 
Polynema  ovulorum,  202. 
Polyphemus.  240. 
Polyphylla,  455. 
Polyrhachis  arboricola,  184. 
Polystoechotes,  12,  236.     P.  nebulosus, 

585.    P.  punctatus,  611. 
Polyxenus  fasciculatus,  678. 
Pompilidse,  114,  171. 
Pompilus,  25.    P.  arctus,  173.    P.  audax, 

401.    P.  cylindricus,  173.    P.formosus, 

172.    P.  funereus,  174.    P.  Mariae,  173. 
Ponera,  179.    P.  ferruginea,  182. 
Postscutellum,  11. 
Potamanthus  cupidus,  595.    P.  margina- 

tus,  595. 

Potato  beetle,  503,  508. 
Potato-stalk  weevil,  49. 
Praescutum,  11. 
Preservative  fluids,  89. 
Preserving  insects,  84. 
Prestwichia,  114. 
Priocera  undulata,  468. 
Priocuemis  unifasciatus,  173. 
Prionidae,  494. 

Prionocyphon  discoideus,  464. 
Priononyx  Thomae,  167. 
Prionus  brevicornis,  495. 
Prisopus  flabellicornis,  573.     P.  spini- 

ceps,  573. 
Prisiiphora  grossulariae,  217.    P.  identi- 

dem,  217.      P.  idiota,  217.     P.  syco- 

phanta,  218. 
Procephalic  lobes,  55. 
Proconia  quadrivittata,  532. 
Proctotrupes,  199. 


Proctotrupid  fly,  131. 
Proctotrupii,  198. 


Proctotrypidae,  198. 

Promus,  473. 

Prophets,  574. 

Propodeum,  66. 

Prop-legs,  21. 

Proscopia  gigantea,  572. 

Prosopis  alfinis,  143.    P.  elliptica,  143, 

Prostemma  guttata,  541.    P.  guttula,  539. 

Protolycosa,  643. 

Protoplasma  Fitchii,  385. 

Proventriculus,  35. 

Psammotherma,  114. 

Pselaphidae,  439,  440. 

Pselaphus,  422,  440. 

Psen  caliginosus,  191.    P.  leucopus,  162. 

Psenides.  211. 

Psenocerus  pini,  399.    P.  supernotatus, 

499. 

Psephenus  Lecontei,  450. 
Pseudomyrma  bicolor,  187.    P.  flavidula, 

187. 

Pseudoscorpiones,  658. 
Psexidovarium,  49. 
Pseudovura,  49. 
Psoci,  658. 
Psocidae,  583,  588. 


Psocus,  54,  69.     P.  pulicarius,  589.     P. 

salicis,  590.    P.  venosus,  590. 
Psyche  helix,  290. 
Psychinae,  290. 
Psychoda  phalaenoides,  380. 
Psychomorpha  epimenis,  281. 
Psylla  pyri,  531. 
Psyllidae,  530. 
Pteratomus,  110  114.     P.  Putnamii,  131. 

202. 

Pteromali,  415. 
Pteromalus,  193,  202,  205,  206.    P.  apium, 

207.   P.  clisiocampae,  206.    P.  vanessae, 

206. 

Pteronarcys  proteus,  590.  P.  regalis,  590. 
Pterophondae,  356. 
Pterophorus,  202.    P.  periscelidactylus, 

356. 

Pteroptus  vespertilionis,  663. 
Pterostichus,  433. 
Ptilodontes,  292. 
Ptinidae,  197,  470. 
Ptinus  fur,  470. 

Ptycholoma  ?  semifuscana,  334. 
Ptychoptera,  382.    P.  paludosa,  384.    P. 

rufocincta,  384. 

Pulex  irritans,  389.    P.  musculi,  389. 
Pulicidae,  588. 
Pulvillus,  21. 
Pycnoscelus,  576. 
Pyralidae,  326. 

Pyralis,  195.    P.  fariualis,  328. 
Pyrameis  Atalanta,  261.    P.  cardui,  261 

P.  Huntera,  261. 
Pyrochroaflabellata,  477. 
Pyrochroidae,  477. 
Pyvomorpha  dimidiata,  283. 
Pyrophorus  noctilucus,  462. 
Pyrrharctia  Isabella,  239,  286. 
Pyrrhocoris  apterus,  48,  539,  543. 
Pythidffi,  476. 
Pytho,  476. 

Quedius,  441. 

Race  horse,  573. 

Radish  fly,  411. 

Rapnidia,  608. 

Raphiglossa  odyneroides,  157. 

Ranatra,  516,  537.    R.  fusca,  538. 

Ranatra,  abdomen  of,  17. 

Raspberry  slug,  222. 

Rectum,  35. 

Red-legged  Grasshopper,  569. 

Reduvmi,  540. 

Reduvius  personatus,  541. 

Respiration,  42. 

Respiration,  organs  of,  40. 

Rhabdites,  15. 

Rhagium  lineatum,  501, 

Rhamphidia,  383. 

Rhipidandrus,  473. 

Rhipidius,  48. 

RhipiceridaB,  463. 

Rhipiphoridae,  480. 

Rhipiphorus  Finnicus,  481. 

Rhipiphorus  paradoxus,  149. 

Rhizopertha  pusilla,  472. 

Rhizophagus  depressus,  445. 

Rhodices  dichlocerus,  212.    R.  rosae,  212 


Rhopalosoma  Poeyi,  197. 
Rhopalum  pedicellatum, 
Rhopalus,  540. 
Rhyacophila  fuscula,  621. 
Rhynchites  bicolor,  485. 


158,161. 


700 


INDEX. 


Rhyparochromus  leucopterus,  543. 

Ehyphidae,  392. 

Rhyphus  alternatus,  392. 

Rhyssa  atrata,  196,  228. 

Rhyssa  lunator,  196,  228. 

Rhyssa  persuasoria,  193. 

Rhyssodes,  446. 

Rhyssodidaj.  446. 

Rice  weevil,  490. 

Robber-flies,  395. 

Romalea  microptera,  570. 

Rose  bug,  454. 

Rose  chafer,  454. 

Rose  gall  fly,  212. 

Rose  slug,  222. 

Rotatoria,  668. 

Rove-beetles,  440. 

Salda,  541. 

Salivary  glands,  36. 

Salix  cordata,  218. 

Salticus,  633.    S.  (Attus)  familiaris,  654. 

Samia,  298.    S.  Cynthia,  296. 

Sandalus  petrophya,  463. 

Sand  wasps,  157. 

Saperda  bivittata,  500.    S.  Candida,  500. 

Saprinus,  443. 

Sapyga,  178.  S.  Martinii,  176.  S.  repanda, 

134. 
Sarcophaga,  213.    S.  carnaria,  408.    S. 

nudipennis,  170,  408. 
Sarcopsylla  penetrans,  390. 
Sarcoptes  scabiei,  666,  668. 
Sargus,  392. 

Satumia  Promethea,  239. 
Satyrus,  262.    S.  Alope,  263.    S.  Nephele, 

263. 

Saw-flies,  213. 
Scape,  26. 
Scaphidiidae,  443. 
Scaphidium,  443. 
Scarabaeidae,  422,  424,  451. 
Scarites,  432.    S.  Pyrachmon,  83. 
Scatopse,  377. 

Scenopinus,  1.    S.  pallipes,  401. 
Schizocephala,  575. 
Schizopodidae,  463. 
Sohizopodus  laetus,  463. 
Schizotus,  477. 

Sciara,  374.    S.  (Molobrus)  mali,  386. 
Sciophila,  385. 
Scleroderma  contracta,  178. 
Scolia,  231.    S.  Azteca,  176.    S.  bicincta, 

176.   S.flavifrons,  176.   S.  oryctophaga, 

176.    S.  quadrimaculata,  176. 
Scoliadae,  175. 

Scolopendra  gigantea,  674.    S.  heros,  674. 
Scolopocryptops  sexspinosa,  674. 
Scolytidaj,  49,  425. 
Scolytus,  446.    S.  destructor,  492. 
Scorpio  Allenii,  659. 
Scorpion  fly,  613. 
Scorpionidae,  631,  659. 
Scorpions,  627,  629,  643,  659. 
Scutellera  viridipunctata,  547. 
Scydmaenus,  440. 
Scydma3nidae,  439. 
Scymnus  cervicalis,  513. 
Secretion,  organs  of,  43. 
Sedentary  spiders,  648. 
Seed-corn  maggot,  411. 
Segestria,  638. 
Selandria  caryae,  224.    S.  cerasi,  222.    S. 

rosae,  223.    S.  rubi,  222.    S.  tiliae,  222. 

S.  vitis,  222. 


Semblis,  582. 

Semiotellus  (Ceruphron)  destructor,  207, 

375. 

Semi-pupa,  67. 

Sericostoma  Americanuni,  618. 
Series  of  insects,  104. 
Sesia,  54.    S.  diflfinis,  277.  S.  Thysbe,  277 
Setina  aurita,  284. 
Setodes  Candida,  620. 
Sheep  bot-fly,  405. 
Sheeptick,  360,  416,  418. 
Sialidae,  237,  580,  583,  605. 
Sialis  Americana,  60(5.    S.  infumata,  60u. 
Siderea?  nubilana,  333. 
Sigalphus  caudatus,  415. 
Silk  moth,  50. 

Silk  weed  Labidomera,  508. 
Silpha  Lapponica,  439. 
Silphidae,  422,  438. 
Simulidse,  390. 
Simulium  molestum,  390.      S.  (Rhagio) 

Columbaschense,  391. 
Siphonantia,  680. 
Siphonia,  408. 
Siphonura,  207. 
Sirex,  193. 
Sitaris,  479. 

Sitodrepa  panicea,  470. 
Sitophilus  granarius,  490.    S.  oryzae,  490. 
Size  of  insects,  normal,  107. 
Skippers,  269. 
Smell,  organs  of,  26. 
Smerinthus  excaecatus,  275.    S.  gemina- 

tus,  275.    S.  modestus,  275. 
Sinynthurus,  624,  625. 
Snout-moths,  326. 
Solenobia  ?  Walshella,  346. 
Solpuga,  639.      S.  araneoides,  655.      S. 

(Galeodes)  Americana,  655. 
Solpugidae,  632,  655. 
Solpugids,  655. 
Soothsayers,  574. 

Sounds  produced  by  insects,  362, 561, 563. 
Spaniocera,  378. 
Spanish  fly,  480. 

Species  of  insects,  number  of,  103. 
Specific  names,  345. 
Spectres,  572. 
Spercheus  tessellatus,  438. 
Sperm,  44. 
Sphaerotherium,  677. 
Sphecodes,  142, 143.    S.  dichroa,  143. 
Sphegidae,  142,  149,  165, 166. 
Sphex,  142.     S.  flavipennis,  401.     S.  ich- 

neumonea,  167.     S.  Lanierii,  169.    S. 

tibialis,  168. 
Sphinges,  236. 
Sphingidae,  238,  27. 
Sphinx,  627.    S.  chersis,  272.    S.  drupi- 

ferarum,  272.    S.  gordius,  272.    S.  kal- 

miae,  272.    S.  ligustri,  63,  237. 
Sphinx  ligustri,  anatomy  of,  35. 
SpiKBridium,  438. 
Sphyracephala  brevicornis,  413. 
Spider  fly,  358,  416. 
Spiders,  643,  644. 
Spiders,  evolution  of,  637,  638. 
Spider's  web,  method  of  spinning,  645. 
Spilosoma  Virginica,  287. 
Spinnerets,  21. 
Spiracle,  40. 

Spirobolus  marginatus,  679. 
Spirostrephon,  680. 
Spondylis,  494. 
Spongophora  bipunctata,  577. 


INDEX. 


701 


Spring  beetles,  459. 

Spring-tails,  615,  624. 

Squash  beetle,  505. 

Squash  vine  borer,  279. 

Stag  beetle,  32. 

Staphylinidse,  181,  423,  427,  440,,577. 

Staphylinus,  54,  441, 

Statyra,  475. 

Steganoptycha  ?  ochreana,  337. 

Stemma,  25. 

Stenobothrns  curtipennis,  569. 

Stenocerus,  53.    S.  putator,.  495. 

Stenopoda,  80. 

Stenus  Juno,  442.    S.  stygicus,  442. 

Sternite,  9. 

Stemo-rhabdites,  15.  [lata,  302. 

Sfchenopis,  236,  237.      S.  argenteomacu- 

Stignms,  142.    S.  fraternus,  158, 161. 

Stilbum  splendidum,  192. 

Sting,  14. 

Stipes,  28. 

Stiretrus  fimbriatus,  547. 

Stizus  speciosus,  163. 

Stomach,  sucking,  35. 

Stomoxys  caltricans,  407. 

Strategus,  425. 

Stratiomyidae,  392. 

Stratiomys,  393. 

Strawberry  Corimelrena,  547. 

Strawberry  Ernn^vtus,  221. 

Strawberry  saw  nv,  221. 

Strawberry  leaf  roller,  34.0. 

Strawberry  Lozotoenia,  335. 

Strepsiptera,  481. 

Strigamia  bothrioms,675.    S.  chionophi- 

la,  675.    S.  epileptica,  675. 
Stylopidae,  424,  481. 
Stylops,  34,  131,  143,  146,  149,  194,  691.    S. 

Childrenii,  131,  482. 
Stylopyga,  576. 
Styringomyia,  383. 
Submentum,  28. 
Sucking  myriapods,  680. 
Sugantia,  680. 
Sugar  mite,  665. 
Sylvanus  Surinamensis,  446. 
Symmetry,  antero-posterior,  2,  21. 
Symmetry,  bilateral,  2. 
Synerges,  212. 

Synoeca,  153.    S.  cyanea,  154. 
Synophrus,  212. 
Syrphidae,  164,  397. 
Syrphus,  54,  363,  398,  400. 
Syrtis  erosa,  552. 
Systropus,  397. 

Tabanidae,  393. 

Tabanus  atratus,  394.    T.  cinctus,  394. 

T.  liueola,  393,  394. 

Tachina,  325.    T.  (Lydella)  doryphorae, 

408.    T.  (Senometopia)  militaris,  407. 
Tachina-like  fly,  131, 147. 
Tachydromia,  402. 
Tachyporus,  441. 
Tachytes  aurulentus,  165. 
Taeniopteryx  frigida,  591. 
Tanarthrus  salinus,  476. 
Tanypus  varius,  371. 
Tapinoma  tomentosa,  183. 
Tardigrada,  668. 
Tardigrades,  45,  69,  632,642. 
Tarsus,  21. 

Tatua,  153.    T.  morio,  122, 154, 156. 
Tegenaria  atrica,  649.    T.  civilis,  629.    T. 

medicinalis,  649. 


Telea  Polyphemus,  11, 195,  243,  297. 
Teleas,  199,  200.    T.  Linnaei,  200. 
Telephorus  Carolina,  467.    T.  bilineatus 

467. 

Tenebrio  molitor,  474. 
Tenebrionidae,  473. 
Tent-caterpillar,  207. 
Tenthredinidae,  213. 
Tergite,  9, 14. 

Terms  Delia,  251.    T.  Lisa,  251. 
Termes,  54.   T.  bellicosus,  588.   T.  fatale, 

588.    T.  llavipes,  587.    T.  lucifugus,  588. 
Termites,  588. 
Termitidae,  5j3.58£L-5Q3. 
Termopsis  angtrsTicollis,  587. 
Testis,  35,  44. 
Tetracha  Virginica,  429. 
Tetralonia,  114. 
Tetramera,  424,  484. 
Tetranychus  telarius,  631,  660. 
Tetrapneumones,  647. 
Tettigidea  lateralis,  572. 
Tettigonia  bifida,  532. 
Tettigoniae,  163. 
Tettix  granulata,  572. 
Tetyra  marmorata,  547. 
Thaumatosoma,  ]14. 
Thecla  Acadica,  265.    T.  humull,  265.    T. 

Mopsus,  266.     T.  Niphon,  265.    T.  stri- 

gosa,  267. 

Thelaxes  ulmicola,  523. 
Thelyphonus  caudatus,  658.     T.  gigan- 

teus,  658. 
Thereva,  396. 
Therevidae,  395. 
Theridion  stndiosum,  650.    T.  verecun- 

dum,  C51.    T.  vulgare,  650. 
Thinophilus,  403. 
Thomisus  celer,  652,  653.     T.  vulgaris, 

652. 

Thorax,  structure  of,  11. 
Thousand  Legs,  678. 
Thripidae,  547. 

Thrips,  69,  80,  378.    T.  cerealium,  550. 
Throscidas,  459. 
Thyatira,  304. 

Thyreocoris  histeroides,  547. 
Thyreopus,  159.    T.  latipes,  160. 
Thyreus  Abbotii,  276. 
Thyridopteryx,  290.  T.  ephemeraeformis, 

289,291.    T.  nigricans,  289. 
Thvsanoptera,  548. 
Thysanura,  608,  609,  613,  622,  623. 
Ticks,  661. 
Tiger  Beetles,  428. 
Tinagma,  342. 
Tinea,  201.    T.  flavifrons,  346.    T.  gran- 

ella,  347.    T.  tapetzella,  347. 
Tineidse,  303,  234,  342,  582. 
Tineidae,  transformation  of,  67. 
Tineids,  236,  237. 

Tingis  hyalina,  552.    T.  hystricellus. 
Tiphia  inornata,  177. 
Tipula,  360,  381.    T.  trivittata,  382. 
Tipulidse,  199,  381. 
Tmesiphonis,  422. 
Tobacco  worm,  274. 
Tolype  Velleda,  300. 
Tolyphus,  444. 
Tomfcus  monographus,  493.    T.  pini,  498, 

T.  xylographus,  493. 
Tortricidae,  332. 
Tortricodes,  290. 
Tortrix  gelidana,  334.    T.  oxycoccana 

334. 


702 


INDEX. 


Torymus  Har  5. 

Touch,  sense  of,  26. 

Toxophora  fasciata,  164. 

Toxorhina,  383. 

Trachea,  40. 

Trachys  pygmaBa,  459. 

Tragocephala  infuscata,  569.    T.  viridi- 

fasciata,  569. 

Transformations  of  insects,  561. 
Transportation  of  insects,  94. 
Trechus,  434. 
Tremex,  196.    T.  Columba,  228.    T.  lati- 

tarsus,  228. 
Trichii,  457. 
Trichiosoma  bicolor,  216.   T.  triangulum, 

216. 

Trichocera,  381,  383. 
Trichodectes  canis,  555. 
Trichodes  apiarius,  127, 468.   T.  NuttaUii, 

468. 

Trichopterygidae,  443. 
Trichopteryx  intermedia,  444. 
Tricondyla,  567. 
Tricrania,  479. 

Tridactylus  apicalis,  T.  terminalis,  563. 
Tri&ona,  128, 129.    T.  carbonaria,  229. 
Trigo'nalys  bipustulatus,  153. 
Trilocha,  295. 
Trimera,  424,  484. 
Trochanter,  21.,. 
Trochantine,  21. 
Trogosita,  445. 
Trogositidae,  445, 
Trogus  exesorius,  196. 
Trombididaa,  660. 
Trombidiiim,  660.       " 
Tropidacris  cristata,  571.    T.  dux,  571. 
Trox,  425.    T.  Carolina,  453.    T.  scabro- 

sus,  453. 

Trupanea  apivora,  396. 
Trypeta,  412.    T.  pomonella,  415. 
Trypoxylon,  195.     T.  frigidum,  162.     T. 

politum,  162. 
Tsetze  fly,  407. 
Tumble  bug,  47. 
Turnip  flea  beetle,  507. 
Tychus,  422. 
Typhlocyba,  69,  531. 
Typhlodromus  pyri,  666,  668. 
Typhlopone,  179.    T.  pallipes,  181. 
Tyroglyphus  domesticus,  665.    T.  farinae, 

666.     T.  sacchari,  665.     T.  siro.  640, 

665. 

Udeopsylla  robusta,  565. 

Ula, 381. 

Upis  ceramboides,  474. 

Urania  Leilus,  319. 

Urapteryx  politia,  319.    U.  sambucaria, 

319. 

Urinary  tubes,  43. 
Urinary  vessels,  35. 
Urite,  14. 
Uroceridae,  227. 
Uiocerus  albicomis,  227. 
CJroplata  rosea,  503.    U.  suturalis,  504. 
Uropoda,  631.    U.  vegetans,  663. 
Utetheisa  bella,  285. 

Vanessa  Antiopa,  206,  244.  258.  V.  Cali- 
fornica,  259.  V.  Milbertii,  259.  V.  ur- 
ticae,  237 


Variety  breeding,  75. 

Vas  deferens,  35. 

Vasa  deferentia,  44. 

Vates,  575. 

Velia,  518,  538,  540. 

Venation,  22. 

Venation  of  Lepidoptera,  229. 

Ventriculus,  35. 

Ver  macaque,  406. 

Ver  moyocuil,  40(5. 

Vertex  of  the  head,  31. 

Vesiculae  seminales,  45. 

Vespa,  147,  195,  400.    V.  arenaria,  148, 149. 

V.  crabro,  150.    V.  maculata,  148.    V. 

orientalis,  148.    V.  rufa,  123.    V.vulgA- 

ris,123. 
Vespariae,  147, 
Vine  slug,  222. 
Volucella,  131, 149,  400. 

Wandering  spiders,  648, 

Walking  sticks,  572. 

Warega  fly,  409. 

Wasp,  8. 

Water  boatmen,  536. 

Water  fleas,  616. 

Water  mites,  661. 

Water  tigers,  435. 

Wax,  111. 

Weeping  willow  saw-fly  220. 

Weevils,  484. 

Wheat  beetles,  446. 

Wheat-fly,  199. 

Wheat  joint  worm,  203. 

Wheat-louse  Aphidius.  198. 

Wheat-midge,  201,  372. 

Wheat  moths,  347,  350. 

Whip  scorpions.  657. 

Whirligigs,  536. 

White  ant,  130,  586. 

White-pine,  saw-fly,  225. 

Willow  Cecidomyia,  364, 

Wine-cask  borer,  493. 

Wine-fly,  414. 

Wings,  22. 

Wire  worms,  460. 

W-marked  cut- worm,  309. 

Wood  ticks,  662. 

Wood  wasp,  8, 157. 

Xanthia,  243. 

Xanthoptera  semicrocea,  316. 

Xenoneura  antiquorum,  77. 

Xenos,  482. 

J£iphidium  fasciatnm,  567. 

Xiphidria  albicornis,  227. 

Xyela  infuscata,  226. 

Xyleutes  robiniae,  301.    X.  crepera,  302. 

Xylobius  sigillariae,  679. 

Xylocopa,  139.    X.  violacea,  134.    X.Vir 

ginica,  168,  397. 
Xylophagidze,  392. 
Xylophagus,  392. 

Yellow-legged  Barley-fly,  205. 

Zenoa  piceae,  46_3. 
Zerene  catenaria,  323. 
ZoOnule,  zoonite,  9. 
Zygaena  exulans,  280. 
Zygamida3,  234,  237,  279. 
Zygoneura,  378. 


APPENDIX. 


THE  EARLY  STAGES  OF  ICHNEUMON  PARASITES.  Ganin  has 
shown  that  certain  Proctotrypidce  (Platygaster,  Polynema, 
Teleas  and  Ophioneurus) ,  the  larvae  of  which  live  in  the  eggs 
as  well  as  the  larvae  of  other  insects,  pass  through  a  series  of 
remarkable  changes,  heretofore  unsuspected,  before  assuming 
the  final  and  more  normal  larval  state.  He  compares  these 

Fig.  652. 


g 


Development  of  Platygaster. 

changes  to  the  hyper-metamorphosis  of  Meloe  and  Sitaris  (see 
p.  478).  The  ovary  of  Platygaster  differs  from  that  of  other 
insects  in  that  it  is  a  closed  tube  or  sac.  Hence  it  follows 

(703) 


704 


APPENDIX. 


that  at  every  time  an  egg  is  laid,  the  egg  tube  is  ruptured. 
This  was  also  observed  in  the  sheep  tick  (Melophagus}  by 
Lenckart,  and  in  certain  flies  (Limnobia,  Psychoda,  and  My- 
cetobia)  by  Ganin  himself. 

The  earliest  stage  observed  after  the  egg  is  laid,  is  that  in 
which  the  egg  contains  a  single  cell  with  a  nucleus  and  nucle- 
olus.  Out  of  this  cell  (Fig.  652  A,  a)  arise  two  other  cells. 
The  central  cell  (a)  gives  origin  to  the  embryo.  The  two 

outer  ones  multiply  by  subdivision 
and  form  an  embryonal  membrane, 
or  "amnion,"  which  is  a  provisional 
envelope  and  does  not  assist  in 
building  up  the  body  of  the  germ, 
which  however  is  accomplished  by 
the  cells  resulting  from  the  subdivi- 
sion of  the  central  single  cell.  Fig. 
652  B,  g,  shows  the  germ  just  form- 
ing out  of  the  nucleus  (a)  ;  and  6, 
the  peripheral  cells  of  the  blasto- 
derm skin,  or  "amnion."  Fig.  C 
shows  the  yolk  transformed  into  the 
embryo  (g)  with  the  outer  layer  of 
blastodermic  cells  (b).  The  body 
of  the  germ  is  bent  upon  itself. 
Fig.  652  D  shows  the  embryo  much 
further  advanced  with  the  two  pairs 
of  lobes  (md,  rudimentary  mandi- 
bles, d,  rudimentary  pad-like  or- 
gans, seen  in  a  more  advanced  stage 
in  E)  and  the  bilobate  tail  (st). 
Fig.  653  shows  the  first  larval  stage 
after  leaving  the  egg  (m,  mouth  ;  a£, 
rudimentary  antennae  ;  md,  mandibles ;  d,  tongue-like  appen- 
dages ;  st,  anal  stylets  ;  the  subject  of  this  figure  belongs  to  a 
distinct  species  from  Fig.  652  E).  This  strange  form  would 
scarcely  be  thought  an  insect,  were  not  its  origin  and  further 
development  known,  but  rather  a  parasitic  Copepodous  Crus- 
acean,  whence  he  calls  this  the  Cyclops-like  stage.  In  this 
condition  it  clings  to  the  inside  of  its  host  by  means  of  its 


First  larva  of  Platygaster. 


APPENDIX. 


705 


Fig.  654. 


temporary  hook-like  jaws  (md) ,  moving  about  like  a  Cestodes 
embryo  with  its  well  known  six  hooks.  The  tail  moves  up  and 
down,  but  is  scarcely  used  in 
locomotion.  The  nervous  and 
vascular  systems  and  tracheae 
are  wanting,  while  the  alimen-  ng 
tary  canal  is  simply  a  blind 
sac,  remaining  in  an  unorgan- 
ized state. 

mt 

The  second  larval  state 
(Fig.  654,  o>,  oesophagus  ;  iig, 
supracesophageal  ganglion; 
ft,  nervous  cord ;  ga  and  g, 
genital  organs  ;  ms,  bands  of 
muscles)  is  attained  by  means 
of  a  moult,  as  usual  in  the 
metamorphoses  of  insects.  ffa 
The  cells  of  the  inner  layer  of  g 


Fig.  G55. 


the  skin 
(  hypoclcr- 


Second  larva  of  Platygaster. 

mis)  now  multiply  greatly,  and  give  rise  to 
what  corresponds  to  the  primitive  band  of 
the  embryos  of  other  insects.  The  third 
larval  form  is  of  the  usual  shape  of  ich- 
neumon larvae. 

In  Polynema  the  larva  in  its  first  stage 
is  very  small  and  motionless,  and  with 
scarcely  a  trace  of  organization,  being  a 
mere  flask-shaped  sac  of  cells.  After  five 
or  six  days,  it  passes  into  a  worm-like  stage 
and  subsequently  into  a  third  stage  (Fig. 
655,  tg,  three  pairs  of  abdominal  tubercles 
destined  to  form  the  ovipositor  ;  /,  rudiments 
of  the  legs  ;  /&,  portion  of  the  fatty  body  ; 
at,  rudiments  of  the  antennae,  jfl,  imaginal 
discs,  or  rudiments  of  the  wings). 

The  larva  of  Ophioneurus  is  at  first  of 
the  form  indicated  by  Fig.  656  E.  It  differs  from  the  genera 
already  mentioned,  in  remaining  within  its  egg  membrane  and 


Third  larva  of  Polynema. 


706 


APPENDIX. 


not  assuming  their  strange  forms.     From  the  non-segmented, 
sac-like  larva  it  passes  directly  into  the  pupa  state. 

The     development   of   Teleas  is  like   that   of  Platygaster. 
Fig.  656  A,  represents  the  egg ;    B,  C,  and  Z>,  the  first  stage 
Fig.  656.  of  the  larva,  the  ab- 

domen (or  posterior 
division  of  the  body) 
being  furnished  with 
a  series  of  bristles 
on  each  side.  B 
represents  the  ven- 
tral, C  the  dorsal, 
and  D  the  profile 
view  ;  at,  antennae  ; 
md,  hook-like  man- 
dibles ;  mo,  mouth  ; 
6,  bristles  ;  m,  intes- 
tine ;  sw,  the  tail, 
and  ul,  under  lip,  or 
labium.  In  the  sec- 
ond larval  stage, 


Development  of  Egg-parasites.       "~ 


which  is  oval  in  form,  and  non-segmented,  the  primitive  band 
is  formed. 


THE  EMBRYONAL  MEMBRANES  OF  INSECTS. —  After  the  forma- 
tion of  the  germinal  layer  or  blastoderm,  the  outer  layer  of 
blastodermic  cells  peels  off  or  moults,  forming  the  so-called  "am- 
nion"  ("parietal  membrane"  of  Brandt,  Fig.  657,  am).  This 
skin  is  a  moult  from  the  blastoderm.  At  a  later  period,  after 
the  formation  of  the  primitive  band,  a  second  membrane  (Fig. 
657,  db  "faltenblatt"  of  Weismann  ;  visceral  layer  of  Brandt) 
separates  from  the  primitive  band.  It  surrounds  the  embryo 
in  the  Hymenoptera,  Diptera  and  Coleoptera,  enveloping  the 
limbs,  and  is  shed  as  a  thin  pellicle  when  the  embryo  leaves 
the  egg.  Melnikow  (Archiv  fur  Naturgeschichte,  1869,  p.  136) 
from  whose  article  the  accompanying  figure  is  taken,  shows 
that  in  the  lice,  however,  both  the  amnion  and  visceral  mem- 
brane share  in  building  up  the  body  of  the  embryo,  and  pass 
upon  the  dorsal  side  of  the  embryo.  Brandt  (Memoirs  of  the 


APPENDIX. 


707 


Fig.  657. 


d&J 


St.  Petersburg  Academy,  1869)  also  shows  that  the  visceral 
layer  in  the  Libellulidae  enters,  together  with  the  "  amnion," 
into  the  formation  of  the  yolk  sac. 
Melnikow  remarks  that  u  it  appears 
from  these  facts  that  the  differences 
which  we  see  in  the  embryonal  mem- 
branes  of  insects,  are  in  direct  rela- 
tion to  the  mode  in  which  the  prim- 
itive band  is  formed.  It  seems, 
therefore,  that  the  mode  of  origin  of 
the  primitive  band,  or  its  position  in 
relation  to  the  yolk,  is  concerned  in 
the  above  mentioned  differences  of 
the  embryonal  membranes. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  LOUSE.  — 
After  the  budding  out  of  the  limbs 
from  the  primitive  band,  the  germ 
appears  as  seen  in  Fig.  657.  We 
now  see  the  amnion  (am)  surround- 
ing the  yolk  mass,  and  the  visceral 
membrane  (db)  within  partially  envel- 
oping the  embryo.  The  head  (vie,  procephalic  lobes,  or  anten- 
nal  segment,)  besides  the  antennae  (as), bears  three  pairs  of  short 
tubercles,  which  are  the  rudiments  of  the  mandibles,  maxillae, 
and  labium  or  second  maxillae.  Behind  the  mouth-parts  arise 
six  long  slender  tubercles  forming  the  rudimentary  legs,  while 
the  primitive  streak  rudely  marks  out  the  ventral  walls  of  the 
thorax  and  abdomen.  Fig.  658  represents  the  head  and  mouth- 
parts  of  the  embryo  of  the  same  louse  ;  vk  is  the  forehead,  or 
clypeus  ;  ant,  the  antennae  ;  mad,  the  mandibles  ;  max1,  the  first 
pair  of  maxillae,  and  max*,  the  second  pair  of  maxillae,  or 
labium.  Fig.  659  represents  the  mouth-parts  of  the  same 
insect  a  little  farther  advanced,  with  the  jaws  and  labium 
elongated  and  closely  folded  together.  Fig.  660  represents  the 
same  still  farther  advanced ;  the  mandibles  are  sharp,  and 
resemble  the  jaws  of  the  Mallophaga  or  biting  lice ;  and  the 
maxillae  (max1)  and  labium  (max2)  are  still  large,  while  after- 
wards the  labium  becomes  nearly  obsolete.  Fig.  661  repre- 


Embryo  of  louse. 


708 


APPENDIX, 


Fig.  658. 


Fig.  631. 


Fig.  659. 


tfk- 


Fig.  660. 


•max 


Fig.  662. 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   MOUTH-PABTS   OF   THE   LOUSE. 


APPENDIX.  709 

sents  the  mouth-parts  of  one  of  the  Mallophaga,  Goniodes,  to 
compare  with  the  rudimentary  mouth-part  of  Pediculus ;  ib  is 
the  upper  lip,  or  labrum,  situated  under  the  clypeus  ;  mad",  the 
mandibles  ;  max,  the  maxillae  ;  Z,  the  lyre-formed  piece  ;  pZ,  the 
"  plate",  and  o,  the  beak  or  tongue.  (This  and  figs.  658-661 
are  from  Melnikow's  memoir.)  Fig.  662  represents  the  mouth 
of  Pediculus  vestimenti  (copied  from  Schiodte)  with  the  parts 
entirely  protruding,  and  seen  from  above,  magnified  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty  times ;  aa,  the  summit  of  the  head,  with  four 
bristles  on  each  side ;  6&,  the  chitinous  band,  and  c,  the  hind 
part  of  the  lower  lip  ;  dd,  the  foremost  protruding  part  of  the 
lip  (the  haustellum)  ;  ee  the  hooks  turned  outwards ;  /,  the 
inner  tube  of  suction  slightly  bent  and  twisted ;  the  two  pairs 
of  jaws  are  perceived  on  the  outside  of  these  lines  ;  a  few  blood 
globules  are  seen  in  the  interior  of  the  tube. 


FORMATION  OP  THE  WINGS. — As  has  already  been  remarked 
on  p.  64,  the  genital  glands  and  the  muscles  of  the  adult  insect 
were  found  by  Weismann  to  exist  in  a  rudimentary  state  in  the 
embryo,  while  the  imaginal  discs  (which  are  minute  scales,  or 
isolated  portions  of  the  inner  layer  of  skin,  attached  either  to 
a  nerve  or  trachea,  and  which  are  readily  seen  on  dissection 
in  the  young  larva) ,  which  are  destined  to  grow  and  spread  so 
as  to  form  the  skin  of  the  adult,  even  exist,  though  in  an  ex- 
tremely rudimentary  condition,  in  the  embryo.  Weismann  has 
also  satisfactorily  shown  that  in  the  Diptera  the  wings  arise 
from  similar  discs  in  connection  with  what  he  doubtfully  re- 
garded as  a  nerve. 

More  recently,  however,  Landois  has  published  in  Siebold 
and  Kolliker's  "  Zeitschrift  "  a  fuller  account  of  the  formation 
of  the  wings  in  the  butterflies.  They  are  found  to  exist  in  the 
caterpillar,  soon  after  leaving  the  egg,  in  the  form  of  minute 
expansions  of  the  peritoneal  membrane  surrounding  a  trachea. 
This  forms  a  microscopic  sac  filled  with  fat  cells,  some  of  which 
transform  into  elongated  nucleated  cells,  in  which  trachese  are 
developed.  As  the  bag  grows  larger,  the  trachese  enlarge,  and 
project  towards  what  is  destined  to  be  the  outer  edge  of  the 
wing,  until  when  the  larva  is  ready  to  transform  into  the  pupa, 


710  APPENDIX. 

the  wings  appear  as  little  bags  hanging  down  the  sides,  just 
under  the  skin.  The  number  of  main  tracheae  in  the  wing 
appears  from  one  of  Landois'  figures  to  be  six.  Hence,  as  we 
have  before  suspected,  this  is  probably  the  typical  number  of 
veins  in  the  wings  of  all  insects,  though  usually  but  five  are 
readily  made  out. 

A  NEW  FOSSIL  CARBONIFEROUS  INSECT.  —  Mr.  S.  I.  Smith 
contributes  to  the  "American  Journal  of  Science"  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  fore  wing  of  Paolia  vetusta  from  near  Paoli,  Indi- 
ana. The  wing  (Fig.  663)  is  2.54  inches  in  length  and  about 
.85  inch  wide.  The  venation  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of 
slender  branchlets  which  the  veins  throw  off  towards  the  poste- 
rior border  and  the  tip  of  the  wing.  The  great  care  with 
which  the  specimen  has  been  drawn  and  engraved  obviates  the 
necessity  of  farther  description.  Mr.  Smith  remarks  that 

Fig.  663. 


Wing  of  Paolia  vetusta. 

"this  wing  differs  so  much  in  neuration  from  any  family  of 
recent  insects,  that  it  is  difficult  to  point  out  any  near  affinity 
with  living  forms,  although  it  shows  some  points  of  resem- 
blance to  several  families  of  Neuroptera,  and  especially  to  the 
Ephemerids."  To  Hemeristia  and  Miamia,  he  adds,  "  it  shows 
more  resemblance,  but  still  differs  more  from  either  of  these 
genera,  which  are  considered  distinct  families  by  Mr.  Scudder, 
than  they  do  from  each  other.  It  seems  still  more  allied  to 
Dictyoneura  libelluloides  of  Goldenberg,  Prof.  Hagen  consider- 
ing it,  with  Eugereon  Bockingii  Dohrn,  as  a  species  of  this 
genus.  "  In  both  Dictyoneura  and  Eugereon,  as  figured,  the 
wings  have  considerable  resemblance  to  the  specimen  from 
Indiana,  but  in  neither  o£  them  are  the  nervures  so  numerously 


7J> 


INJURIOUS    INSECTS. 


APPENDIX  711 

branched  towards  the  posterior  border  of  the  wing,  and  in 
Eugereon  the  spaces  between  the  first  three  nervures  next 
the  anterior  border  are  connected  by  straight  cross-nervures. 
There  are  also  important  differences  in  the  branching  of  the 
main  nervures." 

ABDOMINAL  •  SENSE  ORGANS.  —  On  p.  17  the  remarkable 
antenniform  abdominal  appendages  of  Mantis  tessellata  are  fig- 
ured as  an  illustration  of  what  we  have  called  "  sensorio-geni- 
ital"  organs.  Dr.  Dohrn  has  shown  that  the  jointed  abdominal 
appendages  of  Gryllotalpa  are  true  sensory  organs.  More 
recently  we  have  observed  sense  organs  (probably  of  smell) 
in  the  anal  stylets  of  the  cockroach  (Periplaneta  Americana), 
consisting  of  about  ninety  minute  sacs,  situated  in  single  rows 
on  the  upper  side  of  each  joint  of  the  stylets.  They  are  like 
similar  organs  in  the  antennae  of  the  same  insect.  Similar 
organs  are  situated  on  the  female  anal  stylets  of  Chrysopila,  a 
Leptis-like  fly.  These  also  are  like  the  single  sacs  situated  on 
the  ends  of  the  labial  and  maxillarj"  palpi  of  Perla. — American 
Naturalist,  IV.  p.  690. 

INJURIOUS  AND  BENEFICIAL  INSECTS. —  Explanation  of  Plate  14.  Of 
much  interest  to  gardeners  is  the  bean  weevil  (Bruchus  varicornis  of 
Leconte,  fig.  8,  bean  containing  several  grubs;  8a,  pupa).  This 
is  the  well  known  and  very  destructive  bean  weevil  of  Europe,  con- 
cerning which  Mr.  Angus  writes  from  West  Farms,  N.  Y.,  to  the 
author :  "  I  send  you  a  sample  of  beans  which  I  think  will  startle  you 
if  you  have  not  seen  such  before.  I  discovered  this  beetle  in  the  kid- 
ney or  bush  bean  a  few  years  ago,  and  they  have  been  greatly  on  the 
increase  every  year  since.  I  might  say  much  on  the  gloomy  prospect 
before  us  in  the  cultivation  of  this  important  garden  and  farm  pro- 
duct if  the  work  of  this  insect  is  not  cut  short  by  some  means  or 
other.  The  pea  Bruchus  is  bad  enough,  but  this  is  worse." 

Another  insect  recently  brought  to  the  notice  of  farmers,  is  the 
corn  Sphenophorus  ($.  sece  Walsh,  fig.  11),  of  which  Mr.  R.  Howell, 
of  Tiago  County,  New  York,  writes,  June  14,  1869:  "This  is  the 
fourth  year  they  have  infested  the  newly  planted  corn  in  this  vicinity. 
The  enclosed  specimens  were  taken  on  the  llth  instant.  I  presume 
that  they  have  been  in  every  hill  of  corn  in  my  field.  They  pierce  the 
young  corn  in  numerous  places,  so  that  each  blade  has  from  one  to 
six  or  eight  holes  of  the  size  of  a  pin,  or  larger,  and  I  found  a  num- 
ber last  Friday  about  an  inch  under  ground  hanging  to  young  stalks 


712 


APPENDIX, 


Fig.  664. 


Larva  of  Leiopus  xanthoxyli. 


with  much  tenacity.  When  very  numerous  every  stalk  is  killed. 
Some  fields  two  or  three  years  ago  were  wholly  destroyed  by  this  in- 
sect. Among  plant  house  insects  may  be  noticed  the  white  scale  bark 

louse  (Aspidiotus  bromelice 
Bouche,  fig.  6,  magnified  ;  4, 
young  magnified;  4«,  end 
of  body  still  more  enlarged). 
It  is  often  destroyed  by  a 
minute  chalchid  fly,  Cocco- 
phagus(?).  Boisduval's  fern 
bark  louse  (Lecanium  fili(  um 
Boi-;d.,  fig.  7a,  scale  enlarged 
seen  from  above;  7&,  the 
same,  seen  from  beneath, 
and  showing  the  form  of  the 
body  surrounded  by  the 
broad,  flat  edge  of  the  scale ; 
7c,  an  antenna,  enlarged ; 
7d,  a  leg,  enlarged ;  7e,  end  of  the  body,  showing  the  flattened  hairs 
fringing  the  edge),  is  common  on  hot-house  plants,  as  also  the  Platy- 
cerium  bark  louse  (Lecanium  platycerii  Pack.,  fig.  5,  magnified;  5a, 
an  antenna,  enlarged),  and  the  plant  house  Coccus  (C.  adonidum 
Linn.,  fig.  3,  magnified).  The  plant  house  Aleurodes  (.4.  vaporarium  of 
Westwood,  fig.  9,  enlarged;  9a,  pupa  enlarged),  is  more  common  per- 
haps than  one  would  suppose.  It  lives  out  of  doors  on  tomato  leaves 
and  we  found  it  not  uncommon,  in  September,  on  strawberry  plants  on 
the  grounds  of  the  State  Agricultural  College,  at  Amherst.  The  list  of 
hot-house  insects  is  completed  by  one  of  the  most  injurious  of  all,  the 
mi  mte  Thrips  (Heliothrips  hcemorrhoidalis  Haliday),  from  Europe,  fig. 
2,  greatly  magnified,  which  by 

, ,  Fig.  665. 

its  punctures,  causes  the  sur- 
face of  the  leaf  affected  to  turn 
red  or  white,  while  at  times 
the  entire  leaf  withers. 

Fig.  10  represents  the  Cran- 
berry weevil,  Anthonomus  su-  T 
turalis  Leconte ;  10a,  its  larva,   I 
mentioned  on  p.  487.      Fig.  12  1 
represents    the    Byturus   uni- 
color    Say    (enlarged)     which 
feeds   on  the  flowers  of  the 
raspberry. 

Explanation  of  Plate   15. — 
Fig.  1,  Leiopus  facetus  Say,  the 

larva  of  which  bores  in  the  branches  of  the  apple  tree.    Fig.  2,  Leiopus 
xanthoxyli  Shimer.  which  bores  under  the  bark  of  the  prickly  ash. 


Larva  of  Callidium  amcenum. 


Plate  15. 


No.  1. 


No.  2. 


No.  10. 


NO.  e. 


INJURIOUS    AND    BENEFICIAL  'iNSECf 


APPENDIX. 


713 


Fig.  664,  a,  represents  the  larva;  b,  upper  side,  c,  under  side  of 
the  head,  greatly  enlarged.  Fig.  3,  Callidium  amcenum  Say,  Fig. 
665,  a,  larva ;  &,  upper,  c,  under  side  of  head  enlarged.  Fig.  5,  Drep- 

Fig.  666. 


Head  of  larva  of  Telephorus  bilineatus. 

anodes  varus  Gr.   and  Rob.   Fig.  4,  the  larva  and  pupa,  the  former 
closely  resembling  the  twigs  of  the  juniper,  on  which  it  feeds.     Fig. 


Fig.  667. 


6,  BuccMlatrix  th  niello, 
Pack.,  enlarged ;  (a,  cocoon, 
natural  size,)  which  feeds 
on  the  cedar.  Fig.  7,  Tel- 
ephorus bilineatus  Say ;  Fig. 
8,  larva  enlarged.  Fig.  666, 
a,  upper;  6,  under  side  of 
the  head,  much  enlarged. 
The  larva  of  this  species 
was  identified  by  Mr.  P.  S. 
Sprague,  who  found  it  near 
Boston,  under  stones  in 
spring,  where  it  changes  to 
a  pupa  and  early  in  May 
becomes  a  beetle,  when  it 
eats  the  newly  expanded 
leaves  of  the  birch.  Fig.  9, 
Galerita  janus  Fabr.  Fig. 
667,  larva;  a,  upper,  &,  un- 
der side  of  head,  a  little 
enlarged.  The  specimen 
here  figured  was  discovered 
by  Mr.  J.  H.  Emerton,  under  stones  July  1st.  Fig.  10,  Larva  of  Cor- 
dulia  lateralis  Burm.  Fig.  11,  larva  of  Macromia  transversa  Say. 


A 


Larva  of  Galerita  Janus. 


714  APPENDIX. 

NEW  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  HEMIPTERA.  —  Prof.  Schiodte 
has  proposed  the  following  classification  of  the  Hemiptera, 
which  is  probably  the  best  yet  suggested,  and  is  based  on  a 
more  profound  study  of  their  external  anatomy  than  has  been 
previously  made.  It  will  be  noticed,  however,  that  the  lice 
(Pediculina)  are  not  included,  though  he  regards  them  as 
forming  a  separate  division  (Siphunculata  Latr.)  of  equal  value 
with  the  Heteroptera  and  Homoptera.  He  does  not  seem  to 
include  the  Mallophaga  among  the  Hemiptera.  The  families 
of  the  Homoptera  are  not  characterized. 

I.  Genae  (cheeks)  hollowed  out,  to  receive  the  first  pair  of  coxae. 
[Posterior  pair  of  coxae  hinged,  provided  with  femoral  grooves.] 

Suborder  HOMOPTERA. 

II.  Genae  entire,  remote  from  the  coxae. 

Suborder  HETEROPTERA. 
A  Posterior  coxae  acetabulate,  rotating,  with  no  femoral  grooves.   Trochalopoda. 

a.  Metathoracic  epimera  laminate,  nearly  concealing  the  first  ventral  segment 

[of  the  abdomen. 

1.  Antennae  covered  at  the  base.    Fam.  1.    Cimices. 

2.  Antennae  entirely  uncovered. 

*.    Antennae  inserted  before  the  eyes.    Tarn.  2.    Corel. 
**.  Antennae  inserted  below  the  eyes.    Fam.  3     Lygcei. 

b.  Metathoracic  epimera  without  the  ventral  lamina.  [metrce. 
1:  Claws  superposed  (inserted  before  the  end  of  the  joint).    Fam.  4.    Hydro- 
2.  Claws  terminal. 

*.    Metathoracic  epimera  almost  covered  by  the  mesothoracic  epimera. 

Last  pair  of  abdominal  spiracles  forming  a  short  tube.    Fam.  5.    Nepce. 

**.  Metathoracic  epimera  wholly  uncovered.    Abdominal  spiracles  equal. 

[Fam.  6.    Reduvii. 

B.  Posterior  coxae  hinged,  provided  with  femoral  grooves.    Pagiopoda. 
a.  Antennae  uncovered.    Fam.  7.    Acanthice. 
b   Antennae  partially  covered. 

1.  Body  depressed,  prone, 
a.  Beak  free. 

f.    Metathoracic  epimera  uncovered. 
*.    Feet  cursorial.    Fam.  8.    Pelegoni. 
**.  Feet  natatory.    Fam.  9.    Naucorides. 

tf.  Mesothoracic  epimera  almost  covered  by  the  metathoracic  epimera. 

[Fam.  10.    Belostomata. 

/3.  Beak  free.    [Metathoracic  epimera  uncovered,  appendiculated.]     Fam. 

[11.    Corixce. 

2.  Body  boat-shaped,  supinate.     [Metathoracic  epimera  uncovered.     Beak 

free.]    Fam.  12.    Notonectce. 

NEW  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  SPIDERS.  —  The  arrangement 
of  the  groups  of  spiders  given  by  me  is  very  imperfect.  I 
therefore  present  the  following  classification  of  Dr.  T.  Thorell 
(On  European  Spiders.  Part  I,  1869-70)  as  the  most  satisfac- 
tory. While  I  have  considered  the  Araneina  as  forming  a  sub- 


APPENDIX. 


715 


order  of  the  order  Arachnida,  it  will  be  noticed  that  Thorell 
regards  the  Araneina  as  an  order,  dividing  it  into  the  seven 
suborders  and  twenty-two  families  indicated  below.  The  ar- 
rangement of  these  groups  is  like  the  branches  of  a  tree,  and 
this  represents  well  the  relations  of  the  groups  of  articulates, 
as  well  as  other  sub-kingdoms.  As  Thorell  remarks :  "  As 
regards  the  larger  groups  of  spiders,  the  suborders  and  the 
families,  the  reasons  for  the  order  of  arrangement  we  have 
chosen  will,  we  hope,  easily  be  seen  if  one  casts  one's  eye  on 
the  accompanying  diagram,  which  gives  a  view  of  the  con- 
nection founded  on  real  affinity,  which  the  families  of  the 
spiders  adopted  by  us,  according  to  our  opinion,  have  to  each 
other." 

Fig.  (JC8. 


I.  Orbitelariae. 

1.  Epeiroidae. 
II.  Retitelariae. 

2.  Theridioidse. 

3.  Scytodoidje. 

4.  Enyoidae. 
III.  Tubitelarise. 

5.  Urocteoidae. 

6.  Omanoidae. 

7.  Hersilionidae. 


Phrynoidae. 


Opiliones. 


8.  Agalenoidae. 

9.  Drassoidae. 

10.  Dysderoidae. 

11.  Filostatoidae. 
IV.  Territelariae. 

12.  Theraphqsoidae. 

13.  Liphistioida9. 

14.  Catadysoidae. 
V.  Laterigradae. 

15.  Tnomisoidae, 


vi.  Citigradae. 

16.  Lycosoidae. 

17.  Oxyopoidae. 
ni.  Saltigradze. 

18.  Myrmecionidae. 

19.  OtiothopoidaB. 

20.  Dinopoidae. 

21.  Eresoidae. 

22.  Attoidas. 


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